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SOUTHERN  BRANCH 

UiNlVERSfTY  OP  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

li-OS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


LABOR  m  EUROPE. 


EEPORTS  FROM  THE  CONSULS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  SEVERAL 

COUNTRIES    OF    EUROPE    ON    THE    RATES    OF    WAGES,   COST    OF 

LIVING    TO    THE    LABORING    CLASSES,    PAST    AND    PRESENT 

WAGES,  &c.,  IN  THEIR  SEVERAL  DISTRICTS,  IN  RESPONSE 

TO  A  CIRCULAR  FROM  THE   DEPARTxMENT   OF  STATE 

REQUESTING  INFORMATION  ON  THESE  SUBJECTS; 


TOGETHER  WITH 


A  LETTER  FHOM  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE  TRANSMITTING  THE  SAME  TO 
THE  SPEAKER  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 


WASHIKGTOK: 

GOVEKNMENT   PRINTING-  OFFICE. 
1885. 


51404 


/ 


WD 

V 


CONTENTS. 


YOIiUME  I. 

Page. 

Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  State 1-193 

Germany 195-586 

England 587-882 


VOLUME  n. 

Wales 883-947 

Scotland * 948-1000 

Ireland 1001-1021 

France 1022-1078 

Belgium 1079-1123 

Switzerland 1124-1211 

Austria-Hnngary 1212-1287 

Holland 1288-1326 

Denmark , 1327-1344 

Spain 1345-1441 

Russia 1442-1506 

Italy , 1507-1624 

Malta 1624-1638 

Gibraltar 1639-1643 

Portugal 1644-1651 

Turkey 1652-1656 

Appendix 1657-1725 

Index  to  both  volumes 1727-1757 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


LETTER 


FROM 


THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE, 


REVIEWING 


Reports  from  the  consuls  of  the  United  States  in  relation  to  the  state  of 

labor  in  Europe. 


Department  of  State, 
Washington^  December  12,  1884. 
Hon.  John  G.  Carlisle, 

Sptaher  of  the  House  of  Representatives : 

Sir:  By  tbe  requirements  of  section  208  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  the 
Secretary  of  State  is  to  hiy  before  Conj]cress,  each  year,  "a  synopsis  of 
so  much  of  the  inCormation  which  may  have  been  communicated  to  him 
by  diplomatic  and  consular  officers  duiinjj  the  i)receding  year  as  he 
may  deem  valuable  for  public  information." 

The  standing  instructions  of  the  Department  of  S'ate  to  its  agents  in 
foreign  countries  call  for  periodical  information  on  all  matters  of  public 
and  commercial  interest,  which  is  furnished  by  them  with  commend- 
able promptness  and  fullness.  Apart  from  the  general  heads  under 
which  the  dij)lomatic  and  consular  officers  abroad  are  required  to  seek 
and  transmit  information,  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  specially  in- 
struct them  from  time  to  time  touching  matters  of  distinct  interest 
which  may  be  brought  into  prominence  by  the  social  and  economical 
needs  of  the  country,  or  by  the  pressure  of  j)ublic  opiiiion. 

Of  all  these  special  questions,  that  of  labor  and  wages  is  doubtless 
most  important,  since  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  conditions 
of  the  existing  relations  of  labor  and  wages  to  cai)ital  and  enterprise  in 
other  countries  is  indispensable  to  a  correct  judgment  upon  problems 
affecting  the  laboring  and  employing  classes  iu  our  own  country. 

The  importance  of  gaining  such  a  knowledge  of  the  lalior-conditions 
of  foreign  countries  was  early  recognized  by  this  Department,  and  the 
widely-reaching  organization  of  the  consular  service  was  employed  in 
1878  to  collect  information  respecting  the  wages  paid  to  European  labor, 
the  cost  of  living  in  Europe,  the  condition  of  business  and  trade  in  the 
different  districts,  and  the  business  habits  and  systems  there  preval- 
ent. A  compilation  of  the  replies  made  by  the  consuls  of  the  United 
92  A— LAB 1 


2  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

States  to  the  Departnieiifs  circular  of  April  11,  1878,  calling  for  such 
infennatiou,  was  commuuicated  to  Coiifiress  by  my  predecessor,  Mr. 
Evarts,  on  the  17th  of  May,  1870.  Notwithstanding  the  limited  range  of 
the  investigation  ordered,  and  the  experimental  character  of  the  result, 
this  comi)ilation  was  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  statistical  knowl- 
edge of  this  country,  and  the  ])ainstakiug  reports  of  the  consuls,  when  tab- 
ulated and  system. itized,  served  to  show  that  the  wages  paid  to  laboring 
men  in  the  United  States  were  higher,  while  at  the  same  time  the  aver- 
age cost  of  living,  on  a  better  scale  than  is  usual  with  the  labor  classes 
abroad,  Mas  less  in  the  United  States  than  in  Europe,  and  that  the 
moral,  ])hysical,  and  intellectual  status  of  the  laborer  was  on  the  whole 
higher  ami  more  favorable  to  progress  in  this  country  than  abroad. 

The  publication  of  the  Labor  lieport  of  1878-'79  naturally  attracted 
much  attention,  and  many  demands  have  been  since  made  for  the  peri- 
odical collection  of  like  statistical  information.  With  the  growing  im- 
portance of  the  labor  question  as  oile  of  vital  interest  to  our  body  poli- 
tic, the  necessity  of  lollowing  and  noting  whatever  changes  may  take 
place  in  the  labor  conditions  at  home  and  abroad  became  evident. 

Moreover,  the  deep  national  concern  felt  in  the  subject  has  been 
made  apparent  by  the  discussions  of  the  question  in  Congress  during 
the  last  sessions,  which  ended  in  the  creation  of  a  new  administrative 
office,  the  Bureau  of  Labor,  charged  with  collect  ng  "information  upon 
the  subject  of  labor,  its  relation  to  capital,  the  hours  of  labor,  and  the 
earnings  of  laboring  men  and  women,  and  the  means  of  promoting 
their  material,  social,  intellectual,  and  moral  prosperity."  The  act  of 
Congress  establishing  this  bureau,  and  defining  the  scope  of  its  opera- 
tions, was  ai)proved  by  the  President  June  27,  1884. 

A  part  of  the  design  of  this  act  had,  however,  been  anticipated  by 
the  Department  ot  State,  which  issued,  on  the  15th  of  February,  1884, 
a  circular  instruction  addressed  to  the  consular  officers  of  the  United 
States  in  all  foreign  countries  intended  to  secure  the  fullest  attainable 
information  concerning  the  condition  of  labor  throughout  the  world,  and 
esi)ecially  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Europe. 

The  circular  here  referred  to  was.  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  I  cov- 
ering the  question  of  male  labor,  and  Part  II  relating  to  female  labor; 
the  heads  under  which  information  was  directed  to  be  obtained  were 
subdivided  as  follows: 

[labor   circular,   FEBRUARY   15,    1884.] 

Part  I.— MALE  LABOR. 

1.  The  rates  of  wages  paid  to  laborers  of  every  class — mechani- 
cal, mining,  factory,  public  works  and  railways,  domestic,  agricul- 
tural, &c. 

2.  The  cost  of  living  to  the  laboring  classes,  viz:  The  prices  paid 
for  the  necessaries  of  life,  clothing,  rent.  &c.  In  this  connection 
not  only  should  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  from  an  Ameri- 
can standpoint  be  given — as  ])er  accomi)anying  form — but  the 
prices  and  nature  of  the  articles  which  are  actually  consumed  by 
the  work  i)eople  and  their  families  shouUl  also  be  given. 

3.  Comparison  between  the  i)resent  rates  of  wages  and  those 
which  i)r».  vailed  in  1878  (and  since  that  time)  when  the  last  labor 
circular  was  issued  from  the  Department,  and  between  the  condi- 
tions which  then  prevailed  and  which  now  prevail. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  3 

4.  The  habits  of  the  working  classes — whether  steady  and  trust- 
worthy or  otherwise,  savinji-  or  otherwi.se — and  the  causes  which 
principally  attect  their  habits  for  good  or  evil. 

5.  The  feeling  which  ])revails  between  employe  and  employer, 
and  the  eti'ects  of  this  feeling  on  the  general  and  particular  pros- 
perity of  the  community. 

G.  The  organized  condition  of  labor;  the  nature  of  organization 
and  its  effect  on  the  advancement  and  welfare  of  the  laborers.  In 
this  connection  it  would  be  well  to  refer  to  counter  organizations  of 
capital,  and  on  the  local  or  general  laws  bearing  on  such  organiza- 
tions. 

7.  The,  prevalency  of  strikes,  and  how  far  arbitration  enters  into 
the  settlement  of  disagreements  between  the  employers  and  em- 
ployes, and  the  manner  and  nature  of  such  arbitration.  The  effects 
of  strikes  on  the  advancement,  or  otherwise,  of  labor,  and  the  gen- 
eral eftt'ct  thereof  on  the  industrial  interests  atiected  thereby. 

8.  Are  the  working  people  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life 
wherever  they  choose,  or  do  the  employers  impose  any  conditions 
in  this  regard '?  How  often  and  in  what  kind  of  currency  is  the 
laborer  paid '? 

9.  Co-operative  societies  :  give  full  information  concerning  their 
formation  and  i)ractical  working;  whether  they  are  prosperous,  or 
otherwise;  to  what  extent  they  have  fulfilled  the  promises  held  out 
at  their  formation  of  enabling  the  workpeople  to  purchase  the 
necessities  of  life  at  less  cost  than  through  the  reguhir  and  usual 
business  channels;  whether  the  establishment  of  co-operative  so- 
cieties has  had  any  appreciable  effect  on  general  trade,  &c. 

10.  The  general  condition  of  the  working  peoi)le :  how  they  live ; 
their  homes  ;  their  food;  their  clothes ;  their  chances  for  bettering 
th«'ir  condition  ;  their  ability  to  lay  uj)  something  for  old  age  or 
sickness;  their  moral  and  physical  condition,  and  the  influences  for 
good  or  evil  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  In  this  connection 
consuls  are  requested  to  select  representative  workmen  and  their 
families  and  secure  the  information  direct,  somewhat  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  following  questions  and  answers  (reducing  the  money  to 
dollars  and  cents),  taken  from  the  Department  publication  show- 
ing the  state  of  labor  in  Eurojje  in  1878: 

Question.  How  old  are  you  ? — Answer.  I  am  36  years  old. 

Q.  What  is  your  business? — A.  I  am  a  house-carpenter. 

Q.  Have  you  a  family? — A.  I  have  a  wife  and  three  children; 
the  oldest  is  11  and  the  youngest  3  years  old. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive  per  day? — A.  I  receive  3  marks 
and  30  pfennigs.  The  average  wages  paid  to  house-carpenters  is 
from  2  marks  80  pfennigs  to  3  marks  per  day  (68  to  73  cents). 

Q.  How  many  hours  per  day  are  you  required  to  work  for  such 
wages? — A.  During  the  entire  year  we  begin  work  at  6  o'clock  in 
the  morning  and  quit  at  7  o'clock  in  the  evening.  In  the  winter 
season  we  begin  our  work  with  gas  or  candle  light. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  your  meals? — A.  We  have 
half  an  hour  for  breakfast,  at  9  o'clock  in  the  morning;  one  hour  for 
dinner,  at  noon;  and  half  an  hour  at  4  o'clock  vespers.  We  take 
our  supper  after  the  day's  work  is  done. 

Q.  Can  you  support  your  family  upon  such  wages?— A.  What  I 
must  do  I  must  do.  Vmt  of  the  time  my  wife  earns  60  pfennigs 
(15  cents)  a  day,  and  with  our  joint  earnings  we  manage  to  live. 

Q.  What  do  the  united  earnings  of  yourself  and  wife  amount  to 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

in  a  year  ? — A.  With  general  good  health  we  earn  about  1 ,050  marks 
($252)  per  year. 

Q.  Will  you  explain  in  detail  the  uses  you  make  of  this  money? — 
A.  Oh,  yes.     1  pay  per  annum — 

For  rent  of  two  rooms  in  fourth  story,  20fi  marks $49  44 

For  clothing  for  self  and  family,  160  marks 36  40 

For  food  and  fuel  per  day,  1.75  marks  (43^  cents),  or  per  year, 

638  marks .' ' 153  12 

This  makes  an  average  for  each  memher  of  my  family 

pdr  day  of  35  pfennigs  (t<i  cents). 

For  residence  tax,  4  marks 96 

For  school  tax,  three  children,  13.50  marks 3  24 

For  dues  to  mechanics'  aid  society,  7.20  marks 1  73 

For  tax  on  earnings  of  self,  5  marks 1  20 

Leaving  forschool-books,  doctors' bills,  and  incidentals,  16.30 

marks 3  91 

Per  annum,  1,050  marks 252  00 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  do  your  meals  consist? — A.  For  break- 
fast, bread  and  coflee;  for  dinner,  soup  and  the  meat  of  which  the 
soup  is  made,  and  one  kind  of  vegetables ;  at  four  o'clock,  beer  and 
bread  ;  and  for  supper,  white  bread  and  potatoes. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  save  any  portion  of  your  earnings  for  days  of 
sickness  or  old  age? — A.  Saving  is  only  possible  to  a  man  who  has 
no  family.  In  case  I  am  myself  sick,  I  receive  one  mark  per  day 
from  the  mechanics'  aid  association  of  which  I  am  a  member.  I  do 
not  think  of  old  age,  for  I  expect  to  work  until  I  die. 

11.  What  are  the  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  employes  in 
factories,  mines,  mills,  on  railroads,  &c.,  and  what  are  the  provis- 
ions made  for  the  work-people  in  case  of  accident  ?  What  are  the 
general  considerations  given  by  the  employers  to  the  moral  and 
physical  well-being  of  the  employes?  What  are  the  general  rela- 
tions which  prevail  between  the  employer  and  the  employed  ? 

12.  What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingmen,  and 
what  are  their  influences,  through  such  rights,  on  legishition? 
What  is  the  share,  comparatively,  borne  by  the  working  i)eople  in 
local  and  general  taxation  ?  What  is  the  tendency  of  legislation  in 
regard  to  labor  and  the  working  people? 

13.  What  are  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the 
working  ])eople,  and  which  influence  their  selection  of  their  new 
homes?     What  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the  emigrants,  &c.? 

Part  II.— FEMALE  LABOR. 

1.  State  the  number  of  women  and  children,  or  the  closest  possi- 
ble approximation  thereto,  employed  in  your  district  in  industrial 
pursuits,  not  including  ordinary  household  duties  or  domestic  serv- 
ants, classifying  the  same  somewhat  as  follows: 

a.  Manufacturing  and  mechanical. 

b.  Commercial,  including  transi)ortation. 

c.  Professional  and  personal,  including  Government  officials 

and  clerks,  teachers,  artists,  chemists,  hotel  and  boarding- 
house  keepers,  jcmrnalists,  laundresses,  musicians,  invent- 
ors, bankers,  brokers,  lecturers,  public  speakers,  &c. 

d.  Agriculture.  , 
€.  Mniiug. 

/.  All  other  pursuits. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  5 

f 

2.  What  are  the  minimum,  maximum,  and  average  wages  paid  to* 
female  adults? 

3.  Their  hours  of  labor. 

4.  What  is  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  such  employes  ? 
5.'  What  are  the  means  provided,  and  by  whom,  for  the  imi)rove- 

ment  of  these  employ  (js? 

C.  What  are  the  means  provided,  in  case  of  fire  or  other  dangers, 
for  their  safety  % 

7.  What  are  the  provisions  made  by  the  employers  in  regard  to 
sanitary  measures  and  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  disabled  ? 

8.  Has  there  been  any  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the 
wages  paid  women  and  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  or 
otherwise?  What  are  the  effects  of  employment  of  women  on  the 
wages  of  men  and  on  general  social  and  industrial  conditions? 

9.  What  is  the  state  of  education  among  the  women  employed 
and  among  their  children  ;  and  what  are  the  general  effects  of  em- 
ployment (in  factories,  mills,  stores,  &c.)  on  the  family  circles,  espe- 
cially as  concerns  the  children  of  such  emiiloyes,  and  on  their  moral 
moral  and  physical  condition*?" 

The  consuls  were  further  instructed  that  they  were  not  arbitrarily 
bound  by  the  foregoing  interrogatories,  nor  by  the  accom])anying  blank 
schedules,  which  tliey  were  expected  to  fill  up  with  statistical  returns 
showing  the  rates  of  wages  for  the  several  principal  trades  and  indus- 
tries. On  the  contrary,  thej"  were  informed  that  these  were  oftered 
merely  as  suggest  ious,  it  being  expected  that  the  reports  would  embrace 
every  phase  of  the  question  calculated  to  give  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  conditions  surrounding  and  aflecting  foreign  labor,  and  so  give 
material  for  a  comparison  of  these  conditions  with  those  which,  prevail  in 
the  United  States. 

Accompan.viug  this  circular  were  suggestions  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  consular  officers  should  prepare  the  reports,  viz :  The'  n*thod 
of  reducing  foreign  to  American  money ;  the  method  of  reaching  true 
averages,  &c.,  supplemented  by  fifteen  statements,  prepared  for  tabula- 
tion and  designed  to  show  the  minimum,  maximum,  and  average  wages 
paid  in  the  following  trades  and  industries:  (1)  the  ^'cneral  trades; 
(2)  factories  and  mills;  (3)  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  ironworks; 
(4)  glassworks  and  potteries;  (.">)  mines  and  mining;  (G)  railway  em- 
ployes; (7)  shipyards  and  shipbuilding;  (8)  seamen's  wages;  (0)  store 
and  shop  wages;  (10)  household  way^es  in  towns  and  cities;  (11)  agricul- 
tural wages;  (12)  corporation  employes;  (13)  Government  departments 
and  offices;  (14)  trades  and  labor  in  Government  employ;  (15)  printers 
and  printing  offices. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  heads  of  inquiry  relate  to  facts  alone, 
without  disclosing  any  line  of  theory  or  argument  to  be  fortified,  the 
aim  being  to  obtain  the  fullest  ^nd  most  comprehensive  information 
concerning  the  state  of  labor  throughout  the  world,  and  to  insure  uni- 
formity and  simplicity  in  the  consular  treatment  of  the  subject,  so  as  to 
bring  the  results  within  popular  comprehension,  leaving  as  little  as  pos- 
sible for  the  statistical  analyst  to  disentangle. 

A  task  of  no  little  delicacy  was  thus  intrusted  to  the  consuls. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  all  the  reports  received  would  be 
equally  full  and  unreserved  as  to  every  condition  deemed  necessary  for 
a  comparison  of  the  situation  and  life  of  the  foreign  laborer  with  those 
of  the  American  wage-earner. 


6  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Had  the  letter  as  well  as  tlie  spirit  of  the  circular  been  uniformly 
observed,  there  would  not  be  occasion  for  any  review  of  the  answers 
thereto;  each  report  would  be  ii  review  in  itself,  from  which  little  need 
be  abstracted  for  special  comment  or  for  purposes  of  compari^ou.  The 
fact,  however,  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  consuls  were  ftlrced,  by 
the  complicated  and  various  conditions  prevailing;  and  by  the  p:reat 
difliculty  exi)erienced  in  securing  the  necessary  statistics,  to  adopt  inde- 
pendent modes  in  the  ])rei)aration  of  their  reports,  renders  it  necessary 
to  make  a  concise  review  of  the  whole  in  an  introductory  letter,  selecting 
the  salient  statistics  from  the  reports  of  the  several  countries  for  com- 
parison with  each  other  and  with  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  the 
United  States. 

While  reports  in  answer  to  the  circular  are  received  from  every  coun- 
try, colony  and  island  with  which  the  United  States  hold  commercial  rela- 
tions and  in  which  they  have  consular  representation,  and  while  all  are 
valuable  and  necessary  to  the  com[)lete  presentation  of  the  subject  to 
be  treated,  "  the  condition  of  labor  throughout  the  world,"  those  which 
cover  the  labor  conditions  of  Europe  most  directly  concern  us,  and  heuce 
are  alone  considered  in  this  review. 

No  trade  or  industry  in  the  United  States  is  free  from  the  more  or 
less  direct  influence  of  whatever  conditions  of  labor  may  exist  in  Eu- 
rope. This  reflex  action  is  more  directly  perceptible  as  tlie  progress  of 
invention  and  discovery  places  new  resources  at  the  command  of  skilled 
labor,  and  a  double  competition,  of  means  and  of  results,  is  keenly  felt, 
the  more  so  that  improved  means  of  transportation  bring  us  nearer  to 
rival  producers. 

The  plan  of  the  Department  of  State  is  to  present  a  comprehensive 
view,  so  far  as  practicable,  of  the  conditions  of  labor  and  production 
throughout  the  world;  but  as  those  conditions  iu  Europe  more  nearly 
approximate  to  our  own,  and  as  they  have  been  also,  from  their  similar- 
ity to  those  existing  in  this  country,  more  readily  collected  and  tabula- 
ted, tjjey  are  given  the  first  place  in  this  report  and  in  its  accompanying 
analysis,  leaving  to  a  subsecpient  report  the  presentation  of  the  results 
of  the  investigations  made  in  America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  conditions  treated  of  herein  are 
only  such  as  aftbrd  opportunity  ibr  comparison  with  the  pi  incipal  condi- 
tions which  prevail  in  the  United  States,  viz,  the  rates  of  wages,  hours 
of  labor,  ])rices  of  food  and  articles  of  consumption,  &c.  Those  seeking 
fuller  inibrmation  should  read  the  reports  in  detail.    . 

Before  entering  particularly  upon  the  subject  matter  of  this  letter,  it 
may  be  well  to  indicate  the  order  of  treatment  pursued. 

Each  consular  district  is  spoken  of  sei)arately  and  briefly,  the  wages, 
habits  and  customs,  moral  and  j^hysical  conditions  of  the  working 
classes  being  touched  upon,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  living,  &c.,  pre- 
vailing therein,  while  a  general  r6^s■ww6' for  the  country  at  large  is  given 
at  the  close,  the  whole  concluding  wilh  a  general  recajjitulation  for  all 
Europe,  in  which  the  labor  eleujcnts  of  the  several  countries — wages, 
footl  prices,  manner  of  living,  &c. — are  compared  wiih  each  other,  and 
all  these  in  turn  with  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  the  United  States. 

While  the  consular  reports  are  referred  to  in  their  res]>ective  places, 
it  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  here  that  the  answers  to  the  Labor  Circular 
have  rarely  been  equaled  in  the  history  of  the  consular  labors  of  any 
country.  The  whole  may  be  set  down  as  comprebensively  showing 
the  conditions  which  surroun<l  and  affect  labor;  and  considering  the 
want  of  systematic  provision  in  most  countries  for  the  full  collection  of 
])ractical  and  vital  labor  statistics,  it  may  justly  stand  as  a  noteworthy 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  7 

record  of  the  industry  and  ability  of  the  consular  ofiBcers  of  this  Gov- 
ernment. 

In  this  connection,  allusion  may  be  pertinently  made  to  the  present 
difliculty  of  secnrinj^  uational  statistics  of  labor  in  the  United  States. 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  nation  holding  a  commanding?  position 
in  industrial  home  production  and  foreign  trade  is  more  deficient  in 
tLis  regard.  While  there  are  many  weil-organized  labor  bureaus  in  the 
several  States  and  an  abundant  collection  of  local  and  Bj>ecial  statistics 
might  be  made,  yet  a  comprehensive  national  system  still  remains  to 
be  eflectively  set  on  foot.  The  organization  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Labor  is  at  once  a  recognition  of  a  national  want  and  a  step  towards 
meeting  it.  The  result,  however,  must  naturally  be  a  question  of  time, 
and  years  may  be  exi)ected  to  pass  before  the  new  bureau  can  give  the 
much-needed  collective  view  of  all  the  elements  of  the  labor  problem  in 
the  United  States,  and  furnish  an  intelligent  and  useful  showing  of  the 
true  relationship  of  labor  and  wages  to  effective  i:)roduction.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  such  indispensable  statistics  an  absolute  and  certain  com- 
parison becomes  difficult.  For  the  purposes  of  comparison,  only  the  most 
elementary  statistics  of  wages  and  hours  of  labor  in  the  United  States 
have  been  accessible,  and  even  those  for  but  a  few  principal  trade  cen- 
ters. Pleasure  is  taken  in  acknowledging  the  courtesy  of  the  gentlemen 
who  so  promptly  and  kindly  furnished  the  same. 

In  preparing  the  following  synopsis  of  the  several  reports  the  aim 
has  been  to  present  the  simplest  facts  in  the  most  condensed  form,  using 
the  words  of  the  consuls  themselves  wherever  practicable. 


sYNOi>sis  BY  cou:ntries. 

The  (TPrraan  laborer  excels  in  perseverance,  patience  under  the  most 
tryinj?  circumstances,  trustworthiness,  industry  and  economy.  These 
virtues  enable  him  to  maintain  existence  in  his  own  laud  on  low  rates  of 
wajres,  and  to  acitomplish  <jjreat  results  in  almost  every  held  of  labor, 
whether  in  his  own  country  or  abroad,  and  make  him,  when  transferred 
by  emijjration  to  new  fields  of  labor,  a  valuable  and  i)roductive  citizen. 

For  these  reasons,  and  because  of  the  direct  relations  of  lahor  in 
Germany  with  labor  in  the  United  States — a  constantly  augmenting 
import  of  German  manufactures  into  the  United  States  being  recorded 
by  our  customs,  those  for  the  past  year  amounting  to  no  less  than 
$57,400,000 — the  re[)orts  from  our  consuls  in  Germany  are  more  freely 
drawn  upon  for  such  points  as  are  considered  illustrative  of  the 
subject  under  review  than  the  reports  from  those  countries  whose  mau- 
nfactures  and  workers  affect  us  in  a  less  degree. 


ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

"The  working-people  of  Alsace-Lorraine,"  writes  Consul  Ballow,  of 
Kehl,  in  his  very  full  rei)ort,  "consist  of  two  classes,  those  who  follow 
the  occui)ations  of  tlieir  i)arents  before  them — born  to  the  heritage  of 
special  labor,  as  it  were — and  those  who  come  from  other  portions  of 
Germany  seeking  employment  in  busy  times."  Tlie  consul  adds,  and 
statistics  bear  him  out,  that  the  customary  wages  in  Alsace  ai'e  higher 
than  those  wliich  obtain  in  any  other  i)ortion  of  the  Em])ire. 

Another  advantage  possessed  by  the  work-people  of  Alsace  over  those 
of  the  remainder  of  the  Empire  is  thus  recorded  by  the  consul: 

Alsace  is  still  under  I'rench  hiw  (the  Cade  Napolmn)^  and  the 
{M)litical  rights  of  the  workingman  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
millionaire,  or  as  those  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  Every 
Alsatian  citizen  is  a  voter  an<l  eligible.  The  division  of  voters 
into  classes  of  d liferent  degrees  does  uot  prevail  in  this  district  as 
in  other  i)ortions  of  the  Empire. 

The  following  statemen's  from  Mr.  Ballow's  report  show  the  average 
rates  of  wages,  and  the  manner  of  living  of  the  workingraen  and  work- 
ingwomen  of  Alsace-Lorraine : 

The  general  trades, — Wages  pai<l  in  Slrasbnrg  per  week  of  GO 
hours:  Bricklayers,  $4.15;  masons,  $4.15;  hod  carriers,  $3.21; 
plasterers,  $4.88;  tenders,  $2.54;  slaters  and  roofers,  $4.28;  tend- 
ers, $2.80;  i)lumbers,  $4.13;  assistants,  $2.80;  car))enteis,  $4.75. 
gas-titters, $5.09;  blacksmiths,  $  5.88;  bookbinders,  $4.03;  cabinet! 
makers,  $4.91 ;  confectioners,  $4.20 ;  cigar-makers,  $5.13;  coopers 
8 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  » 

$3.36;  engravers,  $5.21 ;  laborers  and  porters,  $4.21 ;  potters,  $3.64 

Tanners. — Wages  paid  at  Barr  per  day  of  12  hours:  Whiteuers, 
86  cents ;  curriers,  71  cents ;  beam  hands,  66  cents ;  laborers,  52 
cents. 

Foundries  and  machine-shops. — Wages  paid  in  Strasburg  per  week 
of  GO  hours:  Machinists,  $5.85;  molders,  $5.10;  turners,  $5;  brass- 
workers,  $4.52 ;  phiners,  $4.20. 

Shop  ivages. — Wages  j)aid  in  Strasburg  per  month  in  dry-goods 
stores:  Cashiers,  men,  $49;  cashiers,  women,  $33;  bookkeepers, 
men,  $38.90;  bookkeepers,  women,  $30.20;  salesmen,  $27;  sales- 
women, $22.25. 

Fancy  stores. — Saleswomen,  $21.80;  girl  apprentices,  $7.50  per 
month. 

Agricultural  laborers. — Wages  paid  per  year  and  found:  Laborer, 
man,  $67.30;  woman,  $30;  day  laborer,  with  board,  40  cents;  day 
labor«'r,  in  harvest  time,  without  board,  80  cents. 

Printers. — Wages  ])aid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  Strasburg:  proof- 
readers, $7.20;  comi)ositors,  $6.40;  feeders,  $2.76;  folders,  $2  04. 

Prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  principal  cities  of  Alsace. — 
Per  pound:  Wheat  flour,  6  cents;  wheat  bread,  4i  cents;  ryo 
bread,  2i  cents;  beef,  sirloin,  40  cents;  beef,  common,  18  cents; 
mutton,  23  cents;  veal  and  pork,  18  cents;  bacon,  20  cents;  ])Ota- 
toes,  2  cents;  rice,  10  cents;  butter,  25  cents;  sugar,  9  and  10 
cents;  salt,  3  cents;  petroleum,  7  cents  (i)er  quart);  coffee,  30 
cents;  candles,  17  cents;  soap,  10  cents;  tea,  $1;  beer,  6  cents 
(per  quart). 

Alsatian  workingmen's  meals. — Breakfast  consists  gener- 
ally of  coffee  and  bread;  sometimes  bread  and  a  bit  of  cheese  and 
no  coffee.  Masons  and  laboring  men  often  eat  bread  and  one  or 
two  raw  onions  and  salt. 

Dinner:  Soup,  sometimes,  but  not  generally  or  regularly.  The 
better-situated  mechanics  have  beef  soup  twice  or  three  times  a 
week,  generally  soup  made  of  water,  slices  of  bread,  slices  of 
onion,  and  a  little  butter;  sometimes  vegetable  soup.  When  the 
meals  are  brought  to  Ihein  to  the  shop  or  factory,  by  their  wives  or 
children,  soup  is  not  easily  carried,  and  in  its  ])lace  they  have 
vegetables,  such  as  potatoes,  cabbage  or  carrots,  boiled  or  stewed, 
either  with  or  without  beef,  according  to  circumstances.  Married 
journeymen  seldom  eat  meat  more  than  twice  or  three  times  a  week. 
Laborers  eat  meat  (boiled  beef)  only  on  Sundays,  but  even  on  that 
day  not  regularly. 

iSupper  is  taken  at  home  at  8  o'clock,  and  consists  either  of  soup, 
without  meat,  such  as  potato  soup,  or  of  boiled  potatoes  eaten  with 
salad,  or  with  a  sort  of  cheese  called  "  white  cheese,"  bought,  on 
market  days  only,  of  i)easants,  and  made  of  sour  milk.  It  is  sea- 
soned just  before  being  served  with  salt  and  pepper,  caraway  seed, 
and  choi)ped  chives.  Sometimes  isausage  and  bread,  or  cheese  and 
bread.  Women  and  children  very  often  take  coffee  and  bread  for 
supper  the  same  as  for  breakfast. 

Working  hours  in  Alsace. — Work  begins  at  6  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. An  intermission  of  half  an  hour  is  allowed  at  8  for  breakfast. 
The  work  is  resumed  at  8h  o'clock  and  continues  until  noon.  From 
noon  to  1  is  the  regular  dinner  hour.  From  1  o'clock  the  work 
goes  on  until  7,  with  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  intermission  at  4. 
Many  workmen  have  the  bad  habit  of  taking  a  small  glass  of 
brandy,  which  costs  2  cents,  on  their  way  to  work  in  the  morning. 


10  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

BARMEN. 

Barmen  beingf  the  center  of  manufacture  of  the  well-known  "Barmen 
goods,"  so  largely  imported  into  the  United  States,  the  comprehen- 
sive and  exhaustive  report  of  Consul  Schoenle  is  deserving  of  pe- 
rusal by  all  i)ers()ns  interested  in  the  com])lex  question  of  mixed  labor 
in  mills  and  factories  and  its  social  aspects  and  results.  In  the  Bar- 
men industrial  establishments  the  number  of  females  employed  is  esti- 
mated at  28,000,  and  the  picture  drawn  by  Consul  Schoenle  of  the  evil 
influences  of  factory  life  upon  them  is  not  a  bright  one.  It  is  pleasant, 
however,  to  record  that  the  principal  employers  are  doing  their  utmost 
to  ju'eserve  and  advance  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  their 
emi)loyes. 

It  would  also  appear  from  Mr.  Schoenle's  investigations  that  the 
workingMien  of  his  district  (the  city  of  Barmen  in  particular)  are  rather 
irregular  in  their  habits  and  customs  ;  comparatively  regardless  of  their 
future,  and  not  disposed  to  save — characteristics  foreign  to  i)reconceived 
ideas  in  regard  to  German  workmen.  The  consul  attributes  these  condi- 
tions in  })art  to  the  great  increase  in  drinking  saloons  and  dancing  halls, 
wherein  many  of  the  laboring  class  usually  spend  their  Sundays  and 
Mondays. 

Many  other  subjects  treated  of  in  the  consul's  report  are  worthy  of 
special  attention,  such  as  the  organized  condition  of  labor,  aid-societies, 
l^re valence  of  strikes,  co-oi)erative  societies,  anel  the  general  condition 
of  the  working  people  in  his  district.  That  portion  of  his  rei)ort  which 
deals  with  emigration — to  the  United  States,  i)rincipally,  of  course — 
and  the  causes  thereof,  is  particularly  interesting. 

Female  labor  necessarily  occupies  a  large  share  of  the  report,  the 
manufactures  of  Barmen,  as  before  noted,  being  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
bring  them  specially  within  the  range  of  woman's  work.  The  average 
wages  paid  to  adult  women  workers  is  estimated  at  $2.18  per  week  of 
69  hours,  viz,  from  7  to  i2,  and  from  li  to  8  p.  m.  daily.  Girls  from  12 
to  14  years  of  age  are  not  permitted  to  be  worked  over  G  hours  per  day; 
girls  from  14  to  JO  year s  of  age,  8  hours  per  day.  All  over  16  years  of 
age  are  (jlassed  as  adults. 

Consul  Sehoenle,  after  reviewing  the  condition  of  the  working  women 
proper — factory,  mill,  house,  and  field  hands — draws  attention  to  the 
j)reparatory  schools  devoted  to  the  education  of  women  for  clerical  and 
bookkeeping  i)ositions.  The  cities  of  Berlin,  Munich,  Hamburg,  Leipsic, 
Nuremberg,  Stuttgart,  and  Darmstadt  i)0sses8  schools  of  this  descrip- 
tion. 

WAGES  IN  BARMEN. 

The  following  statements  show  the  rates  of  wages  paid  to,  and  the 
manner  of  living  of,  the  i)rincipal  workmen  in  and  around  Barmen: 

General  trades. — Wages  ])aid  per  week  of  60  hours:  Bricklayers 
and  masons,  $3.64;  hod-carriers  and  tenders,  $3.20;  plasterers, 
$3.4.3;  tenders,  $3.00;  plumbers,  $3.68;  c;iii)enters,  $3.80;  gas- 
fitters,  $3.03;  bakers,  $3.81;  blacksmiths,  $3.03;  strikers,  $3.23 ; 
brickmakers  (84  hours),  $4.61;  butchers,  $3.80;  cabinet-makers, 
$'3.i):>;  cigar-makers,  $4.02;  coopers,  $  i.03 ;  engraveis,  $4.09;  hat- 
ters, $4.17;  horseshoers,  $4.04;  j.  welers,  $4,64;  laborers  and  por- 
ters, $3.40 ;  machinists,  $4.99;  harness-makers,  $3.69;   tailors  (72 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  11 

hours),  $4.29;  telep^rapb  operators  (revisers),  $0.50;  tinsmiths, 
$4.17;  barbers,  $447;  painters,  $4.54;  printers,  $5. 

Machine  shops  and  iron  works. — Week  of  G3  hours:  Machinists, 
$5;  lock  smith's,  $4.17;  blacksmiths,  $4.17;  turners,  $4.28;  planers, 
$3.81;  drillers,  $3.45;  machine  laborers,  $3.45;  model-makers,  $5; 
strikers,  $3.57. 

Printing  offices. — Pressman,  $4.74;  compositors,  $5;  ai)prentices, 
$1.17. 

Agricnltnral  wages. — Paid  per  annum,  with  board  and  lodging : 
Farm  hands,  male,  $49.98;  farm  hands,  female,  $29.75;  house  serv- 
ants, $24.79. 

Food  prices  in  Barmen. — Per  pound :  Wheat  flour,  4  cents  ;  but- 
ter, 33  cents;  beans,  4  cents;  potatoes,  ^  cent;  cheese,  11,  17,  and 
20  cents;  sausage, 23  cents;  beef, 24  cents ;  veal,  15  cents;  mutton, 
17  cents ;  pork,  10^  cents;  bacon,  17  cents;  cofiee  (green)  38  cents; 
roasted,  42  cents. 

HOW  A  BARMEN  WOKKINaMAN'S  FAMILY  LTYES. 

Approximate  estimate  of  the  expenses  for  the  subsistence  of  a  loorMvgman's  family  consisting 
of  1  persons,  viz,  parents  and  five  children,  prepared  by  Consul  Schoenle. 

Articles.  Value. 

Potatoes,  56  pounds $0  47 

Sansage-fac 07 

Bread,  21  pounds  (brown) 45 

Apple-butter,  1|  pounds 14 

Coal 14 

Lard  or  butter 10 

Kerosene 10 

Common  sausage 12 

Bacon 12 

Meat 15 

Flour 05 

Barley 04 

Beans 04 

Peas : 04 

Vegetables 05 

Clothing 33 

Sboes 12 

Rent 42 

Vinegar 01 

Salad  oil '. 02 

Eapeseed  oil 07 

Tobacco 04 

Brandy.  &g 10 

Soap  and  household  ware 10 

Taxes 04 

Sick  fund  and  incidentals 10 

School  fees  and  utensils 06 

*  Sundries 08 

Total  week's  expenses 3  57 


• 


12  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

BERLIN. 

The  very  full  returns  concerniu^j  labor  statistics,  not  only  for  Berlin, 
but  ior  the  whole Etni)ire,  embraced  in  Consul  General  Brewer's  rej)ort, 
will  be  availed  of  further  on  in  the  summary  for  all  Germany.  Such 
facts  only  as  are  pertinent  to  the  immediate  district  of  the  consulate- 
general  are  therelore  referre<i  to  here. 

WAGES  IN  BERLIN. 

The  following  statement  showing  the  rates  of  wages  paid  in  the  gen- 
eral trades  in  Berlin  i)er  week  of  (JO  to  78  hours,  from  the  consul-gen- 
eral's report,  is  taken  from  recent  official  returns  published  by  the  city 
authorities: 

Stone  and  marble  uorlers. — Stone-cutters,  $5.41 ;  marble-cutters 
$5.71  ;  marble-grinders,  $4.28;  laborers,  $3.80. 

Crockery  icare. — Crockery-w^are  niolders,  $5.71;  model-joiners,  $5; 
tiremen,  $5.35;  coadinan,  $4.25;  laborers,  $3.92. 

Potiers,  $5;  laboiers,  $2.10. 

Porcelain  icorkers. — Turners,  $5.35 ;  painters,  $5.71 ;  burners 
$3.57;  grinders,  $3.57  ;  apprentices,  $1.42 

EmiudrleH  of  articles  ^/arf.— Molders,  $3.57;  workmen.  $2.01. 

Engine  works. — Mechanics,  $4.45;  blacksmiths,  $4.76;  joiners 
and  utulders,  $4.53;  workmen,  $3.42. 

Bookbinders. — Journeymen,  $4.04;  girls,  $1.90;  gilders,  males, 
$4.70;  gilders,  females, '$2.14;  leather  workers,  $4.28. 

!S< icing-machine  factories. — Locksmiths,  $5.47;  joiners,  $5.23; 
workman,  $4.28;  workwomen,  $3.33. 

General  trades. — Brass- founders,  $4.70;  brass-turners,  $4.28;  ap- 
prentices to  brass-founders,  95  cents;  laborers  in  brass  foundries, 
$3.35;  co])persmiths,  $4.28;  watchmakers,  $4.28;  weavers,  $3.21; 
wari)ers,  $4.28;  winders,  females,  $1.78;  ropemakeis,  $3.57;  tan- 
ners, $4.04;  harness-makers,- $3.57 ;  upliol.sterers,  $1.70;  female 
u]»li()Isterers,  $2.38  ;  coopers,  $4.28 ;  tailors,  $2.85;  female  tailors, 
$1.42;  ladies'  cloak-makers,  $4.22;  female  cloak-makers,  $1.00; 
•  hatters,  $4.70;  female  hatters,  $2.38 ;  shoemakers,  $2.85  and  $3.57  ; 
masons,  $3.99 ;  carpenters,  $4.21 ;  glaziers,  $4.28 ;  painters,  $4.28;. 
type-founders,  $4.28. 

HOW   THE   WORKINGMAN    LIVES  IN   BERLIN. 

The  following  statements,  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  working- 
men  of  Berlin  live,  were  made  up  by  the  consul-general  from  ])ersonal 
interviews.  The  statement  (;overs,-  first,  the  family  of  a  day  lai»»rer  in 
a  coal-yard  ;  second,  the  family  of  a  stone  mason,  and,  third,  the  family 
of  a  bookbinder. 

A    LABORER'S   STATEMENT. 

How  old  are  you  ?     Forty-one  years. 

What  is  your  business?     Day  laborer  in  a  coal-yard. 

What  wages  do  you  receive*?  About  $123  a  year,  but  very  un- 
certain. ^ 

Can  you  supjjort  your  family  upon  such  wages?  My  wife  is  com- 
]X»lled  to  do  all  sorts  of  work,  washing,  &c.,  and  ray  eldest  daughter, 
fifteen  years  old,  assists. 


LABOE    IN    EUROPE.  13 

Will  you  explain,  in  detail,  the  uses  you  make  of  your  money  f 

Two  rooms  aud  a  kitchen  iu  the  court-yard  basemeut $77  11 

Cloihinf? 2:i  80 

Food  51  40 

Tax  for  city :?  57 

Fuel 10  71 

School-books 3  80 

Doct  or,  medicine 7  14 

Sundries 8  56 

Total  for  the  year 186  09 

Saving  is  out  of  the  question.  We  live  mostly  on  potatoes  we 
raise  ou  a  piece  of  laud  let  by  Berlin  magistrates  against  a  fee  of 
$2.14.  Meat  we  eat  ouly  four  times  a  week,  buying  half  a  pound 
for  11  cents. 

A  mason's  statement. 

Has  a  wife  and  three  children  living  in  a  village  outside  of 
Berlin;  30  years  old;  works  iu  Berlin  for  95  cents  per  day; 
works  from  six  in  the  morning  until  six  in  the  evening  ;  idle  over 
four  months  per  annum;  can  hardly  support  his  lamily;  has  the 
use  of  a  piece  of  land  to  grow  potatoes;  keeps  a  goat,  and  raises  a 
hog  for  meat ;  own  annual  earnings  would  amount  to  about  $238. 

His  living  expenses  are: 

Ee-U,  his  own  sleepiug  place  in  Berlin $11  42 

Eenr,  for  family  in  village 12  85 

Clothing 2t)  75 

Food  f  r  self  in  Berlin  (8  months) 102  72 

Food  for  self  aud  family  at  home 94  21 

Fuel  aud  light 7  14 

Income-tax  in  Berlin 1  42 

School-tax 71 

Tobacco 9  28 

Sundries 28  65 

Aid  society 2  85 

Total  per  annum 301  00 

In  Berlin,  eat  same  as  other  mechanics;  at  their  village  home, 
eat  a  little  meat  about  three  times  a  week;  live  mostly  on  potatoes 
of  our  own  growth,  with  a  little  coffee  or  milk  soup  with  rye  bread 
in  the  morning,  aud  bread  or  potatoes  for  supper.  Can  save  nothing. 
What  is  saved  iu  summer  is  spent  in  winter.  If  sickness  comes  the 
family  have  medicine  and  physician  gratis  through  the  workmen's 
aid  association. 

A   BOOKBINDER'S   STATEMENT. 

Bookbinder,  with  wife  and  three  children ;  33  years  old;  earns 
89  cents  a  day;  cannot  support  his  family  thereon;  deficiency  made 
up  by  letting  a  room.  Total  income  per  year  about  $370.  Ex- 
penses as  follows: 

Eent,  2  rooms  and  kitchen $92  82 

Food  and  fuel 185  64 

Clothing 38  00 

Rent  tax 5  70 

Municijial  income  tax 1  90 

Mechanics  aid  society 9  00 

Tobacno 8  56 

Newspapers  4  28 

Beer,  amusements,  &c 25  00 

Total , 370  90 

Unable  to  save  anything. 


14  LABOR  IN  EUROPE. 

FOOD  PRICES  IN  BERLIN. 

Wheat  flour,  4J  to  5.J  cents  per  pound ;  cornmeal,  5i  to  6  cents  per 
pound  ;  Carolina-  rice,  8  to  10  cents  per  ])ound ;  butter  30  to  38  cents 
per  pound  ;  beef  17  to  20  cents  per  pound  ;  mutton,  17  to  20  cents  per 
pound ;  pork,  10  to  20  cents  per  pound ;  bam,  25  to  30  cents  per  pound; 
lard,  IS  cents  per  pound  ;  veal,  22  to  25  cents  per  pound  ;  wheat  bread, 
9  to  10  cents  ])er  pound ;  rye  (black),  5  to  7  cents ;  sugar,  8  to  15  cents 
per  pound ;  coffee,  27  to  40  cents  per  pound ;  teas,  70  to  130  cents  per 
pound  ;  coal  per  ton,  $3.50  to  $5. 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

Referring  to  the  cost  of  living  in  Berlin,  Consul-General  Brewer  says ; 

My  own  experience  as  a  housekeeper  convinces  me  that  tea, 
cofiee,  sugar,  and  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  in  the  shape  of 
food,  are  higher  in  Berlin  than  in  New  York.  I  know  the  question 
is  often  asked  in  the  United  States,  "  How  can  the  laboring  people 
in  Germany  live  if  they  receive  only  such  a  small  return  for  their 
labor*?"  My  reply  is  simply,  they  do  not  live  as  well  as  the  Amer- 
ican laboring  classes.  They  are  also,  as  a  rule,  much  more  econom- 
ical in  their  expenditures  and  in  their  manner  of  living,  and  every 
member  of  the  family  who  can  labor  must  do  so  in  order  to  assist 
in  caring  for  themselves  and  the  general  household.  The  laboring 
women  here  are  accustomed  to  perforai  the  hardest  of  manual  la- 
bor, on  the  farm,  in  the  shop,  about  the  mines,  &c.,  such  labor  as 
would  only  be  performed  by  the  strongest  of  men  in  the  United 
States. 

BEEMEN. 

Consul  Wilson's  report  shows  that  in  most  respects  the  condition  of 
the  laboring  classes  in  his  district,  which  embraces  the  free  state  of 
Bremen,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  province  of  East  Friesland, 
and  a  part  of  the  province  of  Hanover,  and  contains  over  one  million 
of  inhabitants,  is  superior  to  that  in  i)erhaps  any  other  portion  of  the 
German  Empire,  Alsace-Lorraine  excepted. 

Referring  to  wages  in  cities  and  country,  the  consul  says  that  in  gen- 
eral the  rates  paid  in  the  former  are  greater  than  those  paid  in  the  lat- 
ter, although  the  laborers  in  the  country  have  many  advantages  not 
possessed  by  those  in  the  cities,  such  as  cottages  rent  free  and  gardens, 
and  often  pastunige  for  a  cow  or  a  sheep.  Thus,  although  the  city  laborer 
gets  the  higher  wages,  the  condition  of  the  country  laborer  is  the  bet- 
ter of  the  two. 

The  following  extract  from  Consul  Wilson's  report  shows  how  the 
better  class  of  mechanics  live  in  Bremen : 

A  workman  whose  weekly  earnings  amount  to  $5,20  will  pay 
about  $15  ayearfor  house  rent.  Outside  of  the  city,  in  tiie  surround- 
ing villages,  a  mile  or  two  from  his  work,  the  rent  will  be  $35  a  year. 
His  furniture  is  of  the  cheapest  kind,  tables  and  chairs  often  of  his 
own  make.  He  seldom  eats  a  meal  at  home,  except  sui)i)er,  as  he 
goes  to  work  at  0  a.  m.,  has  half  an  hour  for  breakfast  at  8,  and  an 
hour  for  dinner  at  1.  His  wife  or  child  brings  him  dinnc^r,  which 
consists  of  soup,  with  potatoes  or  other  vegetables,  and  a  slice  of 
bacon  or  meat.     He  stops  work  at  G,  and  has  his  supper,  which  con- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  15 

sists  of  ryo  bread,  bultcr  of  the  cheapest  kind,  cheese,  and  tea  at 
home.  On  Sunday  there  is  meat  for  tlie  whole  familj'.  He  has  his 
Sunday  suit,  which  costs  him  $10,  and  wliich  must  hist  him  four  or 
five  years.  He  belongs  to  a  mutual  beneht  society,  into  which  he 
pays  about  25  cents  a  month,  and  out  of  which  he  draws,  when  sick, 
$2.15  ])er  week  for  a  period  not  exceeding- six  mouths.  His  heirs 
are  entitled  to  $oo  in  case  of  death.  The  residence  tax  is  8  i)er 
cent,  on  the  house,  and  the  tax  on  earnings  8  i)er  cent,  on  the  in- 
come, which  entitles  the  payer  to  full  political  rights. 

The  following  extract  from  the  consul's  report  concerning  the  habits  of 
the  working  class  shows  that  the  working  people  of  the  Bremen  district 
may  be  set  down  as  retaining  and  possessing  the  best  characteristics  of 
the  German  laborer : 

The  habits  of  thp  working  class  in  general  may  be  said  to  be 
good.  As  a  rule  they  are  steady,  sober,  trustworthy,  and  saving, 
always  eager  to  lay  something  by  for  age  or  sickness.  In  this  the 
fathers  are  admirably  assisted  by  the  mothers,  who  i)reside  at  their 
homes  or  work  in  the  fields  with  their  husbands.  Ihe  wife  usually 
has  charge  of  the  cash-box,  and  endeavors  to  make  her  home  as 
pleasant  as  possible  for  her  husband  and  children. 

lu  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  female  laborers  in  his  district,  the 
consul  says  that  the  effect  of  the  employment  of  women  in  factories, 
mills,  stores,  &c.,  upon  the  famdy  circle  is  such  that  home  life  and  home 
influence,  such  as  exist  in  the  United  States,  are  almost  unknown. 
Home,  with  this  class,  is  merely  a  ])lace  to  sleep.  As  before  noted,  the 
general  condition  of  the  laboring  class  of  the  Bremen  district  is  far  above 
the  average  ot  that  prevailing  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  yet,  with  all 
this  advantage,  the  working  man  can  only  support  his  family  by  the 
most  rigid  economy  on  the  part  of  every  member  thereof. 

The  following  statement  wdl  show  the  average  wages  paid  in  Bre- 
men, according  to  Consul  Wilson's  returns : 

Average  weeJdy  wages  paid  in  the  general  trades  in  Bremen  per  week 
of  sixty  hours. — Bricklayers,  $4.75;  masons,  $5;  tenders,  $3.05; 
plasterers,  $4.50;  tenders,  $3.Gl ;  slaters,  $4.35  ;  plumbers,  $1.57; 
assistants,  $3.20;  carpenters,  $5;  gas-titters,  $4.11;  bakers,  $3.55; 
blacksmiths,  $4.28;  strikers,  $3.57;  bookbinders,  $5.15;  brick- 
makers,  $4.75;  brewers,  $4.01;  butchers,  $3.01;  brass  founders, 
$4.28;  cabinet-makers,  $3.30;  confectioners,  $3.43;  cigarmakers, 
$4.19;  coopers,  $4.28;  cutters,  $3.91;  distillers,  $2.80;  draymen 
and  teamsters,  $3.17  ;  drivers  of  cabs,  carriages,  &c.,  $2.-JG  ;  drivers 
on  street  railways,  $3.10;  dyers,  $3.53;  hatters,  $1.35;  horse- 
shoers,  $3 ;  jewelers,  $4.07  ;  millwrights,  $3.57  ;  potters,  $4.28 ; 
printers,  $5 ;  tailors,  $3.95. 

Average  wcclig  n-agts  paid  the  glass  worlxrs  in  glass  worJcs  in  Oher- 
Mrchner,  near  Bremen,  per  iveeJc  of  sixty  five  hours. — Blowers,  $5.41; 
shearers,  $0  ;  mixers,  $3.57  ;  carriers,  $1.43 ;  laborers,  $2.14  ;  bas- 
ket makers,  $2.14. 

Store  and  shop  icages  in  retail  stores,  per  year. — Salesmen,  $357  ; 
saleswomen,  $280;  cutters,  $428;  assistant  cutters,  $238 ;  cashiers, 
$201 ;  apprentices,  $30 ;  book-keepers,  $238.  Eetail  houses  keep 
open  from  7  a.  m.  to  10  p.  m.,  allowing  au  hour  for  dinner  and  half 
an  hour  for  supper. 


16  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities,  per  year. — Dead  butler,  $357  ; 
assistant,  $150;  coaclimau,  first  class,  $83 ;  second  class,  $00;  lirst- 
class  cook,  $357;  second-class,  $100;  stableman,  $50.50;  stable- 
boy,  $23  ;  house  servant,  $35.70  ;  female  housekeeper,  $95.20 ;  as- 
sistant, $50.50 ;  governess,  $83.30  ;  chambermaid,  $59.50 ;  wash- 
maid,  $23.80;  servant  j?irl,  $23.80. 

Printing  offices  in  Berlin,  per  leeek  of  sixty  hours. — Foreman,  $8.50; 
com|)ositor,  $5;  i)ressman,  $5;  proof-reader,  $5;  engineers,  $G; 
wood  engraver,  $G :  stereotyper,  $G  ;  press  girl,  $2  ;  apprentice, 
$1 ;  laborer,  $3.81. 


DRESDEN. 

Owing:  to  the  temporary  absence  of  Consul  Mason  from  his  post,  his 
report  on  the  trade  conditions  of  his  district  was  received  too  late  for 
any  extended  review  herein.  As  the  wages  in  Dresden,  however,  differ 
very  little  from  those  ruling  in  other  portions  of  Saxony,  the  figures 
given  under  Leipsic  and  Annaberg  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  estimate  for 
Dresden. 

There  are  some  features  in  that  portion  of  Consul  Mason's  report  re- 
lating to  female  labor  which  may  be  of  interest  to  American  readers, 
as  presenting  a  picture  graphically  illustrating  one  phase  of  life  in  Con- 
tinental Europe. 

WOMEN   AND   DOG    TEAMS. 

The  consul  says : 

An  important  factor  in  the  labor  of  Germany  is  not  inquired  of  in 
the  circular,  viz,  the  labor  of  dogs.  I  have  heard  it  estimated  that 
women  and  dogs,  harnessed  together,  do  more  hauling  than  the 
railroads  and  all  other  modes  of  conveyance  of  goods  united. 
Hundreds  of  small  wagons  can  be  seen  every  day  on  all  the  roads 
leading  to  and  from  Dresden,  each  having  a  dog  for  the  "near 
horse"  harnessed,  while  the  "off  horse"  is  a  woman,  with  her  left 
hand  gras])ing  the  wagon-tongue  to  give  it  direction,  and  the  right 
hand  ]);issed  through  a  loop  in  a  rope  which  is  attached  to  the  axle, 
binding  hci  shoulder;  thus  harnessed,  woman  and  dog  trudge  along 
together,  i)ulling  miraculous  loads  in  all  sorts  of  weather. 

The  vitality  and  indomitable  endurance  of  the  German  race  are  most 
forcibly  illustrated  by  these  women  workers,  who,  adds  ]\Ir.  Mason, 
"are  tlie  decendants  of  the  matrons  who  bore  the  soldiers  who  lought 
under  Arininius,  and  baffled,  cai)tured,  and  destroyed  the  lloman  legions 
in  the  forests  of  Germany,  and  are  theuiselves  the  mothers  of  the  men 
who  carried  victory  on  their  bayonets  from  the  fields  of  Gravelotte,  Metz, 
and  Sedan." 


DUSSELDORF. 

Consul  Wamer  complains  that  he  encountered  much  difiiculty  in  secur- 
ing the  necessary  statistics  to  complete  his  report,  owing  to  the  unwill- 
ingness of  many  of  the  manufacturers  in  his  district  to  supi)ly  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  wages  paid,  the  condition  of  workingmen,  &c.  Never- 
theless, enough  of  enlightened  manufacturers  and  statisticians  re- 
sponded to  enable  him  to  complete  a  very  valuable  report. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  17 

From  the  consurs  investigations  it  nonld  soeui  that  the  working  class 
of  Dnsscldorf  have  letiiined  very  mueh  of  the  primitive  simplicity  of 
their  forefathers.  lie  re])orts  tliat  the  working  classes  are  content  with 
the  present  wages;  that  work  lias  increased  somewhat  during  the  last 
few  years,  and  that  although  wages  may  not  have  increased  proportion- 
ately, no  one  need  be  idle.  Piecework  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfac- 
tory to  the  employer  and  employed,  the  latter,  it  is  said,  earning  more 
thereby,  being  actuated  to  greater  effort  by  increased  pay  for  increased 
labor.  The  feeling  between  employer  and  workmen  is  reported  as  good, 
and  strikes  are  consequently  rare.  It  would  seem  that  the  Dusseldorf 
workiugman  places  himself  altogether  in  the  hands  of  his  employer, 
and  usually  submits  to  a  reduction  of  wages  without  protest  whenever 
the  employer  assures  him  of  tlie  7)ecessity  for  such  reduction  in  order 
to  meet  exigencies,  local  or  foreign.  It  is  said  by  the  consul  that  in 
return  tor  this  the  majority  of  Dusscldoif  eini>loyers  show  a  paternal  re- 
gard for  their  artisans. 

The  wages  paid  to  the  general  trade  in  Dusseldorf  average,  per  week 
of  GO  hours,  about  the  same  as  those  paid  in  Bremen.  The  average 
wages  paid  in  the  manufactories  throughout  the  district  is  estimated 
at  from  52  cents  to  CO  cents  ])er  day. 

The  manner  of  living  which  prevails  among  the  workingmen  of  Dus- 
seldorf can  be  appreciated  from  the  following  estimate  of  the  yearly 
expenses  of  a  first-class  artisan  with  a  family  of  four  members  : 

"Eent,  847.00;  food  and  fuel,  $142.80;  clothing,  |35.7();  krankeu 
casse  (savings  fund),  $3.57;  taxes,  $4.28;  incidental  expenses, 
$14.28;  schools,  $4.70 ;  total,  $251.50." 

The  working  classes  of  Dusseldorf,  says  the  consul,  very  seldom  enjoy 
the  luxury  of  meat  in  any  abundance,  their  food  consisting  principally 
of  bread,  vegetables  and  coffee. 

A  computation  of  very  great  interest,  made  by  IMr.  Bueck,  an  econom- 
ical writer  and  secretary  of  the  Industrial  Association  for  guarding  the 
common  interest  of  the  industries  of  the  lihineland  and  Westphalia,  is 
communicated  by  the  consul.  This  statement  shows  the  wages  earned 
during  the  year  1S83  by  the  workmen  in  09  iron  and  steel  works,  32 
mines,  21  textile  factories,  5  chemical  works,  4  glass  works,  3  sugar  re- 
fineries, and  20  miscellaneous  industries. 

In  the  iron  and  steel  works  above  mentioned  there  were  04,709  em- 
ployes, of  whom  3,490  were  boys  and  350  were  women.  The  yearly 
earnings  of  these  employes  were  as  follows: 

1,319  earned  from $142  80  to  $166  60 

7, 910  earned  liom 166  60  190  40 

4, 041  earned  iioin 190  40  214  20 

42,  049  earned  from 214  20  238  00 

5, 265  earned  from 238  00  261  80 

2,  747  earned  from 261  80  285  60 

1,438  earned  npwards  of 285  60 

If  we  take  the  42,049  persons  grouped  in  the  above  list  as  fair  repre- 
sentatives of  the  average  wages  paid  to  the  iron  and  steel  workers  of 
the  districts  of  the  lihineland  and  Westphalia,  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
each  earn  from  $4.10  to  $4.00  [)er  week. 

Of  the  122,000  i)ersons  reported  by  the  same  authority  as  working  in 
the  85  other  manufacturing  industries  already  recited,  only  12,077  are 
set  down  as  earniug  from  $4.10  to  $4.00  per  week,  the  others  running 
all  the  way  from  $1.40  to  $1;  the  general  average  being  about  $2.40  j 
women  descending  even  below  $1  per  week. 

92  A— LAB 2 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

CREFELD. 

/ekl  being  the  chief  center  of  the  textile  industry  of  Geriuauy, 
much^  of  which  is  conducted  in  the  homes  of  the  artisans,  on  hand- 
looms,  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  the  contest  of  hand  labor  against 
the  power-loom. 

According  to  the  consul's  return  there  are  about  66,000  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  textile  industry  of  Crefeld,  of  whom  50,000  are  weavers, 
a  small  proportion  of  whom  reside  in  the  town.  It  is  estimated  that  90 
per  cent,  of  the  fine  silk,  half  silk,  velvet,  and  plush  goods  manufact- 
ured in  the  district  is  still  made  on  hand-looms  in  the  homes  of  the 
weavers.  This  is  called  "  house  industry,"  and  its  continued  existence 
is  threatened  by  the  gradual  introduction  of  power-looms,  and,  of  course, 
factory  centralization.  Although  the  hand-weavers  of  Crefeld  are  only 
enabled  to  maintain  existence  by  long  hours  and  unremitting  toil,  they 
will  fight  for  their  "house  industry"  to  the  bitter  end,  the  decrease  of 
wages  and  its  attt-ndant  poverty  consequent  upon  the  encroachment  of 
the  factory  system  making  the  fight  all  the  more  bitter. 

Consul  Potter's  description  of  the  weavers'  home  life,  their  cottages 
and  their  villages,  pictures  a  condition  of  social  life  which  is  fast  dis- 
appearing— a  picture  which,  perhaps,  can  be  found  nowhere  else  in  such 
primitive  simplicity  as  in  his  district.  Here  w^e  see  German  artisan  life 
in  all  its  rustic  purity — the  patient  and  intelligent  husband,  aided  by  the 
equally  patient  and  industrious  wife,  inured  to  a  life  of  toil,  each  house- 
hold the  center  of  its  little  branch  of  industry,  and  endowed  with  the 
virtues  of  home. 

Whoever  follows  the  consul  into  the  villages  of  the  Crefeld  weav- 
ers and  witnesses  the  poverty,  only  kept  at  bay  by  unremitting  toil  such 
as  the  indomitable  (zerman  artisan  will  endure  year  in  and  year  out, 
Avill  be  impressed  with  the  belief  that  any  change  must  be  for  the 
better,  and  that  factory  life,  even  with  its  associate  tendencies,  would 
be  an  improvement  on  the  cottage  industry. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  here  more  than  one  or  two  examples  from 
the  consul's  report  of  how  the  Crefeld  weavers  live. 

"An  intelligent  young  silk  weaver  of  Crefeld,  twenty-niue  years 
of  age,  who  has  worked  at  the  trade  since  he  was  fourteen  years  of 
age,  an  expert  in  his  ])usiness  and  consequently  having  a  choice  of 
work,  informed  the  consul  that  by  working  from  13  to  15  hours 
per  day  at  his  loom  he  could  earn  $3.37  per  week.  Very  few  weav- 
ers, he  said,  could  earn  this  wage,  8  to  10  marks — about  $2 — i)er 
week  being  the  average  wages  earned  by  the  weavers  of  Crefeld. 
Being  a  single  man,  he  was  able  to  get  along  on  his  wages. 

"H W ,  a  weaver  in  St.  Huberte,  near  Crefeld,  thirty- 
nine  years  of  age,  has  a  Avife  and  three  children,  and  one  assist- 
ant; a  velvet  weaver;  three  looms;  one  for  himself,  one  for  his 
wife,  and  one  for  his  assistant.  Looms  set  up  in  one  room,  15  by 
12.  This  is  also  the  living-room,  where  they  cook,  take  meals,  and 
do  the  household  work.  The  united  earnings  of  husband  and  wife 
amount  to  $3.80  i)er  week;  one-tliird  of  assistant's  wages  also  goes 
to  tlie  family.  This  gives  a  total  yearly  income  of  $L'li6.81  for  the 
husband,  wife,  and  three  cliildren.  Efas  worked  at  his  trade  24 
years.  Works  all  the  tinu',  but  can  save  nothing.  Hours  of  labor, 
from  4  a.  m.  to  0  j).  m.  in  suuiuier;  from  7  a.  m.  to  0  p.  m.  in  winter." 

On  a  weekly  wage  rate  of  $3.80  for  five  in  family  the  food  consists  of 
bread  and  coffee,  and  sometimes  butter,  at  7  a.  m.;  coflee  or  beer,  and 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  19 

l>i(  ad  at  10 ;  soup,  vegetables,  and  soQietimes  bacon,  at  noon  ;  bread  and 
cotiee  at  4  )>.  ni.,  and  jtotatoes  only  at  8  p.  m.  This  may  be  sAd  to  be 
the  daily  diet,  except  in  dull  times,  of  the  50,000  Crefeld  weavers  and 
their  families. 

In  regard  to  saving  up  for  old  age,  this  velvet  weaver,  a  most  intelli- 
gent man,  said  he  could  not  save  anything.  "Old  age!"  exclaims  the 
weaver  ;  "  there  is  no  use  in  bothering  ourselves  about  it,  for  very  few 
weavers  reach  old  age." 

The  following  is  the  summary  of  an  interview  with  a  laborer  who 
works  on  the  Government  highway  near  Crefeld  : 

"  Wages,  $8.08  per  month,  without  supplies  of  any  kind  ;  hours 
of  labor,  G  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  with  half  an  hour  for  dinner.  Self  and 
wife,  family  having  grown  up  and  left  him.  Thinks  his  lot  repre- 
sents the  lot  of  a  large  portion  of  the  laboring  class  of  Germany. 
Cofiee  and  black  bread  for  breakfast;  vegetables  and  souj)  for  din- 
ner; buttermilk  and  potatoes  for  supper." 

Special  attention  is  invited  to  Mr.  Potter's  interviews,  in  detail,  with 
the  many  representative  workers  in  his  district,  from  which  the  fore- 
going extracts  are  taken;  also  to  that  portion  of  his  report  which  deals 
with  the  homes  of  the  weavers,  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Essen,  the 
Prussian  elementary  school  system,  &c. 

MAYEE^CB. 

Consul  Smith's  report  embraces  a  large  amount  of  analytical  statis- 
tics, and,  under  the  circumstances  detailed  by  him  in  his  research  for 
matter  for  its  composition,  bears  ample  testimony  to  his  zeal  and  fidelity. 

Mr.  Smith,  after  full  and  earnest  investigation,  estimates  the  aver- 
age weekly  wages  in  Mayence  as  follows:  Common  day-laborers,  $2.50; 
mechanics  and  skilled  workmen,  $4.25.  The  wages  earned,  adds  the 
consul,  according  to  American  ideas,  are  exceedingly  small,  and  barely 
suffice  to  keep  the  recipients  on  their  feet. 

HOUSE   INDUSTRY  IN  HESSE. 

The  foregoing  wages  apply  to  the  cities  of  his  district ;  in  the  country 
very  different  conditions  prevail. 

In  the  mountainous  portions  of  Hesse,  says  the  consul,  the  people 
are  employed  in  "house  industry,"  in  making  articles  at  home,  such  as 
nails  for  shoes,  and  locks,  diaper  pins,  hairpins,  and  other  wire  goods, 
fillet  work,  wooden  ware,  toys,  &c.  The  whole  family  ])articipates  in 
the  "  house  industry,"  whatever  that  may  happen  to  be.  Yet  this  united 
labor  yields  them  a  bare  subsistence.  Nailsmiths  get  from  10  to  12 
cents  ]}er  thousand  nails  turned  out.  Working  from  5  in  the  morn- 
ing to  8  at  night,  with  his  wife  and  children  to  assist  him,  a  man  can 
make  20  to  28  cents  per  day.  Large  needles  are  paid  for  at  a  higher 
rate;  yet  a  man  laboring  13  hours  per  day  can  hardly  earn  more  than 
28  cents.  At  fillet  work  a  practiced  woman,  working  13  hours  a  day, 
can  seldom  earn  more  than  15  cents. 

Sewing  enameled  i)earls  on  lace  is  mostly  done  by  girls,  who  receive, 
forea(;h  100  ])earls  sewed  on,l  cent.  Practiced  hands,  working  14  hours 
a  day,  can  earn  15  cents  sewing  on  these  pearls. 

A  good  workman  will  turn  off  in  14  hours  5  dozen  wooden  spoons, 
for  wiiich  he  is  ])aid  4J  cents  per  dozen:  22^  cents  for  14  hours'  labor. 


20  LABOR    TN    EUROPE. 

Out  of  this  lie  lins  to  siip{)l.v  the  \YOod  from  wliich  the  spoons  are 
inade.  His  net  earninj^s  are,  therefove,  about  16-J  eents  per  day. 
This  lie  can  inn  n^)  to  23,  and  even  28  cents,  when  he  has  the  assist- 
ance of  wife  and  children.  The  wa.i>es  of  the  weavers  in  this  district 
ran  iroin  lU-  cents  up  to  47  cents  per  day,  the  latter  beinj;"  earned  by 
tiie  best  workmen  for  the  finest  kind  of  work. 

Of  farm  labor,  writes  the  consul,  there  are  dill'cient  kinds,  from 
those  engaged  to  do  such  menial  work  as  attending  to  horst's,  who 
receive  from  $45  to  $70  per  year,  with  board  and  loslgiiig — which 
latter  means  living  in  the  stables  with  the  cows  and  horses — to  the  per- 
manent day  laborer,  who  is  paid  27  cents  per  day,  and  is  given  one-fourth 
of  an  acre  of  ground  to  plant  with  potatoes,  with  occasional  advantages. 
The  temj^orarily  employed  laborer  gets  33  cents  per  day,  and  during  har- 
vest times  as  much  as  50  and  even  75  cents.  Women  engaged  upon  the 
lighter  kinds  of  field  labor  receive  20  cents  per  day  without  board. 

In  writing  of  the  cost  of  living  to  the  working  classes,  the  consul 
says  that  the  workingmen  of  Germany,  where  married,  live  in  a  very 
ordinary-  manner,  subsisting  in  the  main  upon  potatoes,  rye  bread,  com- 
mon sausage,  beer,  and  very  inferior  coffee. 

HOW   A  WORKJNGMAN  LIVES  IN  MAYENCE. 

The  consul  visited  a  workingman  in  Mayence  representing  the  com- 
mon laboring  class.  He  lives  in  two  fourth-story  rooms,  for  vrhich  hepays 
$26.04  rent  per  year.  The  house  is  a  dilapidated  structure,  in  a  narrow 
street,  whose  stairvray  is  so  crooked  that  a  stranger  ascends  it  with 
difficulty.  He  has  a  wife  and  four  children,  and  all  live  in  the  two 
rooms.  He  earns  about  50  cents  per  day,  to  which  his  wife  adds  a  little' 
by  oc;-asionally  doing  washing  or  other  work.  The  total  yearly  ex- 
penses of  this  family  are  given  as  follows:  Clothing  for  the  workman  : 
1  pair  of  pantaloons,  $2.38;  2  shirts,  $1.42;  3  blouses,  $2.13 ;  shoes, 
$5  71;  socks,  $1.42;  working  coat,  $2.14;  vest,  59  cents  ;  hat,  95  cents; 
total  clothing  for  himself,  $16.f;4.  Clothing  for  his  wife,  $19;  and  for 
his  children,  $8.  Total  clothing  for  family  per  year,  $13.74.  Necessa- 
ries of  life:  Fnel,  $13.11;  taxes,  $4.09;  dinner  for  family,  which  con- 
sists of  soup,  tlesh,  i)otatoes,  and  sometimes  greens,  20  cents  ])er  dinner, 
or  $73  per  year;  rent,  $20.04  ;  beer,  2  glasses  per  day,  $15.05  ;  sundry 
expenditures,  $12.75.  This  makes  a  total  expenditure  of  $189.13,  or 
about  $22  per  year  more  than  he  could  earn  working  every  day  in  the 
year,  Sundays  excepted.  It  will  be  noted  that  breakfast  and  supper 
were  not  estimated.  The  money  for  these  and  the  foregoing  balance 
nnist  be  i)rovided  for  by  the  wile,  wliich  is  almost  impossible,  or  the  list 
of  expenses  must  be  considerably  cut  down.  The  unfinished  statement 
shows  that  tlie  workman  himself  did  not  have  any  distinct  idea  of  how 
he  made  ends  meet. 

In  referring  to  the  habits  of  the  working  classes,  IMr.  Smith  rep- 
resents them  as  being  somewhat  sh)wer  in  their  movements  and  man- 
ner of  laboring  than  American  workingmen,  and  not  quite  so  self  reli- 
ant, but  i)ersevering  and  ])ainstaking.  In  Germany  less  is  ex])ected  of 
the  workingman;  less  is  i)aid  for  and  c()use(inently  less  is  rendered. 
Conditions  there  also  are  more  fixed  and  the  demand  for  promptness  of 
execution  not  so  im])erative. 

In  regard  to  the  agricultural  classes  of  a  large  portion  of  Hesse,  Con- 
sul Smith  d<\scribes  them  asbetter  off  and  more  contented  than  the  arti- 
sans and  laborers  in  towns  and  cities.  The  farms  are  small  and  mainly 
tilled  b}^  the  proprietois.     In  the  Odenwald  district,  however,  the  ag- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  21 

riculturists  and  laborers  are  anything  but  prosperous,  while  in  the 
Spessart  district  the  people  are  very  poorly  off,  living  in  uncomfortable 
and  overcnnvded  houses. 

In  regard  to  the  feeling  between  employers  and  employes,  the  consul 
reports  his  interviews  with  responsible  and  representative  persons. 
Upon  questioning  a  geutleman  of  position  in  a  very  large  establishment 
on  this  point,  he  answered,  ''  Just  say  that  employers  and  employes 
are  desperate  enemies." 

Another  manufacturer  said,  "  Employers  and  employes  treat  one 
another  as  beings  of  a  different  race  or  type,  and  the  want  of  cordial 
feeling  between  emj)loyers  and  employes  in  Germany  is  the  bane  of  all 
industry  in  the  Empire." 

Commenting  upon  this,  Mr.  Smith  submits  some  reiiectioiis  which 
are  equally  applicable  to  the  question  of  the  employer  or  the  employed, 
whose  true  interests  are  identical,  in  the  United  States  and  Germany : 

"The  trouble  in  Germany  as  well  as  elsewhere  is  that  men  are  not 
just  to  one  another.  The  employer  seems  to  look  upon  his  employ6 
as  a  piece  of  machinery,  out  of  which  as  much  as  i)ossible  for  as 
little  as  possible  is  to  be  got,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  employe 
looks  upon  his  employer  as  an  oppressor  and  extorter,  to  whom  as 
little  as  possible  is  to  be  rendered,  instead  of  each  cordially  respect- 
ing the  other  and  working  for  each  other's  welfare." 

FEMALE  LABOR    IN    HESSE-DARMSTADT. 

The  following  statement,  prepared  by  the  consul,  from  official  sources, 
shows  the  number  of  females  who  work  for  wages,  and  their  several 
occupations,  throughout  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1882: 

In  ;)j>'iicultni-al  pursuits 41,421 

lu  forestry,  buuting,  and  fishing 11 

In  mines,  furnaces,  and  salt-pits ..  8 

In  quarrying,  earthenware  and  glass  works 9G 

In  machine  shops 3t) 

In  chemical  establishments 210 

In  making  charcoal,  tar,  pitch,  &c 159 

In  textile  i udustries 1, 405 

In  paper  aud  leather  industries 1, 387 

In  wood-carving  and  making  articles  of  wood 312 

In  tobacco  factories 2,  473 

In  bakeries  and  confectioneries 135 

In  preparing  footls  aud  drinks 262 

In  making  aud  cleaning  clothes — seamstresses  (6, 820),  washer- 
women, andironers  (2,574),  &c 10,766 

Bricklayers,  carpenters,  glaziers,  roofers,  &c 85 

Photographers 11 

Printers  in  stone,  metal,  and  colors 104 

Cutters  and  founders  of  wooden  and  metallic  types 41 

Trading  in  goods  aud  products 3, 135 

Peddlers 500 

Post  and  telegraph  offices 9 

Railroad  employ6s 29 

Messengers,  porters,  guides,  i&c 88 

Undertakers 18 

Upon  ships 14 

Drayage 29 

Household  sprvauts  not  dwelling  with  their  employers 1,  552 

In  labor  of  a  changeable  character 1, 530 

In  chiudies  and  other  religions  establishments 344 

In  libraries,  art  galleries,  and  as  ieachers 913 

Sick  nurses . 1,  069 

Authors,  writers,  correspondents,  &c 7 

In  musical  aud  theatrical  pi; Lsiiits 1  -I) 

Grand  total 08, 478 


22  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

The  total  populatiou  of  Hesse -Darmstadt  is  given  as  936,34:0.  The 
foregoing  table  is  instructive  as  showing  the  many  employments — 
considered  unwomanly  in  the  United  States — engaged  in  by  the  women 
of  Germany  because  of  the  labor  conditions  of  that  country. 

The  wages  earned  by  female  workers  in  the  Mayence  disn  i(tt  run 
from  25  to  50  per  cent,  below^  male  wages.  Those  employed  at  ordinary 
labor  or  in  the  factories  earn  usually  from  25  cents  to  50  cents  ])er  day, 
the  average  wages  being  about  30  cents  per  day.  The  hours  of  labor 
are  the  same  for  females  as  lor  males.  The  employment  of  women  in 
factories  has,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Smith,  a  demoralizing  efiect  upon 
their  moral  and  physical  character. 

The  laws  governing  the  employment  of  working  women  in  factories, 
foundries,  and  mills,  and  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  prohibit  their  em- 
ployment at  very  heavy  and  unwomanly  labor,  are  highly  praised  by 
the  consul. 


SAXONY. 

Mr.  Du  Bois,  Consul  in  Leipsic,  the  "City  of  Books,"  furnishes  some 
interesting  statistics  concerning  the  condition  of  labor  in  Saxony. 

Although  he  reports  considerable  improvement  in  the  workman's 
condition,  with  a  slight  increase  in  wages  since  1878,  the  date  of  the 
last  report  on  the  "Condition  of  Labor  in  Europe,"  still  this  improved 
condition  aflbrds  the  laborer  only  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  the  wages 
of  the  workman  in  Germany  must  be  supplemented  by  the  earnings 
of  the  wife  to  make  both  ends  meet. 

Here  are  the  weekly  exi)enses  of  a  tanner,  a  married  man,  who  earned 
the  rather  high  wages  of  $4.04  per  week.  He  is  represented  as  being  a 
hale  and  good-natured  man,  who  looks  on  the  sunny  side  of  life :  House 
rent,  88  cents ;  clothing,  70  cents ;  coffee,  15  cents ;  potatoes,  40  cents ; 
cheese,  15  cents ;  butter  and  fat,  00  cents ;  beer,  35  cents  ;  black-bread,  34 
cents;  meat,  twice  a  week,  30  cents;  fuel,24;  light,  Scents;  total, $4.33; 
this  being  2!>  cents  more  than  he  earned.  He  said  that  sometimes  his 
wife  earned  something.  When  she  failed  to  earn  anything  he  had  to 
strike  out  the  meat,  butter,  &c.,  and  rely  upon  black  bread,  fat,  and 
l)otatoes.  The  quantities  of  meat,  cheese,  and  coffee,  at  best,  were 
scanty,  not  more  than  half  a  pound  each  of  coffee  and  cheese  per  week, 
and  about  2  pounds  of  meat. 

Of  female  labor  in  Saxony,  the  consul  says : 

"  Woman  is  poorly  ])aid,  poorly  fed ,  and  i»oorly  housed.  Her  star 
is  an  unlucky  one.  Her  fate  ought  to  have  been  better ;  for  she  is 
good-natured,  economical,  industrious  and  willing.  From  0  o'clock 
in  the  morning  until  7  in  the  evening  she  works  ;it  tlie  loom  for  the 
sum  of  $1.08  per  week  of  C()  hours,  which  is  28  cents  i)er  day.  This 
necessarily  means  poor  food,  poor  clothing,  and  a  hopeless  life  of 
toil." 

The  employment  of  women  in  the  factories  and  general  industries, 
according  to  Mr.  Du  Bois's  investigations,  depresses  the  average  i)rice 
of  labor;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Saxony  relies  upon  cheap  female 
lal)or  for  its  ability  to  compete  ^vith  foreign  nations  ni  mnnuf;u;tures. 

Another  interesting  report  on  the  condition  of  labor  in  Saxony  is  that 
from  Consul  Bullock,  of  Annaberg.  This  oflicer  also  bears  testi- 
mony to  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  working  classes  in  his 


LABOR    Ix\.  EUROPE.  23 

district  siuce  1878,  but  notwithstanding  this  improvement,  says  "the 
difference  between  the  conditions  of  the  American  and  Saxon  artisan 
remains  so  great  that  the  latter  would  regard  as  an  extravagant  luxury 
what  the  former  considers  a  necessity." 


SILESIA. 

An  extended  report,  covering  every  phase  of  the  labor  question  as  set 
forth  in  the  Department  circular,  comes  from  Mr.  Dithmar,  Consul  in 
Breslau,  for  the  province  of  Silesia,  Southeast  Prussia.  Consul  Dithmar 
reports  that  labor  is  generally  i^aid  less  in  Silesia  than  in  any  other 
portion  of  the  German  Empire,  the  average  wages  of  unskilled  labor 
for  Silesia  being  estimated  at  $1.48  per  week,  against  $2.19  for  Prussia 
and  $2.40  for  the  Empire.  Living  is,  however,  cheaper  in  Silesia  than 
in  other  portions  of  the  Empire,  In  consequence  of  the  low  wages  and 
lack  of  employment  a  large  migration  of  artisans  and  female  field-hands 
from  Silesia  to  East  Prussia,  Poland,  Hungary,  &c.,  takes  place  every 
spring.  The  women  work  in  the  fields  of  Saxony  during  six  or  seven 
months  in  each  year,  receiving  about  3G  cents  per  day,  and  return  to 
their  homes  at  the  commencement  of  winter  with  their  saved  earnings. 

According  to  Mr.  Dithmar's  returns,  agricultural  laborers  hired  by 
the  year  are  paid  daily  wages  as  follows  :  Male  laborers,  10  to  18  cents; 
female  laborers,  7^  to  12  cents.  In  addition  thereto  food  is  supplied  to 
the  value  of  $18  to  $25  per  annum.  This  would  give  a  total  income  per 
annum,  food  and  wages  combined,  counting  every  work  day  in  the  year, 
of  from  $53.30  to  $78.34  for  male  laborers,  and" of  $45.43  to  $59.50  for 
female  laborers.  These  field  wages,  remarks  the  consul,  are  50  per  cent, 
higher  than  they  were  fifty  years  ago. 

Mr.  Dithmar's  investigations  among  the  hand-loom  weavers  of  his 
district  shows  a  worse  condition  of  affairs  even  than  that  which  marks 
the  "house-industry"  of  Crefeld.  The  home  weaver,  says  the  consul, 
who  works  steadily  for  at  least  eleven  hours,  assisted  by  one  of  his 
children  as  spooler,  earns  about  $1.43  per  week.  There  are  many 
households,  however,  where  the  money  earnings  do  not  average  more 
than  45  cents  per  week  the  year  round.  "  I  was  once  able,"  said  a  weaver 
to  the  consul  in  the  heart  of  the  weaving  district,  "to  earn  8  marks 
($1.90)  a  week,  but  now  my  earnings  never  exceed  72  cents  per  week." 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  furnaces,  factories,  and  mines 
(coal  mines  not  included)  in  Silesia  is  estimated  at  nearly  75,000  males 
and  36,000  females,  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  latter  being  married. 
These  work,  on  an  average,  eleven  hours  per  day  iu  summer  and  ten  in 
winter. 


THURINGIA. 

The  district  of  Thuringia  falls  under  the  consulate  at  Sonneberg;  sit- 
uated iu  Central  Germany,  and  embracing  all  the  various  industries  by 
which  labor  obtains  employment,  it  is  perhaps  second  to  iiu  other  district 
as  illustrative  of  tlie  habits,  conditions,  and  remuneration  of  liibor  in 
Germany.  Indeed,  in  so  far  ns  the  statistics  of  this  district  are  required 
for  comparative  purposes,  it  may  be  taken  as  the  Empire  in  miniature. 

In  the  general  trades  Mr.  Mosher,  the  consul,  reports  that  the  wages 
per  week  of  66  hours  in  the  city  of  Sonneberg  and  vicinity  range  from 


21:  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

83  to  $4,  a  few  tradesmen,  such  as  jewelers,  litbographers,  and  masons 
averagiug  more  tluui  tliis  maximum,  and  many  others  less,  such  as 
bakers,  butchers,  confectioners,  coopers,  tailors,  tinsmiths,  weavers,  &c., 
who  receive  only  from  $2.50  to  $2.75  per  week. 

In  the  factories  and  mills  of  Thuringia  more  than  one-half  the  opera- 
tives are  females,  and  their  w;iges  average  from  one-third  to  one-lialf  less 
than  the  wa.ueyof  the  male  operatives.  The  hours  of  labor  in  the  fac- 
tories and  mills  are  from  GO  to  72  per  week — the  tirst  in  the  cottou  mills 
and  the  last  in  the  wooleu  mills.  In  woolen  mills  the  following  wages 
are  ])aid  per  week  of  72  Lours  :  Female  wool-sorters,  $1.15;  washers, 
$2.28;  carders,  $1.95;  common  hands,  $1.00;  si3iuuerB,  $2.80;  dress- 
ers, $3.48 ;  watchmen,  $1.00;  day  laborers,  $2. 

In  the  cotton  mills  the  following  wag(  s  are  paid  per  week  of  00 
hours:  Pickers,  $2,08;  oilers,  $2.30;  grinders,  $2.50;  roving  hands, 
$1.50;  speeder  girls,  $2.13  ;  liters,  $1.'J8  ;  doffers,  81.00  ;  mule  spinueis, 
$3.40;  weavers,  plain,  $2.34;  weavers,  fancy,  $2.84;  fancy  dyers,  $3.90; 
plain  dyers,  $3  ;  cloth-room  hands,  $2.84 ;  spoolers,  $2.23. 

Foundry  and  machine  shops,  per  week  of  00  hours,  the  wages  earned 
run  from  $2.20  for  laborers  up  to  $3.40  and  $3.75,  the  highest  to  casters 
and  engineers. 

Glass-works,  per  week  of  00  hours,  from  $1.80  to  $3.90.  While  there 
are  several  important  glass-works  in  Thuringia,  the  greater  portion  of 
the  work  is  done  at  home,  nearly  every  family  in  certain  districts  hav- 
ing its  blast-pipe  and  other  appliances.  The  glass  workers,  although 
better  paid  than  any  other  artisans,  are  very  poor  and  live  in  the  most 
frugal  manner. 

Iron  and  coal  mines,  per  week  of  00  hours  :  Miners,  $2.95  ;  day  labor- 
ers in  mines,  $2.90  ;  day  laborers  on  surface,  $2.30.  Miners  on  contract 
work  earu  $3.10. 

Printing  offices,  per  week  of  00  hours:  Edirors,  $0.71 ;  publishers, 
$4.28;  proof-readers,  $5.23;  compositors,  $3.90;  job  printers,  $3.98; 
apprentices,  $J.42, 

Food  prices,  according  to  the  consul,  are  about  the  same  as  they  were 
in  1878. 

Toy-making  is  the  principal  industry  of  Sonneberg;  its  toy  trade  was 
formerly  widespread,  but  on  account  of  the  increase  in  the  tarifts  since 
1879,  of  several  countries,  the  trade  is  now  almost  restricted  to  England 
and  to  the  United  States.  The  loss  in  the  toy  trade  with  France,  Aus- 
tria, Italy  and  Sweileu,  for  the  foregoing  reason,  is  estimated  in  Sonne- 
berg at  $1,190,000  per  annum. 

Mr.  Mosher  describes  the  habits  of  the  workingmen  as  plodding. 
They  are  honest  and  industrious  and  peaceably  disi)0sed,  but  not  thritty. 

The  feeling  b(?tween  employe  andemployer  is  oneof  "oiganized  neu- 
trality." In  all  cases  of  strikes  in  Thuringia  the  victory  ultimately 
has  been  on  the  side  of  capital;  hence  intelligent  and  organized  labor 
does  not  often  resort  to  strikes  as  a  remedy  for  real  or  fancied  grievances. 

The  consul's  report  on  co-operative  societies,  which  play  such  an  im- 
portant part  in  Germany,  is  worthy  of  the  closest  perusal. 


WUETEMBERG. 

The  Kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  writes  Mr.  Catlin,  the  consul,  in  his  ad- 
mirable report,  with  a  population  ot  2,000,000,  and  an  area  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  State  of  Massiichusetts,  uuiy  be  classed  as  essentially  a  laud 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  25 

of  agriculture.  Oue-balf  its  population  is,  directly  or  indirectly,  de- 
pendent upon  agriculture  and  kindred  pursuits ;  nearly  two-thirds  of 
its  area  consists  of  farms,  pasture  lands,  and  vineyards,  while  it  con- 
tains but  four  cities  with  more  than  20,000 inhabitants  each.  With  the 
exception  of  agricultural  labor,  therefore,  the  consideration  of  the  ques- 
tion of  capital  and  labor,  in  the  sense  contemplated  by  the  circular,  is 
practically  confined  to  the  cities  and  large  towns  of  the  Kingdom.  The 
l)opulation  of  the  cities  of  Wurtemberg,  containing  each  above  20,000 
inhabitants,  numbers  only  195,000,  of  which  117,000  are  inhabitants  of 
Stuttgart,  the  seat  of  the  consulate  for  the  whole  Kingdom  ;  the  other 
chief  cities  being  Ulm  (33,000),  Heilbronn  (24,000)^  and  Esslingen 
(20,500),  the  latter,  10  miles  from  Stuttgart,  being  largely  engagecl  in 
the  manufacture  of  locomotives,  machinery  and  textiles. 

The  series  of  interviews  with  representative  men,  given  by  Mr.  Cat- 
lin  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer,  are  of  considerable  interest. 
Of  these  special  reference  may  be  made  to  tlie  opinions  of  Karl  Kloss, 
a  joiner  by  trade,  and  a  public  speaker  of  ability  on  all  questions  con- 
cerning the  labor  question,  and  to  the  views  of  Herr  Dietz,  a  member  of 
Parliament,  and  the  proprietor  of  a  publishing  and  printing  establish- 
ment in  Stuttgart. 

Information  derived  from  the  i>resident  of  the  board  of  police  gives 
the  number  of  females  employed  in  the  factories,  shops,  and  as  servants, 
&c.,  in  Stuttgart  as  12,724.  The  same  authority  gives  the  habits  of  the 
working  classes  as  being,  in  general,  orderly,  but  not  as  thrifty  as  they 
might  be. 

Much  fault  is  found  in  Wurtemberg  with  the  importation  of  Italian 
laborers  whenever  any  large  contract-work  is  to  be  executed.  These 
laborers  are  "supplied"  to  any  number  by  contract  agents  in  Vienna, 
and  they  arrive  on  the  ground  with  something  like  the  mobility  and 
[)recision  of  regular  troops. 

The  employment  of  female  labor  in  Wurtemberg,  says  Mr.  Catlin, 
is  more  general  in  the  agricultural  districts  than  in  the  cities.  In  the 
former  a  large  proportion  of  the  women  depend  upon  their  labor 
for  daily  bread.  Many  of  them  work  in  the  fields,  doing  men's 
work.  Many  others  are  employed  in  the  small  shops  which  abou.nd 
in  each  village,  and  a  number  of  young  girls  work  daily  for  ten  hours 
in  factories  of  all  kinds,  i)erhaps  2  or  3  miles  distant  from  their  homes. 
In  a  population  of  120,000  there  are  registered  as  earning  their  own 
living  by  labor  15,512  women,  of  whom  7,144  live  as  servants  in  families. 

Among  the  many  interviews  with  rei)reseutative  work-people  given 
in  Mr.  Catlin's  re])ort,  the  following  is  selected  as  illustrative  of  female 
mill-life  in  Germany : 

Question.  Where  do  you  live,  and  what  is  your  employment? — 
Answer.  I  live  in  Esslingen,  and  am  employed  as  a  jenny-hand  in 
Merkel  &  Wolf's  woolen-yarn  factory. 

Q.  Are  you  married  or  single? — A.  I  was  married  last  Febru- 
ary. 1  am  thirty  years  old.  I  have  been  employed  seven  years 
where  I  now  am. 

Q.  How  many  women  and  girls  altogether  are  employed  in  your 
factory? — A.  About  700,  the  majority  of  them  unmarried. 

Q.  I  suppose  that  many  of  the  married  ones  have  children;  what 
do  they  do  with  the  children  while  they  are  at  wori;  ? — A.  They 
leave  the  children  either  with  elderly  relations  or  with  elderly  peo- 
ple in  the  houses  of  friends.  In  the  latter  case  they  pay  10  to  15 
marks  a  month  ($2.40  to  $3.60)  for  the  child's  full  board. 


26  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Q.  What  are  the  daily  working  hours? — A.  From  6  a.  m.  till  7  p. 
ui.,  with  tweuty  inimites  rest  in  the  morning-,  one  hour  at  noon,  and 
twenty  minutes  in  the  afternoon;  that  is,  over  eleven  hours. 

Q.  if  you  work  over  that  time  do  you  get  extra  pay  for  it  ? — A. 
Certainly,  as  I  am  i)aid  by  the  amount  of  work  I  do. 

Q.  Are  all- the  hands  paid  in  that  way,  or  do  some  get  a  fixed 
price  per  day  ? — A.  Some  receive  a  fixed  price,  as,  for  instance,  the 
wool-washers,  pickers,  and  sorters,  who  are  paid  from  1.20  to  1.50 
marks  (2S.G  cents  to  35.7  cents)  per  day.  The  majority  are  paid,  as 
I  am,  according-  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 

Q.  About  how  much  do  you  earn  on  an  average  per  day  the  year 
round  ? — A.  Sometimes  I  earn  2  marks  (48  cents)  a  day,  sometimes 
only  1.50  marks  (36  cents).  In  the  year  round  learn  an  average  of 
1.70  marks  (39  cents)  daily. 

Q.  Are  you  often  called  on  for  extra  work? — A.  Very  seldom. 
Formerly  we  were. 

Q.  Do  most  of  the  female  operatives  in  jour  mill  live  in  Esslin- 
gen  ? — A.  No ;  some  live  so  far  away  that  they  have  to  walk  1 J 
hours  each  way  going  to  and  returning-  from  their  work.  They 
have  to  leave  home  at  half  past  4  in  the  morning,  and  do  not  reach 
home  again  until  half  past  8  at  night.  Women  from  the  diflerent 
villages  come  at  noon  with  the  dinners  for  the  operatives  from 
their  respective  localities. 

Q.  What  do  the  younger  unmarried  female  operatives  do  with 
their  wages  ? — A.  Those  w^ho  have  j^arents  contribute  it  to  their 
support;  those  who  have  not  spend  it  for  their  own  maintenance. 
They  cannot  save  much  unless  they  stint  themselves  in  their  food. 

Q.  Can  these  girls  save  anything  for  marriage? — A.  Very  little, 
and  that  only  by  liard  denial. 

Q.  Did  you  save  up  anything  before  your  marriage ? — A.  Yes; 
about  500  marks  ($125),  but  that  was  because  I  was  forewoman, 
worked  over  hours,  and  underwent  great  denials. 

Q.  Are  most  of  the  girls  industrious  and  saving"? — A.  Some  are; 
some  are  not. 

Q.  Are  the  most  of  them  good  girls  ? — A.  They  vary,  like  all 
other  people. 

Q.  Are  they  generally  strong  and  healthy? — A.  Yes,  in  general. 

Q.  Do  the  most  of  them  marry  sooner  or  later? — A.  Yes,  sooner 
or  later,  as  soon  as  th(\y  are  in  circumstances  to  do  so. 

Q.  Are  wages  higher  or  lower  now  than  they  were  five  years 
ago? — A.  The  fixed  day-wages  are  about  the  same,  but  the  rates 
of  ][)ayment  according  to  the  amount  of  work  done  were  20  per 
cent,  higher  five  years  ago,  while  the  cost  of  living  remains  about 
the  same. 

Q.  What  education  had  you  had  before  you  began  to  work  in 
the  mill? — A.  I  had  poor  parents;  I  went  to  the  public  school 
from  the  time  I  was  seven  years  old  until  I  was  fourteen ;  then  I 
was  three  years  in  service  with  a  family  in  the  country ;  then  I 
went  to  Augsburg  and  worked  for  two  years  in  a  w^oolen  mill ; 
then  two  years  in  (xeislingen  in  another  mill ;  then  one  year  in  a 
mill  near  Cologne ;  then  two  years  more  near  Winterthur,  in  Switz- 
erland ;  and  iinally  I  came  to  I'^sslingen,  wluu'c  I  now  am. 

Q.  Suppose  a  fire  broke  out  in  your  mill  during  the  daytime, 
are  there  moans  of  escni>o  provided  for  all  of  you  ? — A.  Yes;  the 
new  portion  of  the  mill  is  one-storied,  but  the  older  portion  of  it 
h.'s  three  tloors,  and  there  most  of  the  operatives  are.     It  is  amply 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  27 

provided  with  hose,  hidders,  and  buckets,  and  there  would  be  no 
danger  whatever. 

Q.  Suppose  you  were  to  fall  sick,  and  were  unable  to  work  for  a 
fortnight,  what  would  you  have  to  depend  upon? — A.  We  have  a 
relief  tuud,  to  which  all  of  the  employes  in  the  mill  contribute  40 
pfennigs  (about  10  cents)  each  per  month.  Single  operatives  are  sent 
to  the  hospital,  and  are  cared  for  gratis,  besides  receiving  on  their 
discharge  from  the  hospital  25  pfennigs  (6  cents)  per  day  for  the 
period  of  their  illness.  Those  who  have  parents  or  husbands  are 
allowed  to  remain  at  home,  and  are  paid  50  pfennigs  (12  cents)  per 
day. 

Q.  Do  you  kee])  house? — A.  Yes;  I  and  my  husband  hire  a  i)artof 
a  second  floor.  We  h*ive  two  rooms  and  a  i^art  of  the  kitchen,  for 
which  we  pay  CO  marks  ($14.28)  a  year.  We  breakfast  together  at 
half  past  5  on  coffee  and  bread.  When  my  hugband  is  able  to  work, 
we  get  our  dinner  at  a  house  near  where  we  live,  and  pay  35  pfennigs 
(about  8  cents)  apiece  for  it.  We  get  souj),  boiled  meat,  and  some 
vegetables.  We  take  our  evening  meal  about  7.30  or  8  o'clock.  I 
prepare  it  myself;  a  cup  of  coffee,  perhaps  a  little  beer  and  bread, 
and  a  sausage  or  so.  We  earn  together  about  100  marks  (823.80) 
per  month,  and  with  economy  we  manage  to  get  along  on  that. 

Q.  Do  you  think  that  most  of  the  female  operatives  are  con- 
tented?— A.  Yes;  they  do  not  complain  of  their  lot,  because  they 
are  accustomed  to  it. 


BE  VIEW  OF  THE  LABOR  CONDITIONS  OF  GEEMANY. 

According  to  a  computation  made  by  Mr.  Vogeler,  consul-general  in 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  based  on  official  returns,  the  number  of  work- 
ing people,  male  and  female,  in  the  German  Empire  is  estimated  at 
10,500,000  in  round  numbers,  of  which  2,500,000  are  engaged  in  do- 
mestic service.  It  should  be  remembered  as  a  modification  of  this  rel- 
atively large  number  of  persons  engaged  in  labor  in  Germany  that  the 
number  of  those  dependent  upon  the  employed  is  not  relatively  so  great 
as  in  other  countries,  from  the  fact  that  in  Germany  everybody  who 
can  work,  young  and  old,  works  either  for  self-support  or  to  contribute 
to  the  support  of  the  family. 

In  the  foregoing  estimate  the  consul-general  embraces  all  jaersons  en- 
gaged in  (1)  agriculture,  forestry,  and  fisheries;  (2)  mechanical  indus- 
tries, building,  and  mining ;  (3)  commerce  and  traffic ;  (4)  domestic 
service ;  (5)  military  service,  in  schools,  and  religious  teaching,  in  hos- 
pitals and  benevolent  institutions,  and  in  the  civil  service.  The  total 
population  of  the  Empire  is  estimated  at  40,000,000. 

These  figures  bear  strong  attestation  to  the  fact  that  the  Germans 
are  a  labor  people  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  that  they  are  inad- 
equately remunerated,  and  lead  a  frugal  life. 

FEMALE  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 

From  the  portions  of  the  several  reports  devoted  to  female  labor  in 
Gennany  the  following  extract  from  the  report  of  ]Mr.  Mosber,  consul  in 
Sonnel)erg,  is  selected  as  a  fair  illustration  of  the  workingwoman's  con- 
dition throughout  Germany  : 

American  readers  will  hardly  understand  how  it  can  be  that  the 
severest  part  of  existence  in  t!;f;-  v,l;ole  v^fion  falls  to  the  lot  of 


28  LABOR    IN    EUKOPE. 

woDiau.     Bat  such  is  the  fact.     She  is  tlie  servant  and  theburdeu- 

bearer. 

******* 

Her  sex  is  liberally  represented  in  most  of  the  manual-labor  oc- 
cupations of  the  district,  even  to  mining*  and  foundry  work,  but  far 
less  liberally  iu  any  branch  of  clerical  or  professional  life. 

In  a  portion  of  this  consulate,  containing  a  poimlation  of  100,309 
males  and  10(J,042  females,  I  tlnd  by  the  latest  oflicial  statistics  that 
for  each  woman  who  sui)ports  herself  in  civil  and  church  service 
and  the  so-called  i)rofessions  there  are  live  and  a  fraction  who  sup- 
port theuiselves  by  trade  and  commerce,  nine  and  a  fraction  by 
housework,  twenty-four  and  a  fraction  by  mining,  foundry  and 
building  work,  and  sixty-three  and  a  fraction  by  agriculture,  cattle- 
raising,  forestry  and  fishing. 

I  find,  moreover,  by  the  same  statistics,  100  women  making  their 
living  in  the  same  district  by  working  in  quarries,  372  by  various 
branches  of  glass-blowing,  71  by  making  knives,  1  by  making  math- 
ematical instruments,  1  by  making  musical  instruments,  1  as  a 
chemist,  41  by  making  explosives,  1,007  as  paper-makers,  15  as  tan- 
ners, 54  as  book- binders  and  box-makers,  2  as  coopers,  355  as  turn- 
ers, 753  by  sewing,  3  as  notaries'  clerks,  70  as  teachers  of  all  kinds 
and  grades,  including  those  engaged  in  libraries  and  as  musicians, 
67  as  authors  and  writers  of  all  kinds,  including  copyists  and  cor- 
respondents, and  10,100  who  make  their  living  by  "agriculture, 
cattle-raising,  forestry,  hunting,  and  lishing." 

But  this  includes  only  those  described  as  self-supporting  in  the 
branches  mentitmed.  The  whole  number  of  women  and  children 
(girls)  employed  in  agricultural  pursuits  is  39,218;  the  correspond- 
ing number  of  males  is  32,714. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  chief  pursuits  of  women  in  this  district 
are  not  of  a  gentle  or  refining  character.  They  perform  by  far  the 
greater  |)art  of  all  the  outdoor  manual  service.  Tlie  ])lanting  and 
the  sowing,  including  the  preparation  of  the  soil  therefor,  is  done  by 
them.  I  have  seen  many  a  woman  in  the  last  few  weeks  holding 
the  plow  drawn  by  a  pair  of  cows,  and  still  more  of  them  carrying 
manure  into  the  fields  in  baskets  strapped  to  their  backs.  They 
also  do  much  of  the  liaying,  including  the  mowing  and  the  pitch- 
ing ;  likewise  the  harvesting,  after  which  they  thrash  much  of  the 
grain  with  the  old-fashioned  hand-Hail. 

They  accompany  the  coal  carts  through  the  city  and  put  the  coal 
in  the  cellars  while  the  male  driver  sits  upon  his  seat.  They  carry 
on  nearly  all  the  dairy  business,  and  draw  the  milk  into  town  in  a 
handcart — a  woman  and  a  dog  usually  constituting  the  team.  *  *  * 

In  a  half  day's  walk  through  the  country  recently  I  counted  130 
women  hoeing  in  the  fields,  and  only  5  men. 

"What  i)ay  do  you  receive  for  this  labor"?"  1  asked.  "From  50 
to  70  i)fonnigs  [12  to  17  cents]  a  day,"  she  answered,  "with  schnapps 
at  9,  potatoes  and  voffee  at  noon,  and  black  bread  and  beer  at  4." 
"How  long  is  your  day's  work?"  "  From  0  to  0:  but  we  often  work 
till  9  or  10  at  10  pfennigs  an  hour  for  extra  time" — and  she  t'.ien 
went  to  rearrange  the  bottle  of  goat's  milk  for  her  baby,  which 
had  awakened  fiuin  its  nai)  in  the  grass  at  the  edge  of  the  field. 

Many  of  the  younger  women  are  emi)loyed  in  the  doll  and  toy 
factories,  at  about  15  cents  a  day,  or  (^Ise  in  doing  picework  of  the 
same  kind  in  ilieir  own  rooms,  at  which  they  cani,  j.ciiiaps,  20  per 
cent,  more  weekly,  but  it  ijivolves  more  hours  of  labor. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  2Si 

As  to  their  iiiornl  nTul  ])liysical  coiulition,  they  are  both  hardy 
and  phlegmatic;  in  other  words,  they  are  physically  strong,  and 
do  not  seem  to  be  so  mach  exposed  to  temptation  as  w( men  of  a 
more  nervous  temperament  are. 

The  general  eftects  of  snch  a  life  as  1  have  described  are  not 
favorable  to  the  development  of  the  best  domestic  qualities.  The 
housekeeping  of  tiie  laboring  classes  is  of  the  most  primitive  sort. 
The  cooking  is  wretched.  There  is  but  little  display  of  family 
affection,  but  the  home  feeling  is  very  strong. 

Educationally  the  women  are  not,  as  a  rule,  equal  to  the  men ; 
but,  except  in  the  cr.se  of  the  technical  schools,  to  wdiicli  they  are 
not  admitted,  they  enjoy  equal  educational  privileges. 

The  wages  of  women  average  about  one-half  those  of  men. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  about  6,000  more  women  than 
men  in  the  Dukedom  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  with  a  population  of 
207,075,  and  in  the  whole  cousul-ir  district,  with  a  ])opulation  of 
1,210,815,  there  is  a  surplus  of  30,609  women.  Emigration  accounts 
largely  for  this  difference,  since  the  men  can  more  easily  collect  the 
means  for  a  change  of  location  than  the  women  can. 

To  give  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  condition  of  labor  throughout  the 
Empire  the  statistics  given  are  herewith  recapitulated  by  consulates, 
showing  the  wages  paid  and  the  manner  of  living,  with  a  column  show- 
ing the  average  wages  for  the  Empire. 


30 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


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LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 

TVar/cs  paifl  in  n  hricV-iiard  near  Berlin. 
I  Work  from  April  1  to  December  1.    Wages  per  week  of  60  hours.] 


Description. 


Foreman 

Fireman 

Fir.st  moldor.. 
Second  molder 
Outside  man.. 
Inbringer 


Wages. 

$5  63 
3  30 
2  65 
2  18 
2  20 
2  50 

Description. 


Outbringer 

Setter  

Locomotive  fireman 

Boy 

Panmaker 

Panmiller "... 


Wages. 


$2  58 
2  50 

2  82 

1  60 

3  02 

2  15 


HOW   GERMAN   ARTISANS  LIVE. 

The  following-  extracts  from  consular  interviews  with  working  people 
are  fair  examples  of  how  the  German  artisans  live  and  bring  up  fami- 
lies on  their  very  meager  wages. 


A  STRASBURG  PLASTERER. 

Has  a  wife  and  live  children ;  works  11  hours,  and  earns  83  cents 
per  day ;  wife,  as  a  laundress,  assisted  by  the  oldest  daughter,  earns 
28  cents  per  day ;  can  save  nothing  whatever ;  has  for  breakfast 
rolls  and  coffee ;  for  dinner,  soup,  vegetables,  and  potatoes ;  has 
meat  three  times  per  week. 

The  consul  reports  that  the  manner  in  which  this  Strasburg  plasterer 
lives  applies  equally  well  to  masons,  stonecutters,  bricklayers,  carpen- 
ters, and  the  other  general  trades  in  Alsace. 

BARMEN    WORKINGMEN. 

The  working  classes  in  this  district  subsist  on  a  comparatively 
meager  and  scant  diet ;  live  in  small  and  badly  ventilated  tenement 
houses,  and  their  clothing  is  coarse  and  ol  an  inferior  quality. 
Breakfast:  Very  poor  coffee,  potatoes,  and  black  bread.  Dinner: 
Beans  or  peas,  cooked  in  fat,  or  potato  and  flour  cakes,  or  potatoes 
and  fat,  and  <juion  sauce ;  sometimes  of  barley  soup  and  fish,  or 
common  sausages.  Supper :  Coffee  and  bread  and  butter,  or  goose 
fat.  On  Sundays  the  bill  of  fare  is  usually  better  than  on  week- 
days. 

A  FOREMAN  COOPER  IN  BREMEN. 

A  foreman  qpoper,  wife,  and  two  children  ;  steady  work  at  $G.41 
per  week  ;  average  wages  of  journeymen  coopers,  83  cents  per  day; 
works  iVom  G  to  0  in  summer,  with  intermissions  for  meals;  earns 
$312.40  per  annum,  out  of  which  he  lives  and  saves  $21. OG  per  year, 
lireakfast:  Eye  and  white  bread,  butter,  and  coffee.  Dinner:  Meat, 
vegetables,  and  jjotatoes.     Supper:  Bread,  butter,  tea,  and  cheese. 

HOW  A  bricklayer's  FAMILY  LIVES  IN  HAMBURG.* 

Question.  How  old  are  you? — Answer.  Thirty-two  years. 
Q.  What  is  your  business? — A.  I  am  a  bricklayer. 
Q.  Have  you  a  family? — A.  I  have  a  wife  and  two  chidren;  the 
oldest  is  four  and  the  youngest  two  years  old. 


*  From  a  valnable  ivjiort  by  Consul  Baily,  which  was  received  too  late  to  be  further 

a\'aile(l  of  in  this  li'ttcr. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  33 

Q.  Wbat  wages  do  j^ou  receive  per  day? — A.  On  an  average  I 
receive  4  marks  10  pfennigs  (05  cents)  per  day. 

Q.  How  many  hours  per  day  are  you  required  to  work  for  such 
wages  ?^A.  Ten  Lours  per  day. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  your  meals? — A.  Half 
an  hour  for  breaktast,  one  hour  for  dinner,  and  half  an  hour  for  ves- 
pers in  the  afternoon.  The  time  allowed  for  meals  is  not  included 
in  the  ten  hours'  work. 

Q.  Can  you  support  a  family  upon  such  wages? — A.  O,  yes.  My 
wife  frequently  earns  from  3  to  4  marks  per  week  by  washing  and 
scouring  for  other  people.  The  children  are  then  sent  to  the 
"Warteschule,"  a  kind  of  "kindergarten"  for  poor  people,  where 
the  children  are  taken  care  of  during  the  day  free  of  expense.  It 
is  a  charitable  institute,  of  which  there  are  a  good  many  in  Ham- 
burg. 

Q.  What  do  the  united  earnings  of  yourself  and  wife  amount  to 
in  a  year? — A.  With  general  good  health  we  earn  about  1,462 
marks  ($347.95)  per  year. 

Q.  Will  you  explain  in  detail  the  uses  you  make  of  this  money? — 
A.  Yes ;  I  pay  per  annum — 

For  rent  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen  in  third  story  (200  marks)..  $47  60 

For  clothing  for  self  and  family  (200  marks) 47  60 

For  food  and  fuel  (803  marks) 191  11 

For  taxes  ( 15  marks) 3  57 

For  hospital  dues  (20  marks) 4  76 

Leaving  for  doctor's  bills,  medicine,  incidentals,  and  savings 

(224  marks) 53  31 

Per  annum  (1,462  marks) 347  95 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  do  your  daily  meals  consist? — A.  For 
breakfast,  bread,  coffee,  and  a  little  bacon ;  for  dinner,  meat  and 
potatoes ;  at  four  o'clock,  coffee  and  bread ;  and  for  supper,  bread, 
bacon,  and  sometimes  fried  potatoes  and  tea  or  beer. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  save  any  portion  of  your  earnings  for  days 
of  sickness  or  old  age  ? — A.  At  present  I  manage  to  save  about  100 
marks  ($23.80)  per  year ;  whether  I  will  be  able  to  save  so  much,  or 
anything  at  all,  when  my  family  becomes  larger  or  my  children 
grow  older,  I  do  not  know.  In  case  of  sickness  (of  myself)  I  re- 
ceive 1  mark  50  pfennigs  (36  cents)  per  day  from  the  mechanics' 
hosi>ital  fund. 

HOW  A  WORKINGMAN  LIVES  IN   SILESIA. 

A  workingman's  family  of  four  or  five  persons,  according  to  offi- 
cial estimates,  lives  on  the  following  amount  of  provisions  for  a 
month  in  Silesia :  Eye  flour,  78  pounds ;  wheat  flour,  52  pounds ; 
beef,  2f  pounds ;  pork,  2f  pounds ;  bacon,  7^  pounds ;  butter,  3 
pounds;  potatoes,  3 J  bushels;  milk,  10  quarts;  total  value  of 
monthly  consumption  of  food,  $8.29. 

HOUSE-LABOR. 

In  one  of  the  leading  cities  in  Germany  (the  name  of  which  is 
withheld,  by  request  of  the  consul,  out  of  respect  for  the  two  trades- 
men from  whom  he  received  the  information)  a  shoemaker  and  his 
three  journeymen  were  found  at  work  in  one  corner  of  the  kitchen, 
while  the  wife  was  doing  the  washing  in  another  corner,  while  the 
daughter  was  cooking  the  dinner  of  sausage  and  potatoes  at  the 
stove.     A  carpenter  had  his  workbench  in  the  family  living-room; 

92  A— LAB 3 


34 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


tlio  wile  was  liliiio  a  saw  at  the  sauic  bench  wliere  the  luisbaiul  was 
plauiu.i;-,  and  in  the  arteii.oon  the  cousul  saw  her  sawing  wood  in 
the  door-yard.  These  cases,  the  (,'onsul  says,  represent  the  average 
home-life  and  manners  of  the  working  people  of  liis  district. 

II. — Factoeies,  mills,  etc. 

Average  wages  paid  per  week  of  06  to  78  hottrs  in  coitov.  mills  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Description  of  omploj'ment. 


Average 
wages. 


COTTON-WKAVEUB. 

Overseer I  $6  48 

Foreman j  5  94 

Dresser,  man 5  fe3 

Keeler,  woman '  3  30 

Wai-per,  woman j  3  51 

Weaver :  i 

Man 3  09 

Woman |  2  76 

Bobbin-winder,  child i  1  12 

COTTON-SPINNING.  | 

Foreman 6  60 

Overseer '  6  40 

'J'ender  of  steam-engine 6  25 

Packer  of  spindles 5  40 

Fireman 4  95 

"Watchman 4  95 

Greaser 4  70 

Conductor  of  self-acting  looms 4  50 

Sharpener  of  cards 4  45 

Heater 4  43 

Carder 3  90 

Tender  of  spindle  frames 3  39 

Driver 3  30 

Cleanser  of  cards j  3  30 

Laborer 2  65 

Shipper I  2  58 

Tier ^  2  46 

Draw- frame  tender,  girl 2  37 

Comber,  girl    I  2  34 

Tender  of  beaters 2  00 

Beater,  woman 1  98 

Tender  of  cords 1  95 

Bobbin- winder,  cliUd i ■ 


COTTON-PRINTING . 

Engraver 

Printer  on  rollers 

Color-mixer 

Printer  ou  wood 

Printer's  assistant 

Apprentice 

WOOI.EN-MILL. 

Wool  and  cloth  dyer,  overseer 

Second  hand  

Overlooker 

Common  hand 

■Wool-carder 

Second  baud  

Spinning  overseer 

Spinner 

Weaving  over.seer 

Second  baud 

"Weaver 

Shearer 

Dresser 

WOOL. 

EuKiueer , 

Fireman 

Laborer 

"Wool-sorting  overseer,  woman 

Sorter,  woman 

Wool-picker,  woman 

Tender,  child 

Miile-flxer,  cliild 

Rceler 


$6  90 
4  6» 
4  68 
4  08 
2  54 
2  00 


8  50 
3  50 

3  80 

2  34 
8  60 

4  00 
7  20 
4  60 
4  76 

3  80 

4  50 
3  30 
3  30 


5  30 
4  10 

3  00 

4  60 

2  80 

3  10 
2  00 
2  00 
1  90 


Averare  wages  per  week  of  66  to  72  Jiours  in  spinning  and  tveaving  mill  in  Lower  Silesia. 


Description  of  employment. 


Hacklers  

Foreman  carder. . . 

Spinners 

Keelers  (femiiles)  . 
Foremen  weavers. 

"Weavers 

Spinners  (females) 

Laborers 

Beelers 


1 

Average  ji 

wages. 

$2  28 

2  52 

2  52 

1  43 

:)  45 

1  55 

1  55 

1  43 

1  31 

Finishers'  assistants 

Warpers 

Dyers 

Finishers 

MangleT  8 

Dyers'  assistants 

Firemen 

Cleaners 


$1  79 
2  26 
2  38 
2  20 
2  48 
2  03 
2  50 
2  26 


Average  wages  paid  per  week 

9/66  homs  in  factory  and  mill  work  in  Barmen. 

Description  of  eraphiyment. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  75 
4  64 
4  75 
4  62 
4  17 

4  50 

5  71 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$1  96 

3  93 

4  64 

Dyers  of  silk  goods 

5  00 

1  57 

Dyer.s  of  Tnrlcey  red  and  piece  yarn 

Bleachers  of  cotton  yam  (72  honrs) 

7  50-8  00 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  35 

FAOTORY  AND   MILL   LIFE    IN   GERMANY. 

To  the  foregoiu^-  tables  showing  the  wages  paid  iu  the  cotton  and 
woolen  mills  in  Alsace-Lorraine  (where  the  wages  in  this  regard  rule 
the  highest  in  Germany),  Breslan  and  Baimen,  should  be  added  the 
wage-rate  prevailing  in  the  district  of  Crefeld.  Owing  to  the  fact,  how- 
ever, that  the  industry  in  this  district  is  carried  on  in  the  houses  of  the 
operatives,  no  extended  list  of  occupations  can  be  made,  one  repre- 
sentative artisan  standing  for  all,  as  far  as  comparative  purposes  are 
concerned. 

FACTORY   AND   MILL   LIFE   IN   BARMEN, 

The  mode  of  living  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  working  people  of  Bar- 
men and  vicinity  is  rather  irregular  and  unsettled  on  account  of  the  fre- 
quent stopi^ages  and  interruptions.  They  are  comparatively  regardless 
of  their  future,  and  not  disposed  to  save  any  of  their  earnings.  The 
male  laborers  consume  an  unusual  amount  of  their  wages  in  beer, 
brandy  and  tobacco.  The  constant  increase  of  drinking-saloons  and 
dancing-halls  has  an  evil  influence  on  labor. 

It  should,  however,  be  remarked  that  whenever  the  workingmen  are 
regularly  employed  the  old  German  characteristics — patience,  faithful- 
ness and  industry — resume  their  sway. 

FACTORY   AND   MILL   LIFE   IN   SILESIA. 

Nearly  all  large  factories,  iron  mills,  &c.,  have  connected  with  them 
institutions  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  their  work  people, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  invalid  funds  and  savings  banks, 
hospitals,  Sunday  schools,  libraries,  cheap  and  comfortable  dwellings, 
co-operative  stores,  loan  associations,  co-operative  kitchens,  and  free 
medical  attendance.  The  employers  generally  have  a  paternal  regard 
for  the  moral  and  material  welfare  of  their  work  people. 

FACTORY   AND   MILL   LIFE    IN   SAXONY. 

The  majority  of  employers  concern  themselves  but  little  about  the 
moral  or  physical  well-being  of  their  employes.  There  are,  however, 
employers  in  Saxony  who  spend  a  fair  percentage  of  their  net  earnings 
in  ameliorating  the  condition  of  their  work  people  by  building  well- 
ventihited  tenement  houses,  which  are  rented  so  as  to  realize  3i  per 
cent,  on  the  outlay.  In  these  exceptional  cases  there  is  an  air  of  con- 
tent, cleanliness  and  prosperity  about  the  homes  of  the  Vtorkers. 

III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Average  ivages paid  per  wceh  of  72  hours  in  iron-works  in  Upper  Silesia. 


Description  of  employment.        .      -^aees^ 


Forgemen  and  first  puddlers $ J  40 

Welders  and  hiiminerraeu 4  50 


Description  of  employment. 


Shearmen,  smiths,  and  firemen.. 
Unskilled  workmen  and  minors. 


Paddlers,  shearers,  and  engine  tenders-!  3  78      Laborers. 


Average 


$3  06 
2  40 
1  02 


36  LABOR    IX    EUROPE. 

Average  wages  paid  in  machine-ahopa  and  iron-icorka  in  Barmen,  per  week  of  63  hours. 


Descriplion  i)f  iuii)l()\ini'iit. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  eniploynu'iit. 

Average 
wages. 

$5  00 
4  17 
4  17 

4  28 
3  81 
3  45 
3  45 

Model  maters 

$5  00 
3  67 

6  07 

7  14 

Plaiicis                                

Clerks 

9  28 

7  14 

3  21 

Average  wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in 

jBremen. 


Description  of  employment. 


Master  foreman 

EuL'ineers 

JJofdeTS 

Toremau  boiler-makers 
Strikers 


Description  of  employment. 


Blacksmiths 

Turners 

Apprentices 
Laborers 


Average 
wages. 


$4  28 
4  28 
1  75 
3  33 


Iron-works  in  Brake,  Oldenburg. 


Description  of  employment. 


Master  foreman 

Drauglitsman 

Drauubtsman's  assistant 

Enfrinotr 

Strikers 

Forge  foreman 


Average 
wages. 


$8  00 
5  00 

4  25 

5  00 
4  25 
4  50 


Description  of  employment. 


Forge  foreman's  assistant 

Journeyman 

Apprentice 

Boiler-makers 

Formers 


Average 
wages. 


$4  00 
3  75 
1  50 
5  75 
5  00 


Average  wages  per  week  of  66  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-tvorks  in  Thuringia. 


Description  of  employment. 


Foundries: 

Casters 

^lolders 

Laborers 

MacbiDe-shops: 

Tinners  and  locksmiths 

Boiler.smiths 

Blacksmiths 

Welders 


Average 
wages. 


$3  40 


00 

2  25 

3  27 
3  15 
3  00 
2  96 


Description  of  employment. 


Machine-shops — Cont'd : 

Machine  bnildors 

Hosiery -loom  builders 

Joiucrs 

Engineers 

Firemen 

Laborei'S 

Apprentices 


Average 
wages. 


3  00 
3  30 

2  85 

3  70 
3  20 
2  20 
1  98 


IRON  AND   STEEL  WORKS  IN  RIIINELAND  AND  WESTPHALIA. 

The  69  iron  and  stfcl  works  of  the  above  districts  employ  64,769 
workmen.  Tiie  average  wages  paid  in  these  works  are  as  follows,  per 
week,  working  liours  not  given  : 


Number  of  employ68. 


1,319 

7,910 

4,041 

42,049  

5,265 

2,747 

1,438  

*  And  upwards. 


Average  rate 
of  wages  per 
week. 


$2  75  to  $3  20 


3  20 

3  6C 

4  12 

4  54 
6  03 

5  50* 


3  66 

4  12 

4  .'■>4 

5  03 
5  50 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


37 


A  fair  average  for  the  employes  in  the  tirst  four  classificatious,  viz, 
55,319  workmen,  would  give  each  an  earning  of  about  $4.13  per  week, 
wliicli  may  be  taken  as  the  general  wages  in  the  iron  and  steel  works  iii 
those  important  districts. 

WAGES  IN   THE  KRUPP  WORKS   AT  ESSEN. 

In  his  great  establishment  at  Essen,  Mr.  Krupp,  who  employs  in  his 
machine-shops  and  manufacturing  departments  about  10,000  men,  re- 
ports that  the  average  wages  paid  per  day  to  his  mechanics  was  81 
cents  in  1878,  and  84:  cents  in  1883.  But  the  cost  of  living  has  increased 
to  such  an  extent  that  no  gain  in  favor  of  the  workman  can  be  recoided. 

IV. — Glass-workers. 

Average  ivages  paid  per  iveek  o/65  hours  to  glass-workers  in  Oberkirchen,  near  Berlin. 


Description  of  employment. 


Blowers 
Sliearera 
Mixers.. 


Description  of  employment. 


Carriers 

Laborers 

Basket  makers 


wages. 


1  43 

2  14 

2  14 


Average  annual  wages  paid  glass-workers  in  Silesia. 
[Hours  of  labor  66  to  72  per  week.] 


Description  of  employment.                w'a"  es 

Description  of  employment. 

Annual 

wages. 

Plate-glass  makers $357 

Hollow-glass  makers 286 

Bottle  makers 286 

Pattern  makers  

'  Pot  makers 

$155 
219 

Pot  tenders 

108 

96 

Melters 275 

other  assistants 

« 

Glassmakers'  assistants 167 

Women  and  girls 

Average  wages  per  week  o/60  hours  paid  to  glass-tvorkers  in  Stuttgart  district. 


IN    ZUFFENHAUSEN. 

Glassmakers '  $5  36 

Cutters I  4  05 

Laborers I  2 


IN  BUHLEBACK. 


Glassmakers . 
Laborers 


$7  14 
2  86 


Average  wages  per  week  o/ 60  /tours  to  glass  and  porcelain  workers  in  Lanscha,  Steinach, 

Hdttenbach,  and  vicinity. 


Description  of  employment. 


GLASS-WORKERS. 

Grinders : 

Males 

Femnles    

Tubes  for  thermometers 

Marbles : 

Per  1,000,  plain 

Per  1,000,  figured 

Bead  makers 

Toy  makers 

Eye  makers ; 

For  dolls  and  animals. . . 

For  lininan  beings 


Average 
wages.    I 


$3  90 

1  80 
4  20 

2  39 
4  60 

2  50 

3  40 

3  00 
7  96 


Description  of  employment. 


51404 


Average 
wages. 


I'OKCELAIX-WORKERS. 

Modelers $8  00 

Decorators i  6  00 

Formers  and  turners: 

Males  [  4  55 

Females I  2  50 

Firemen |  4  00 

Packers !  3  25 

Laborers 2  90 


38 


LAHOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Averaijv  wages  per  iccek  to  tjlassnutkers  In  Berlin. 


Description  of  employment. 


Blowers 
Shearers 
Mixers  . 


Average 
wages. 


$5  41 

6  00 
3  57 


Description  of  employment. 


Carriers 

Laborers 

Basket  makers 


Average 
wages. 


$1  43 
2  14 
2  14 


Average  tcages  per  week  to  glassmakers  in  Bremen. 


Description  of  employment. 


Plate-glass  makers 

Hollow-glass  makers 

Bottle  makers 

Grinders 

Melters 

Glassmakers'  assistants 
Apprentices 


Average 
wages. 

$6  10 

5  70 

5  70 

7  20 

5  50 

3  30 

$1  00 

Description  of  employment. 


Pattern  makers 

Pot  makers  

Pot  tenders  

Clay  workers  and  packers 

Other  assistants 

Women  and  girls 


Average 
wages. 


3  10 

4  40 
2  20 
1  92 
1  72 


Average  wages  paid  per  week  to  porcelain  workers  in  Breslau. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$6  43 
4  16 
3  15 

2  28 

$1  31 

1  20 

1  05 

Kiluliouse  workers 

V. — Mines  and  mining. 

Average  wages  paid  per  ireek  of  6()  to  72  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  minea  in  Sil6sia. 


Description  of  employment. 

Gaffes  ^              Description  of  employment. 

'    l' 

Average 
wages. 

COAL  MINES.* 

Mine  laborers 

$2  07 
2  10 

1  10 
93 

2  50 
2  88 
2  88 
1  84 

97 

ZINC  AND   LEAD  MINES.J 

$2  40 
]  08 

Outside  laborers 

1  82 

1  92 

1  OR 

IKON  MlNES.t 

2  79 

1  08 

Miners 

1 

Engineers  and  smiths 

Laborers 

Women  and  minors 

*Nnmber  of  persons  employed  in  and  about  these  coal  mines,  49,393,  of  which  3,270  are  women,  and 
327  boys. 

t  Number  of  persons  employed  in  and  about  these  iron  mines,  4,614,  of  which  1,625  arc  females. 

JXnmber  of  peisous  employed  in  and  about  these  load  and  zinc  mines,  9,379,  of  which  2,305  are 
women,  and  620  are  boys  and  girls. 


LABOE    IN    EUROrE.  39 

Average  tvagea  paid  per  month  in  mines  and  mining  in  the  Barmen  district. 


Colliers : 

Under-ground* $30  35 

Smelt  works* '.  30  35 

Hewer: 

Firstclass* 24  99 

Second  class* 19  64 

FUlers* 16  07 

Day  laborers!  13  57 

Boyst 7  62 

Gas  and  water  fitterst 19  21 

Forement 25  71 


Carpenters! $19  20 

Locksmifbst 18  92 

Biacksinithst    18  92 

Tinsinitbst 19  20 

Coal  overseersj: 32  13 

Coal  overseers,  assistants! 19  64 

Wagoneist 28  90 

Women  (in  lead  and  silver  mincsf)   9  64 

IJookkeepers* 42  85 

Clerks* 32  13 


*  Eight  hours  per  day. 


t  Twelve  hours  per  day. 


t  Ten  hours  per  day. 


VI. — Kailway  employes. 

Average  wagen paid jn-r  week  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as 
those  engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  cf-c.)  m  Germany. 


Description  of  employment. 


Telegraph  operators 
Engineers 

Guards. 


Conductors  

Station  masters  . 

Brakemen 

Oilmen  , 


Freight  and  biiggage  master. 

Firemen 

Port 


t'ters 


Switchmen 

Signal  and  linemen . 

Car  shunters 

Track  laborers 


Bremen. '  Breslau. 


$5  50 
7  70 
5  00 
4  40 

10  00 


3  50 


30 


*G  GO 


5  70 


3  60 
2  40 
5  20 
5  20 


4  30 
4  30 
2  52 
2  52 


Kehl. 


$8  25 

4  61 

5  72 


4  40 


5  36 
4  81 
4  81 


3  46 


Average  wages  paid  per  annum  to  railway  employes  in  Barmen. 


Description  of   cmployiuent. 


Hours 
of  labor 

Iperday. 


Station  inspectors* 

Station  inspectors'  assistants*. . 

Track  inspectors*    

Track  inspectors'  assistants*  .. 

Cashiers 

Telegi'aph  operators 

Telegraph  operators'  a.ssistaut 

Clerks 

Superintendents  of   transporta- 
tion   V 

Superintendents  of   transporta- 
tion assistants 

Clerks 

Weiglimastors 

Train  leaders! 


Annual  i 
earnin;;8. 


$642  00 
416  00 
428  50 
285  GO 
535  50 
293  45 
196  35 
190  35 

642  50 

416  50 
321  00 
303  45 
303  45 


Description  of  employment. 


Annual 


Hours 
of  labor 
lperday.'e'*™i°S«- 


Engine  drivers! I  12 

Stokers!    i  12 

Conductor.st    [  12 

Brakement i  12 

Baggage  mosterst . .  ■  i  12 

Gang  masters !  12 

Car  recorders ;  12 

Sv;itchmeu 1  12 

Track  v/atchmen 12 

Porters 1  12 

Shunters I  12 

Station  laborers j  12 

Coal  heavers       1  12 

Night  watchmen 12 

Car  cleaners I  12 


$499  80 
232  05 
196  35 
178  50 
2'51  80 
237  90 
160  15 
226  10 
160  65 
196  35 
160  65 
160  65 
160  66 
ICO  65 
IGO  65 


*  Eent,  fuel,  and  light  free. 

t  In  addition  to  their  regular  wages,  train  leaders  and  engine  drivers  receive  at  the  end  of  each 
month  2J  cents  per  German  mile  made;  conductors  and  baggage  masters  2  cents,  and  stokers  and 
brakemen  1-J  cents. 


40 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Average  u'tchly  wages*  paid  in  railroad  shops  in  Barmen. 


Description  of  employment. 


Weekly 
wages! 


Foremen 

Machinists 

Locksmiths 

Turners 

Cabinet  makers  

Carpenters 

Wheelwrifrhts  

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Carvers  and  gilders 

Drillers       

Tinsmiths 

Saddlers  and  upholsterers 

Tailors 

Coppersmiths 


$7  00 


50 

30 

50 

55 

50 

50 

55 

00 

74 

50 

3  50 

3  50 

3  22 

3  29 


Description  of  employment. 


Weekly 
wages. 


Gas  and  water  fitters. 

Clerks 

Teudeis    

Tenders'  overseers  ... 

Planers  

Painters 

Varni.sliers 

TlaMinicr  drivers 

I  Stokers  (CO  hours) 

j  Engravers 

I  Riveters 

I  Mechanicians 

Machine- workers 

Griuder.s 

i  Steam-crane  drivers  .- 


$3  50 
4  99 

2  74 

3  50 

2  69 

3  50 

3  50 

4  04 

3  93 

4  05 

3  20 

4  05 
3  21 

3  29 

4  25 


*  Foremen  employed  60  hours ;  other  employ6s  63  hours. 

VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  ship-yards — distingnishiufj  letween  iron  and  wood  ship- 
building in  Germany. 


Description  of  employment. 


Iron-ship  building : 
Shipwrights  — 

Joiners 

Foremen 

Iron  finishers- . . 

Turners 

Planers 


Riveters 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Brass-litters 

Tinsmiths 

Caulkers 

Painters 

Pattern-makers. 
Laborers 


Riggers  

Tool-makers . 


"Wooden-ship  building: 

Shipwrights 

Foremen 

Carpenters 

Painters 

Joiners 

Mast  and  spar  makers . 

Plumbers 

Blacksmiths   

Riggers  

Sawyers 

Saw. mill  machine  men  . 
Laborers 


Repaiiing  docks: 

Fitters 

First  riveters 

Second  riveters 

Upholder 

Boys  

Shi|)-8miths 

Carpenters  and  joiners. 

Painters 

Engineers 

Sawyers  

Sail-makers 

Riggers 

Laborers 


3  97 
3  45 
3  45 

3  70 

4  44 

397 


5  40 
13  80 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 

6  90 

3  57 

4  28 

5  40 
5  40 

•  5  40 
3  57 


4  56 

5  40 
4  56 

3  92 
2  04 

4  50 

5  40 
4  20 

4  74 

5  40 
4  98 
4  98 
4  20 


3  45 
3  10 


2  92 
4  21 

3  35 


4  37 


4  37 

3  35 

4  02 


3  92 

4  21 
4  02 
3  44 
2  78 


LABOK    IN    EUROPE. 

VIII. — Seamen's  wages. 


41 


IVages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinfjuishinfj   between  ocean,  coast 
and  river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam— in  Germafiy. 


WAGES  PAID  PER  MONTH  IN  BREMEN. 


Ocean  steamships : 

Captains 

First  officers 

Second  officers 

Third  officers 

Carpeniers 

Cooks  

Seamen 

Chief  engineers 

Second  engineers  . . . 

Thii  d  engineers 

Assistant  engineers 
Firemen 

Ocean  sailing-ships: 

Captains 

Mates 

Second  mates 

Carpenters 

Cooks 


$40  00 
29  75 
19  00 
15  50 
19  00 
19  00 

11  30 
52  50 
35  75 
35  75 
17  00 

12  50 


29  75 
26  18 
16  40 
20  15 
20  00 


Ocean  sailing  ships — Continued: 

Boatswains 

Stewards 

Sailniakers 

Seamen 

Coast  steamers : 

Captains 

Mates 

Seamen 

Engineers 

Firemen 

Eiver  steamers: 

Captains 

Carpenters 

Deck-hands 

Engineers 

Firemen 


^0  66 

10  00 

14  75 

11  90 

29  75 

23  30 

n  87 

30  23 

12  75 

17  85 

12  85 

10  71 

16  40 

12  85 

SEAMEN'S  MONTHLY  WAGES  IN  STETTHf. 


Description  of  vessel. 

Mates. 

Sailors. 

$21  42 

•  26  18 

19  63 

$11  42 
10  00 

14  87 

9  04 

15  47 
19  63 

13  56 

Coasting  vessels,  steam 

13  56 

IX. — Shop  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  month  in  banks,  stores,  ivholesale  or  retail,  <fc.,  to  males  and  females,  in 

Germany. 


Description  of  employment. 

Stras- 
burg. 

Bremen. 

Stutt- 
gart. 

Barmen. 

Sonne- 
berg. 

St«ttm. 

BANKS. 

Cashiers 

$84  40 
58  30 
42  45 

29  50 

49  00 
38  90 
54  30 
33  08 

30  20 
27  75 
22  25 

Accountants 

Secretaries 

Clerks 

DRY  GOODS  STORES. 

(From  7  a.  m.  to  10  p.  m.) 

$35  40 
35  40 

Bookkeepers,  men 

$47  70 
29  75 

$35  70 

$37  50 

$20  00 

'  $2i'75" 

Cashiers,  women  .  

*4  80 
*7  14 

Bookkeepers,  women 

19  75 

29  80 

23  80 

2  50 

29  75 
23  80 

3  50 

17  85 

26  80 
15  90 

10  10 

7  50 

20  80 
10  04 

*8  56 

Saleswomen,  with  board 

Porters,  janitors,  &c 

15  90 

14  28 

7  12 

FASOY   STORES. 

Salesmen 

22  90 
11  70 

Saleswomen 

21  80 
7  25 

Girl  apprentices 

These  are  probably  with  board  included,  although  not  so  designated  la  the  consul's  report. 


42  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Millinery  and  dressmaking  ivage^  ]}er  week  in  a  jirst-dass  BresJau  establishment. 


Deacription  of  employment. 

Average 
Adages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$11  00 
4  60 
1  40 

$2  84 

Seamstresses 

Porters  and  messengers 

1  25 

2  98 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities. 

Wages  paid  per  month  1o  household  servants  (toinis  and  cities)  in  Germany. 


Description  of  employment. 


8ILEBIA.* 

General  servants 

Cooks 

Nurse  girls    

General  servants  in  small  to'WTis 
and  villages 

STETTIN. 

CooVs,  females 

Kitchen  servants 

Housemaids t 

Nursemaids 

Housekeepers 

Waiters 

Footmen 

80NNEBEKG. 

Housekeepers ». 

Cooks 

(ieneral  servants 

Coachmen  and  gardeners  (without 
board 

BARMEN. 

Cooks,  male  

Cooks,  female 

C^lianibermaids 

IIouHekeepors 

General  female  servants 

(Joaehmen 

Gardeners 

Laundresses 

Porters 

Ironing  women 

BTUTTRAUT. 

Men  servantst 

Coachmenf 


wages. 


$2  14  to  $3  66 
3  57  to  4  42 
1  43  to    2  14 

1  43  to    2  14 


3  57 

1  78 

2  20 
1  49 

4  46 

5  36 
7  17 


Description  of  employment. 


4  13 

2  50 

1  67 

8  00 

19  33 

7  93 

4  16 

5  95 

3  27 

7  14 

8  26 

5  35 

6  28 

5  42 

12  90 

9  00 

STUTTGAKT — continued. 

Gardeners! 

Cooks,  malet 

Cooks,  female,  in  hotels 

Cooks,  female,  in  families  . 

Housekeepers 

Chambermaids 

Nursemaids 

Waitinguiaids 

Housemaids 

Waiteis  t 

Waitresses 

BRF.MKX. 

Head  butler 

Head  butler,  second 

Coachmen,  first 

Coachmen,  second 

Cook,  first 

Cook,  second 

Stableman 

Stableboy 

Servant 

Gardener 

Gardener,  assistant 

Housekeeper,  female 

Cook,  female 

Governess 

Chambermaid 

Washmaid 

Servant  girl 

ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

Servant  girls 

Nur.semaids 

Chambermaids 

Cooks  

Laundresses^ 

IroncrsJ  

ManglersJ 


Average 

wages. 


$7  85 
23  80 
6  00 
8  00 
6  00 
3  57 
6  00 
6  00 
2  80 
11  73 
2  98 


28  90 

12  50 

6  90 
5  00 

28  90 

13  86 

4  95 

1  90 

2  98 
13  88 

5  87 

7  93 
4  96 

6  04 
4  06 
1  98 
1  98 


3  96 
5  45 
3  59 
8  00 
0  42 
0  38 
0  42 


*The  custom  is  almost  universal  in  Silesia  of  giving  bouse  servants  at  New  Tear  gifts  in  presents 
or  money  equal  to  at  le.Tst  one  quarter's  wages.  Tiie  same  cu.stom  is  observed  toward  the  saleswomen 
in  many  of  the  retail  stoios. 

t  These  must  be  without  board,  although  not  so  designated  in  the  consul's  report. 

J  Without  board  ])er  day. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

XI. — Agricultural  wages. 

fl'(ii/es  paid  to  agrieuUural  laborers  and  household  {country)  servants  in  Germany. 


43 


Description  of  employment. 


AI.SACE-I.ORUAmE. 

Farm  labonis  ' per  year. . 

Seivaut  girl.s  ' do. ... 

Laborers'  perday.. 

Laborers  (during  harvest)'' do 

L;iborer,s  (during  harvest)^ do 

JSAXONV. 

Male  laboreis  '    per  year . . 

Female  laborers  • do 

Male  laborers : 

lu  summer per  day.. 

lu  winter do 

Female  laborers: 

In  summer do 

In  winter do 

GRAND  UUCHV  OF  OLUENBUKG. 

First  stableman  ^ per  year. . 

Second  stableman  ^ do  . . 

Stableboy-^ do.... 

First  female  servant  ^ do, . . . 

First  dairymaid  - do 

Second  dairymaid'^ do 

Second  female  servant  '^ do  . . 

Plowman'' per  day.. 

Laborers  ^ per  year . . 

Laborers  '^ do 

Laboiers  ' per  day . . 

Harvesters  - do. . . . 

Harvesters ' do  . . . 

STl   rTGAKT  DISTUICT. 

stable  hands  '-' per  year. . 

Day  laborers,  male* per  weok.. 

Day  laborers,  females^ do 

Dairymen  - do  . 

Dairymaids  '^ per  year. . 


Average 

■wage8. 

$67  30 

30  00 

40 

50 

80 

44  26 

22  84 

40 

28 

20 

12 

100  00 

50  GO 

17  70 

35  40  1 

35  40 

18  75 

12  00 

65 

31  25 

54  75 

50 

80 

55 

57  12 

1  90 

!    1  43 

1  90 

30  94 

Average 
wages. 


BARMEN  DISTRICT. 

Shepherds  ' per  year . .  $89  85 

Gardeners' do 76  16 

Coachmen' do 76  16 

Cook.t,  female  ' do 46  42 

Chambermaids  ' do 32  13 

Servant  girls' do 24  99 

Farm  hand.s,  male  ' do 49  98 

Farm  hands,  female' do 29  75 

Day  laborers' do 60  81 

Carpenters' do 76  16 

Blacksmiths' do....  76  16 

THURINGIA. 

Housekeepers* peryear..  37  00 

Cooks' do....  25  00 

Servants  8 do 14  00 

Laborers,  male  (summer)  ^ per  day. .  I  20 

Laborers,  female  (summer)' do 14 

CREFEI.D  DISTRICT. 

First  laborer '» per  week. .  1  66 

Second  laborer'" do 1  19 

Thiid  laborer '» do 95 

Fii  st  stableman  "» do 1  66 

Second  stableman'" do 1  38 

Third  stableman '» do  . .  95 

Housekeeper'" do 1  55 

Herder  (in  charge  of  cattle '")  . .  .do 1  90 

First  maid  servant '" do 96 

Maid  of  all  work '" do. . . .  1  19 

Transient  laborer,  male" do 3  14 

femtile" do....  2  32 

male  12 do 4  43 

female'2 do....  3  32 

SILESIA. 

Male  laborers' per  week..;  1  45 

Female  laborers  1 do 1  07 


'  With  board  and  lodging. 
-Witbbonrd. 
■■'Without  board. 

*  With  Ibod. 

*  With  food,  and  rent  free. 
"With  loo:),  without  rent  free. 
'  Without  board  and  lodging. 

*  With  i.'.o\  and  lodging. 
''With  two  meals. 

'"Per  week  of  84  hours  in  winter  and  87  hours  in  summer,  with  board  and  lodging. 
"  Boa'd  without  lodging. 
'■^  Without  board  or  lodging. 


AGRIOULTURAL   LAEOR   in   the   BERLIN   DISTRICT. 

The  i)nin''ei'  of  persons  cujployeil  in  np^icultaral  labor  in  the  consular 
district  of  Berlin  is  estimated  sit  450,000,  and  it  can  be  safely  said  that 
fnlly  one  half  if  not  two  thirds  thereof  are  women.  The  able-bodied 
men,  when  not  in  the  arniy,  jicnerally  seek  more  remunerative  employ- 
ment tlnui  agrienltuial  IuImh-.  The  eonmion  fnrni -laborers  receive  from 
20  to  .'>.')  cents  per  (hiy. 

SILE8IAN    I' ARM-LABORERS. 

Every  spring,  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  begiuuiug  of  May,  large 
numbers  of  w(mien  and  girls,  recognizable  by  their  field-lalmr  costumes, 


44  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

pass  daily  through  the  streets  of  Breslau  ou  their  way  to  Saxouy,  where 
they  obtain  euii)loyinent  in  the  sugar-beet  flekls.  At  the  eud  of  six  or 
seven  months,  when  the  hist  beet  has  been  (Uig  and  lioused,  they  re- 
turn to  their  homes  with  tlieir  earnings,  most  of  which  tliey  have  saved, 
their  food,  when  not  furnished  by  their  employers,  costing  very  little. 
The}'  earn  during  their  absence  on  an  average  35  cents  per  day.  They 
get,  in  addition  to  their  pay,  passage  in  fourth-class  cars,  their  tramp 
through  Breslau  being  only  from  one  station  to  another.  From  the 
neighborhood  of  Wartenberg,  Middle  Silesia,  1,200  female  field  workers 
have  this  year  gone  to  Saxony.  An  Upper  Sih^sian  newspaper,  in  view 
of  this  yearly  increiising  migration,  urges  Silesian  land-owners  to  give 
their  work  i)eoiile  better  pay,  and  to  see  that  they  are  better  fed  with 
nutritious  food,  instead  of  the  present  meager  fare,  "  which  in  most  cases 
is  supplemented  with  diluted  alcohol."  "The  10  to  12  cents  per  day 
that  our  field- women  get,"  continues  the  editor,  "is  all  that  their 
work  is  worth,  and  a  change  for  the  better  cannot  be  expected  until  the 
employer  ofiers  better  wages  and  better  treatment." 

AGRICULTURAL  DAY  LABORERS   OF   SAXONY. 

The  day  laborers  are  not  bound  by  contract.  Either  master  or  laborer 
can  terminate  the  employment  at  any  time.  The  day  laborers  mostly 
live  in  villages,  and  are  often  owners  of  the  houses  they  inhabit,  and 
sometimes  possess  small  pieces  of  land.  In  such  cases  they  are  called 
cottagers,  and  are  generally  thrifty  and  intelligent.  The  wives  and 
children  till  the  small  j^ieces  of  land,  while  the  husbands  work  for  large 
landed  i^roprietors  in  the  neighborhood.  These  male  laborers  earn  40 
cents  per  day  in  summer  and  28  cents  in  winter.  Female  day  laborers 
earn  20  cents  per  day  in  summer  and  12  cents  in  winter.  The  agricul- 
tural emigrants  to  the  United  States  are  mostly  of  this  class. 

AGRICULTURAL   LABOR  IN  WURTEMBERG. 

There  are  no  large  farms  in  the  Kingdom  of  AVurtemberg ;  the  owner 
of  each  piece  of  land  tills  it  in  person.  Farm  hands  are  practically 
unknown.  The  land-owner  and  his  wife  i)low,  sow  and  gather  side  by 
side  in  the  field,  or  together  trim  their  vines  and  garner  their  grapes, 
content  if  the  close  of  the  harvest  finds  their  laud  unmortgaged  and 
themselves  in  health  and  out  of  debt.  The  question  of  wages,  so  far  as 
such  a  population  goes,  is  simply  a  question  of  the  crops. 

AGRICULTURAL   LABOR  IN   THE  DANTZIC  DISTRICT. 

Farm  servants  (cottagers)  are  engaged  by  the  half  year  or  year ;  they 
have  a  cottage  with  a  room-closet  and  fire-hearth,  besides  a  piece  of  land 
for  potatoes  and  other  vegetables.  They  receive  O.i  cents  per  day  in  winter 
and  lOf  cents  in  summer.  The  cottager  has  to  provide  for  a  laborer  dur- 
ing harvest  time,  and  his  wife  is  obliged  to  work  during  a  part  of  the 
afternoon.  His  children  may  assist,  lor  which  extra  pay  is  given.  The 
day  laborer  he  employs  receives  10^  cents  per  day  and  foodj  he  sleex)S 
in  the  stable  or  barn. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE. 

XTV. — Trades  and  labor — government  employ. 


45 


Wages  paid  hy  Ihe  week  ofsixl)/  /*o(,/-.s  lo  Ike  tvaden  and  Ial>orer.s  in  the  jiiiniiiig  office  of  the 

German  Empire. 


Description  of  employment. 


Bookbinders - 

Tvpe-foimilers 

Setters 

Copperplate  printers 

Joiuers 

Lithographers 


Average 
wages. 


$5  30 
6  85 
6  75 
6  28 
5  71 
C  02 


Day  laborers 

Dny  laborers,  minors 

Women 

Photographers 

Engravers 

Apprentices 


Average 
wages. 


$3  69 

1  71 

2  35 
7  59 
6  87 
2  57 


XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 


Statement  shoiving  ihe  wages  paid  per  iceek  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen,  proof-readers, 

4'C.)  in  Germany. 


Description  of  employment. 

Stnttgart. 

Bremen, 

1 

p 
a 
o 
m 

6 
'5 

1 
P 

1 
O 

1 

II 

to  <0 

Editors 

$6  71 

$6  71 

$12  30 
7  14 
7  14 
7  14 
2  58 
4  62 
4  62 

$8  50 
5  DO 
5  00 
5  00 

2  00 

3  81 

$8  84 
4  64 
6  78 
3  94 

"'$5'72' 
"'5'72' 

9  77 

3  96 
5  23 

$5  47 
6  55 
5  59 

$3  50 
4  75 

2  75 

5  09 

I'root-readers 

Press  foremen 

5  91 
5  02 

Male  and  female  hands .'-  - 

2  29 

Porters 



3  57 

3  00 
3  00 
6  78 

""s'si" 

3  75 

Firemen 

3  81 

Eiinineers 

6  00 
6  00 
6  00 

6  39 

Wood-engravers 

4  76 

Stereotypera 

6  00 

1 

EIVGLAIVD. 

In  the  character  of  its  mauufactures  and  in  the  temper  of  its  laborers, 
England  approaches  nearer  to  the  United  States  than  perhaps  any  other 
country,  and  its  labor  conditions,  therefore,  come  into  more  direct  com- 
petition with  ours,  than  those  of  any  other  country,  although  Germany 
and  France,  in  these  regards,  press  closely  in  the  wake  of  England. 

The  diffusiveness  of  the  British  reports  necessarily  entailed  more  diffi- 
culties in  the  matter  of  reducing  them  to  a  comprehensive  illustration 
of  representative  features  than  was  the  case  with  the  German  reports, 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  following  review  presents  a  faithful  picture  of 
the  principal  phases  and  conditions  of  labor  in  England. 

Cousul-General  Merritt,  in  his  valuable  report,  gives  the  following 
from  the  census  of  1881  as  the  occupations  of  the  people  of  England : 


Occupation. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Professional  class 

Domestic  class 

Coninierclal  class 

Agricultural  class 

Industrial  class 

Indetinite  and  non-productive 

Totals 


450,  955 

258,  508 

960,  661 

1,318,344 

4,  795, 178 

4,  856,  256 


196, 120 

1,  545,  202 

19, 467 

64,  840 

1,  578, 189 

9,  930,  619 


12,  639,  902 


647,  075 
1,  803,  810 

980, 128 

1,  383, 184 

6,  373,  367 

14,  786,  875 


13,334,537       25,974,439 


4()  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

The  loll',  twin  J;-  siilxli  vision  of  the  industrial  cliisses  of  Enghind  is  of 
interet.t  : 

statement  shoirimj  the  number  of  pemons  icorkinc/  and  dealing  in  the  following  articles: 

Books,  prints,  and  maps 105, 042 

Macbiues  aiul  implements 2(57, 97(5 

Houses,  fnruituro,  and  decorations 78G,  G60 

Carria<i;es  and  harness 87, 174 

Ships  and  lioats 54,080 

Chemicals  and  compounds 43,  015 

Tobacco  and  pipes - 22, 175 

Board  and  lodging  . . 115, 655 

Spirituous  drinks 05,  052 

Food 448,664 

Textile  fabrics  (1,453,648) : 

Wool  and  worsted 233,256 

Silk 63,577 

Cotton  and  liax 584, 470 

Unspecilied 170, 345 

D re ss 981,105 

Animal  substances 68, 202 

Vegetable  substances 166, 745 

Mineral  substances  (1,277,592) : 

Miners ^ 441,272 

Stone,  clay,  and  road  making 193, 033 

Earthen  and  glass  ware 74, 407 

Iron  and  steel 361,343 

General  and  nnspecified  commodities 816, 243 

Refuse  matters 14,339 

Before  proceeding  to  a  review  of  the  reports  by  consulates,  it  should 
be  stated  that,  excej.'t  wliere  otherwise  noted,  the  wages  are  based  on  full 
time,  and  that  the  net  earnings,  even  under  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions, run  at  least  20  per  cent,  below  the  figures  given,  so  that,  as  Con- 
sul-General  Merritt  remarks,  the  official  figures  give  more  flattering 
returns  than  the  realit3^  Again,  there  are  trades  which  from  their 
nature  can  only  be  pursued  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year;  but  as  con- 
ditions like  these  prevail  in  almost  every  country,  the  results  are  more 
or  less  applicable  to  all.  The  only  condition,  therefore,  which  must  be 
specially  borne  in  mind  is  that  the  wage  rates  are  based  ouftdl  not  real 
time;  and,  as  the  British  workman  prefers  to  run  on  short  time,  say  four 
days  per  week,  and  preserve  his  daily  pay-rate,  rather  than  run  on  full 
time  and  submit  to  a  small  i^ay  reduction,  this  phase  of  English  labor 
is  worth  considering. 


BIRMINGHAM. 

Consul  King  reports  that  living  is  slightly  cheaper  and  wages  slightly 
higher  in  Birmingham  than  in  1878,  when  the  last  report  on  the  labor 
conditions  of  his  district  was  forwarded  to  the  Department.  The  gen- 
eral result,  however,  siiows  an  average  decrease  in  wages  throughout 
England  since  1878.  i^otwithstanding  these  seemingly  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  consul  says  that  the  number  of  unemployed  is  greater  now 
than  then,  and  the  actual  distress  which  exists  is  almost  alarming  in  its 
extent.  The  labor  unions  keej)  uji  the  wages,  but  they  cannot  find  work 
for  the  constantly  increasing  number  of  idle  hands. 

Speaking  of  local  distress,  he  refers  to  the  hand-made  nail  region, 
where  acute  sufiering  exists.  Many  workmen  are  idle,  while  those  who 
are  employed  can  earn  but  little.    This  once  prosperous  trade  is  now 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  47 

Niiperseded  by  macliiiiery,  aud  the  consul  isees  no  esciiiie  ior  tlic  iicoplc 
of  the  district  but  by  aided  eniigratiou.  All  evidence  is  faAOiahlc  to  1  lie 
luoral  and  physical  character  of  these  people.  They  are  sober,  inchis- 
trious  and  intelligent.  The  women  are  specially-  rei)resentative  of  the 
very  highest  order  of  English  workingwoiuen. 

The  working  people  of  Birmingham  and  vicinity  are  regarded  by  the 
consul  as  thrifty.  Crimes  arising-  from  drunkenness  show  a  very  satis- 
factory decrease,  which  is  attributed  principally  to  the  spread  of  educa- 
tion and  the  establishment  of  reading-rooms  and  coffee  houses  for  the 
people.  With  the  exception  of  the  nail- making  districts,  where  strikes 
appear  to  be  chronic,  arbitration  is  generally  resorted  to  in  disputes 
between  workmen  and  employers.  On  the  whole,  the  feeling  between 
the  employers  and  the  employed  is  more  kindly  than  of  old,  and  this  is 
mainly  brought  about  by  the  interest  which  the  former  have  recently 
taken  in  the  social  welfare  of  their  workmen. 

The  emploj^es  are  generally  paid  weekly  in  sterling  money,  and  are 
free  to  purchase  their  necessary  supplies  wherever  they  choose. 

The  general  conditiou  of  the  working  people  of  Birmingham  who 
are  steadily  employed  is  rated  by  the  consul  as  good.  Great  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  the  construction  of  artisans'  dwellings,  and  the 
portion  of  the  report  treating  thereof  is  highly  interesting. 

The  interviews  with  re])resentative  workiugmen,  as  given  by  Mr.  King, 
show  at  once  the  wages  earned  and  the  manner  of  living. 

A  BRUSHMAKER. 

Is  45  years  old;  has  a  wife  and  four  children,  the  eldest  21  and 
the  youngest  12;  a  good  workman,  having  steady  employment; 
can  earn  from  $7.20  to  $8.40  per  week  of  60  hours ;  could  not  sup 
port  his  family  without  the  aid  of  his  wife;  his  children  also  work; 
the  total  income  from  all  their  labor — husband,  wife,  and  children — 
is  estimated  at  $583  per  annum.  Outlay  per  year :  Eent  of  house, 
three  rooms,  $44,22;  clothing  for  family,  $97.20;  lood,  $328.53; 
school-tax  for  one  child,  $3.15  ;  trades-union,  $20.40  ;  doctor's  bill, 
$24.30;  total,  $517.80.  Breakfast,  bread  and  tea  and  butt  r  or 
bread  and  bacon;  dinner,  fish  or  meat,  vegetables  and  beer,  tea, 
bread  and  butter;  supper,  bread  and  cheese  and  beer.  Saves  no 
money;  falls  back  on  his  club  or  trades-union  in  emergencies. 

A  FEMALE    TACKMAKER. 

A  woman  making  tacks  at  St.  Quintain  said :  "I  get  paid  by  the 
thousand;  the  card  price  is  17  cents  per  thousiind,  but  I  am  glad  to 
take  the  work  at  14|  cenjs,  it  is  so  hard  to  get.  I  work  four  days 
per  week  and  make  $1.10.  My  husband  isa  gardener  at  the  col- 
lege hard  by,  and  earns  17  shillings  per  Aveek,  but  works  very  long- 
hours  ;  our  total  income  is  $275.80  per  year.  Mostly  all  the  forges  in 
St.  Quintain  are  closed,  and  women  nailmakers  go  to  Birmingham  to 
do  scrubbing  or  other  work,  walking  4  miles  to  and  4  from  the  work. 
Has  a  brother  a  nailmaker ;  himself  and  his  wife  both  work  at  the 
trade,  and  earn  about  14  shillings  per  week,  or  $171.88  per  annum; 
after  paying  rent  and  fuel  for  tlie  forge  they  have  $2.43  per  week 
for  food  and  fuel ;  their  food  consists  of  what  they  call  broad  and 
butter,  but  I  call  it  'bread  and  scnqie,'  with  a  bit  of  bacon  at 
times;  they  hardly  ever  see  fresh  meat;  1  do  not  think  the  children 
get  enough  to  eat.  I  never  knew  so  mnch  sufiering  among  the 
people,  many  of  them  are  starving." 


48  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

The  forojioiii^  illustrations  may  be  said  to  represent  the  best  and 
worst  conditions  of  labor  in  Eirniin,i;liain  so  far  as  living-  is  concerned. 

Mr.  Kin<2:  bears  lii.^li  testimony  to  tlie  j)nblic  spirit  of  the  i>eot)le  of 
Lirmin.nliam  in  all  matters  aliecting-  the  i)rotection  antl  ^vell-beiug  of 
tbe  workiu<j;-  classes.  Were  it  not  for  tbis  admirable  feeling  much  more 
suffering  could  be  recorded. 

Practically,  the  consul  says,  all  tbe  workingmeu  have  votes  and  are 
a  power  in  politics. 

In  regard  to  emigration  and  its  causes,  tbe  following  illustration  by 
tbe  consul  not  only  applies  to  Birmingham  but  iji  a  large  degree  to  all 
England : 

I  once  knew  a  sawmaker  Avbo  emigrated  to.  tbe  United  States, 
and  after  twelve  years  returned  to  England.  In  another  year  they 
were  about  re-emigrating  to  tbe  United  States,  and  tbe  man  came 
to  me  for  advice.  In  reply  to  my  question  as  to  tbe  cause  of  bis 
return  to  England  be  said,  "  Well,  my  wife  tbougbt  there  was  no 
place  like  England  until  sbe  returned,  but  now  she  does  not  like  it. 
She  finds  tbe  old  ways  and  old  friends  are  not  so  good  as  sbe  ex- 
pected tbem  to  be.  The  food  is  not  so  varied  or  so  plentiful,  and 
she  wants  to  go  back  to  tbe  United  States.  As  for  myself,  I  always 
liked  Indiana  better  than  England.  I  get  higher  wages  there.  To 
be  sure  clotbing  and  rent  are  cbeaper  in  England,  and  food  almost 
the  same,  only  we  do  not  bave  so  mucb  in  England.  In  tbe  United 
States  we  bave  mucb  more  varied  food  and  more  luxuries,  and  after 
twelve  years  I  owned  tbe  house  in  wbicb  I  lived.  Here  in  England 
I  could  not  bave  saved  a  penny." 


BRADFORD. 

Tbe  tabulated  statements  in  tbe  consul's  report  are  very  full  and  ex- 
plicit, but  be  simply  refers  to  tbe  habits  of  the  working  people  in  a  gen- 
eral manner,  and  gives  no  illustrations  as  to  the  manner  in  whicb  they 
live,  their  moral  and  physical  conditions,  and  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween employers  and  employes,  female  labor,  and  its  effect  on  the  physi- 
cal and  moral  conditions  of  tbe  operatives  and  their  children,  &c. 

There  is  scarcely  a  mart  in  tbe  world  where  tbe  produ(;ts  of  tbe  Brad- 
ford looms  do  not  fill  a  leading  i)lace;  the  exports  to  the  United  States 
alone  amount  to  over  $10,000,000  i)er  annum,  and  come  into  direct  com- 
l)etition  with  the  ])rodu(;t  of  our  mills. 

In  regard  to  labor  in  Bradtbrd,  tbe  consul  says  that  a  perusal  of  ofli- 
cial  statements  leads  him  to  report  the  condition  of  the  working  classes 
as  highly  ])rosperous,  the  wages  received  by  tbe  average  family  being 
more  than  sui'licient  for  its  wants  and  necessary  recreation. 

Were  thrifty  and  economical  habits  as  inherent  in  the  English  char- 
acter as  in  the  French  and  (Jermaii,  adds  tbe  consul,  sufficient  money, 
might  easily  be  saved  by  the  working  classes  to  tide  (hem  safely  over 
periodical  trade  depressions,  which  under  existing  conditions  weigh  so 
heavily  u])on  tbem. 

Consul  (Jrinnell  transmits  two  very  interesting  communications  from 
]>radford  manufacturers  on  tbe  changes  which  have  taken  ])lace  in  the 
labor  conditions  of  the  district  since  1878.  While  these  communica- 
tions lean  somewhat  toward  tbe  side  of  the  emi)loyers  as  against  the 
recent  labor  legislation  and  usages,  they  are  written  honestly,  evince  a 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  49 

generous  spirit,  and  contain  raueli  valuable  informaton.  An  extract 
from  one  of  these  communications  shows  in  a  graphic  manner  the  inde- 
pendent sj)iritof  the  workingmeu  of  Bradford: 

"Politically,"  writes  this  employer,  "Jack  is  as  good  as  his  mas- 
ter, and  while  I  am  pretty  sure  that  none  of  my  workingmeu,  being 
Eadicals,  would  vote  on  my  side,  being  a  Conservative,  on  the 
other  hand,  I  am  equally  certain  that  if  1  had  a  Conservative  voter 
in  my  employment  he  would  A^ote  against  me  if  I  were  a  Liberal, 
and  I  should  consider  him  worthless  if  he  didn't." 

Tlie  wages  paid  to  the  general  trades  of  Bradford  will  be  found  in 
the  resume  for  England. 


BRISTOL. 

Consul  Lathrop,  in  his  admirable  report,  says  that  no  material  change 
has  taken  place  in  the  labor  conditions  of  Bristol  during  the  last  ten 
years.  There  have  been  no  strikes,  no  panics,  no  crises,  no  great  dif- 
ficulties, though  of  late  there  have  been  stagnation  and  slack  work.  It 
can  be  said,  however,  adds  the  consul,  that  compared  with  ten  years 
ago  the  laborer  of  to-day  knows  more,  has  more,  and  drinks  less. 

It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  their  wages  have  increased  during 
that  time.  Their  having  more  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wages  of  to- 
day, owing  to  the  cheapness  of  food  imported  from  the  United  States, 
can  purchase  more  and  more  varied  supi)lies  tlian  ten  years  ago. 

In  addition  to  better  food  supplies,  the  proposal  to  give  the  work- 
ing classes  of  Bristol  a  share  in  the  general  profits  of  the  industries 
in  which  they  are  employed  is  now  widely  agitated.  TJie  plan  which, 
according  to  Consul  Lathrop,  seems  to  be  well  matured,  is,  in  addi- 
tion to  regular  wage  rates,  to  give  at  the  end  of  each  bu'^iness  year 
to  the  emi)loyes  a  ])ercentage  of  the  profits  realized.  While  thus 
sharing  in  the  profits  they  are  to  be  exempt  from  any  share  in  the 
losses.  This  system,  which  has  been  in  successful  operation  in  many 
large  industries  in  France,  as  well  as  in  the  cotton-manufacturing  district 
of  Oldham,  will,  it  is  hoped,  create  a  bond  of  unity  and  mutual  benefit 
between  the  employes  and  employers  which  will  add  vigor  and  power 
to  British  industrial  commerce.  Mr.  Lathroj),  however,  fears  that  the 
temper  and  improvidence  of  the  British  workman  will  not  permit  this 
system  tx)  become  a  success  in  England. 

The  apprenticeship  system  of  England  occupies  a  large  place  in 
Mr.  Lathrop's  report.  It  seems  quite  ine-xplicable  to  Americans,  who 
are  not  shackled  by  traditions  or  "ancient  usage,"  and  it  shows  the 
influence  of  habit  upon  even  so  advanced  and  practical  a  people  as  the 
English,  that  a  girl  must  pay  a  premium  of  about  $200  to  a  shopkeeper 
for  the  i)rivilege  of  learning  to  be  a  saleswoman  in  a  dry-goods  shop, 
the  girl  receiving  no  wages  for  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  her  ap- 
prenticeship. And  yet  this  is  a  universal  rule  for  men  and  women  in 
shop-life  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  demand  for  these  places  is  such 
that  a  leading  employer  of  Bristol  assured  the  consul  that  he  could  run 
both  his  wholesale  and  retail  shops  with  such  apprentices  altogether, 
who  would  each  pay  him  $200  for  the  privilege  of  working  five  years. 
92  A— LAB 4 


50  LABOR  IN  EUROPE. 

FACTORY  LABOR  IN  THE  WEST  OF  ENGLAND. 

("onsul  Latlirop  selects  Trowbridge,  a  factory  town  of  12,000  inhabit- 
ants in  liis  district,  as  a  place  which  shows  factory  lite  in  England  in 
its  most  favorable  light.  It  is  entirely  a  manufacturing  town,  in  the 
middle  of  a  fertile,  agricultural  country.  It  has  given  many  operatives 
to  American  mills,  and  in  all  its  labor  conditions  may  be  considered  rep- 
resentative of  tbe  best  phases  of  English  factory  life. 

The  average  wages  of  the  men  in  the  Trowbridge  woolen  factories  are 
estimated  at  85,44  per  week.  The  average  wages  paid  to  418  women 
in  one  leading  factory  are  given  as  $2.CG  per  week,  and  in  another  at 
$3.02  per  week.  These  wages,  adds  the  consul,  would  not  support  life 
unaided;  but,  generally,  these  women  are  the  wives  or  daughters  of  the 
male  operatives;  neither  could  the  male  wages  alone  sustain  the  aver- 
age English  families,  and  so  the  children  in  their  turn  contribute  to  the 
general  i'und  by  also  working  in  the  factories.  Boys  and  girls,  when 
emi)loyed,  earn  from  $2.25  to  $2.40  per  week.  Thus,  to  enable  a  Trow- 
bridge family  to  live,  every  member — husbnnd,  wife,  and  children — 
works  in  the  mills.  It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  the  conditions  which 
surround  labor  in  this  reinesentative  factory  town  are  not  much  differ- 
ent from  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  similar  towns  in  France  and 
Germany.  "Notwithstanding  the  favorable  agricultural  conditions 
which  surround  Trowbridge,"  adds  the  consul,  "  giving  the  working- 
people  cheap  and  wholesome  food  i)roducts,  aided  by  flourishing  co- 
operative stores,  the  combined  earnings  of  the  family  are  barely  suf- 
cient  for  its  support."  The  operatives  are  steady  and  law-abiding,  and 
drunkenness  is  rare. 

In  reporting  thirteen  interviews  with  Trowbridge  operatives,  pur- 
posely sele(;ted  for  their  steatliness  and  trustworthiness,  representing 
the  best  element  of  factory  life.  Consul  Lathrop  says  that  only  two 
were  able  to  save  anything.  One  of  these  has  a  weekly  income,  earned 
by  himself  and  three  children,  of  $8.03  per  week,  the  other  a  weekly  in- 
come, earned  by  himself  and  wife,  of  $7.29..  Without  the  labor  of  the 
wife  the  family  resources  are  insufficient,  and  when  the  husband  and 
wife  both  work,  the  home  suffers  and  the  children  are  neglected. 

Consul  Lathrop  concludes  his  rei)ort  with  the  following  comparisons 
between  labor  in  his  district  and  in  the  United  States : 

1.  No  class  of  laborer  is  as  intelligent  as  the  corresponding  class 
in  the  United  States. 

2.  In  consequence  of  this  the  laborer  here  is  not  so  valuable  to 
his  employer  as  in  the  United  States.  He  is  less  receptive  and  re- 
tentive of  ideas,  requires  more  oversight  and  direction,  and  accom- 
Ijlishes  less  in  a  day. 

3.  Ilis  wages  are  less  than  in  the  United  States. 

4.  There  is  not  a  corresponding  cheapness  in  the  price  of  com- 
modities. Rent  is  cheaper,  but  if  the  laborer  spends  less  here  in 
other  directions  it  is  because  he  does  without  or  buys  inferior 
articles,  and  not  because  the  general  necessaries  of  life  are  cheaper 
here  than  in  the  United  States. 

5.  The  emi)loyment  of  women  is  more  general  than  in  the  United 
States.  There  is  some  female  member  contributing  towards  the  sup- 
port of  almost  every  laborer's  famil}'. 

6.  The  laboring  classes  are  not  so  self-respecting  or  respected 
here  as  in  the  United  States. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  51 

CORNWALL. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  factories,  mills  and  other  large  industrial 
interests,  the  labor  conditions  of  Cornwall  do  not  so  directly  concern  or 
interest  the  statistician  or  general  reader  as  those  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing centers  of  England,  and  the  report  from  the  consul  at  Fal- 
mouth is  proportionally  meager  in  interesting  details. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  are  good,  owing  to  the  spread  of 
temi>erance  principles,  but  very  few  can  save  anything  out  of  their  low 
wages.  Women  are  largely  employed  as  field  laborers  in  Cornwall, 
about  two  adult  fema'es  being  engaged  on  each  farm. 

The  average  wages  of  females  is  given  as  being  30  cents  per  day  of 
niii(5  to  ten  liours  In  industrial  employment. 

The  moral  and  physical  condition  of  female  laborers  throughout  Corn- 
wall is  considered  to  be  improving. 

The  journe.,  men  millers  in  Falmouth  earn  $4.8G  per  week ;  the  wages 
in  other  mills  could  not  be  ascertained. 

The  wages  in  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  iron  works  run  from 
$4.07  to  $0.13  per  week. 

The  wages  earned  by  miners  in  Cornwall,  per  week  of  54  hours,  is 
given  as  follows:  Underground  men,  $4.70;  shaft-men,  $G.05;  ore 
dressers,  $4.05. 

Afiri cultural  worfcs. — Household  servants,  $25.54  per  year,  with  board 
and  lodgiTig;  agricultural  laborers,  without  board  and  lodging,  but 
geneially  with  a  plar  of  ground,  $3.52  ])er  week. 

rruding  ojjtcef;. — Printers,  compositors,  pressmen  and  proof-readers, 
$5.04  per  week  of  54  hours. 


LEEDS. 


It  is  intimated  by  Consul  Dockery  that  the  wages  in  many  branches 
of  trade  are  somewhat  lower  in  Leeds  than  in  districts  where  industries 
of  like  character  are  i)re<lominant,  for  the  reason  that  the  variety  of 
industries  here  i)ermits  all  the  able  mend)ers  of  a  family  to  lind  em- 
ployment. The  rates  of  wages  given  by  the  consul,  however,  do  not 
apparently  confirm  these  intimations. 

Agricultural  wages  in  Yorkshire  are  estimated  as  follows:  Laborers, 
without  bonrd  and  lodging,  $3.75  per  week  5  hired  men  from  $75  to  $92 
per  year,  with  board  and  lodging  5  herdsmen,  $4.20  per  week,  with  a  cot- 
tage; servant  girls,  $70  per  year  with  board  and  lodging;  scullery 
niaitis,  $4")  per  year,  with  board  and  lodging;  women  field -laborers, 
28  cents  per  day,  without  board  or  lodging. 

In  the  general  trades  the  wages  are  paid  by  the  hour,  running  from 
15  cents  per  hour  to  bricklayers,  up  to  10  cents  per  hour  to  i)lumbers,  or 
per  week  of  54  hours,  the  average  working  hours  of  the  trades  in 
England,  from  $8.10  to  bricklayers  up  to  $10.20  to  plumbers. 

Wofjes  in  wtr.stcd  m?7/.s-,  per  treeJc  of  56  hours. — Sorters,  $5.82 ;  fet- 
lers,  $5.82  ;  wooliers,  $5.82;  girl  combers,  $2.88;  girl  drawers,  $2.88; 
pnmers  (gills  and  boys),  $1.24;  dressers,  $5.82.  Weaving:  tuners,  $10; 
assistants,  $5.82:  knollers,  $2.88;  perchers,  $2.88 ;  carriers,  $5.04. 

Woycs  in  foundries  and  mackbie-Nhops,  per  iceelc  of  54  hours. — Model- 
makers  and  smiths,  $7.40;  joiners,  $l).72;  striker.*;,  $4.50;  fitters, 
$ii.O(>;  turners,  $5.94;  molders,  $7.50;  hiborers,  $4.40;  brass-fitters, 
$4.80;  foundry  engine-men,  $5.04;  blast-furnace  men,  $0,72;  core- 
makers,  $0.90;  fetlers,$4.80j  painters,  $7.20;  apprentices,  $2.10. 


52  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Wages  ill  f/lass-ivorls. — Consul  Dockery  gives  the  followiiifj  statistics 
conceiiiinj?  the  wnj;es  earned  iu  a  gkiss-bottle  factory  iu  Leeds, 
the  informant  stating  that  they  were  the  highest  wages  paid  iu  all 
England : 

In  glass-works  in  Leeds  hibor  is  divided  into  "shifts,"  six  hours 
per  shift,  as  to  time,  and  into  chairs  as  to  division  of  labor.  The 
"  chair  "  consists  of  only  four  ])er,<ons,  viz,  botlle-nudvor,  blower,  ap- 
prentice, and  boy.  The  average  eainings  per  chair  per  week  are 
given  as  foHows:  Boitle-maker,  $il;  blower,  $9.G0;  appreutice, 
$1.20;  boy,  81.20.  Iu  the  United  States,  so  the  consul  was  in- 
formed, ten  boys  are  iu  each  chair  under  the  bottle -maker  and 
bh)wer,  or  twelve  persons  to  the  chair,  and  his  informant  also  said 
thfit  the  outi)ut  per  chair  is  twice  as  much  as  iu  England  and  of 
superior  quality.  Men  packers  get  $5.80  ])er  week  ;  laborers,  $4.50 ; 
female  emi>]oyes,  81.92;  furnace-men,  $0.58;  mold  makers,  $0.0-4 — 
all  per  week. 

The  following  statement,  given  to  Mr.  Dockery  by  a  first-class  iron 
refiner,  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  this  class  of  ar- 
tisans lives: 

An  iron  refiner, forty-nine  years  old,  has  a  wife  and  four  children, 
the  eldest  a  boy  of  eighteen,  the  youngest  a  girl  of  eight ;  earns  $8 
per  week ;  his  eldest  son  earns  $1,08,  and  his  eldest  daughter  $L02 
per  week,  making  a  total  earning  of  $10.70  i)er  week  ;  the  boy  is  an 
appreutice  at  the  file  trade,  and  the  girl  runs  a  machine  in  a  cloth- 
ing house.  Food. — Breakfast:  Bread  and  coffee  or  tea.  Dinner: 
Potatoes  and  meat  or  bacon.  Sui)per:  Same  as  breakfast.  Occa- 
sionally the  children  go  without  supper.  Only  manages  "to  keep 
body  and  soul  together." 

Miners^  ivagcs. — The  following  average  rates  of  wages  paid  i)er  day 
of  9  hours  in  and  about  the  coal  and  ironstone  mines  of  South  and  West 
Yorkshire  will  ])rove  interesting  to  Anu'ii(;an  miners:  Coal  miners, 
$1,18;  trammers  and  fillers,  $  I. (►8;  ordinary  trammers,  5-4  cents;  bye- 
M^orkmen,  90  cents;  off  hands,  90  cents  ;  jiggers,  00  cents;  hangers  on, 
90  cents;  fire-triers,  $1.20;  dei)iities,  $1.32.  To])  hands:  Joineis,  90 
cents;  biinkmeu  and  screeners,  90  cents;  boys,  30  cents;  engine  tend- 
ers, $1.20;  off  hands,  84  cents. 

Mr,  Dockery  considers  the  condition  of  labor  in  Leeds  as  having  im- 
])roved  <lnring  the  last  six  years,  and  that  this  improvement  is  wholly 
due  to  the  education  of  the  working  people,  as  the  rates  of  wages  and 
l>rices  of  food  have  shown  no  appreciable  change  during  that  time. 


LIVEEPOOL. 

Great  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  drinking  habits  of  the 
working  classes  of  Liveri)ool,  which  gave  that  city  the  name  of  "the 
black  spot  on  the  Mersey,"  although,  as  might  be  expected  from  the 
l)ad  example  of  dissolute  seamen,  intemj)erance  is  too  olteu  attendant 
ui)on  labor  iu  all  large  sea-port  cities.  In  regar<l  to  the  im})i()\'ement 
of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  working-peoples'  homes  in  Liverpool, 
Con>ul  Packard  rei)orts  that  the  nuinicii)al  government,  availing  itself 
of  ])owers  <;onferred  by  recent  legislation,  seeks  to  remedy  the  evils  com- 
plained of  in  this  regard  by  the  destruction  of  unwholesome  dwellings, 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE.  53 

witboiit  making  provision  elsewhere  for  their  occupants  before  their 
shelter  is  pulled  (lown. 

The  improvement  in  the  habits  of  the  working  classes  has  resulted  in  a 
better  feeling  between  employer  and  emi)loye,  as  is  forcibly  illustrated 
in  the  long  immunity  from  strikes  which  Liverpool  has  enjoyed.  Arbi- 
tration and  common  sense  have  taken  the  place  of  violence  and  passion, 
to  the  great  benefit  of  both  capital  and  labor. 

Due  allowance  being  made  for  that  large  improvident  and  intemperate 
class  which  inhabits  all  great  sea-ports,  the  working-ijcople  of  Liverpool 
are,  as  a  general  rule,  industrious  and  thrifty,  and  rapidly  acquiring  all 
necessary  education. 

Dock  labor. — According  to  the  consul's  returns,  this  important  divis- 
ion of  labor  is  remunerated  as  follows:  Laborers,  $1,22  ])er  day;  por- 
ters, $  1 .09  per  day ;  weighers,  $  1.22  per  day ;  stevedores,  $  1,70  per  day ; 
coal  heavers,  2h  cents  per  ton  each  man,  and  $1.22  each  man  additional 
for  a  night's  work. 


LONDOX. 

The  costof  food  in  Loudon  is  about  the  same  as  in  Liverpool,  the  im 
ports  of  food  products  from  the  United  States  having  greatly  reduced 
the  living  expenses  of  the  working  classes,  while  enabling  them  to  pur- 
chase greater  variety  than  ^\as  within  the  reach  of  the  workers  of  fifteen 
and  twenty  years  ago,  especially  in  the  matter  of  animal  food.  With 
bread  at  3  cents  a  pound,  tea  and  sugar  lower  than  ever  before,  and 
with  a  downward  tendency  in  nearly  every  other  commodity,  the  con- 
dition of  the  London  workman,  says  the  consul-general,  "ought  not  to 
be  uncomfortable  had  he  the  prudence  of  the  Scotch  or  continental 
workman." 

A  large  majority  of  the  London  workmen,  according  to  Consul-Gen- 
eral  Merritt's  report,  can  be  ranked  as  skillful  artisans,  and  sU- ady  and 
industrious  citizens.  This  is  as  much  as  can  be  said  for  any  class  of 
workmen  in  Europe.  They  work  slow,  adds  the  consul  general,  far 
slower  than  American  artisans,  but  rather  from  custom  than  laziness. 
It  is  what  the  consul-general  calls  the  national  working  pace.  As  every 
country  has  its  national  working  pace,  as  well  defined  as  any  other  char- 
acteristic, this  London  slowness  is  only  noteworthy  as  ijermitting  a  com- 
parison which  is  favorable  to  the  United  States. 

In  regard  to  the  ability  of  the  London  working  classes  to  save,  the 
consul-general  admits  that  the  range  of  wages  is  such  that  only  those 
who  practice  the  greatest  prudence  and  self-denial  have  a  chance  of 
ending  the  year  with  money  in  hand. 

In  London,  miseries  of  working  life  are  so  directly  brought  before  the 
public  eye  as  to  pro<luce  the  impression  that  there  is  more  suflering, 
imi)rovidence,  and  intemperance  among  the  working  classes  in  large 
cities  than  in  towns  and  rural  districts.  Making  due  allowance  for  the 
human  wrecks  which  drift  into  London,  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
there  is  more  suffering  among  the  working  j^eople  of  London  than  among 
an  equal  number  of  laborers  in  any  other  portion  of  England. 

That  portion  of  the  consul-general's  report  which  deals  with  labor 
unions  in  London  is  interesting.  Arbitration  has  to  a  large  degree, 
fortunately,  taken  the  place  of  strikes  in  the  settlement  of  labor  differ- 
ences, the  evil  effect  of  former  strikes  in  London  being  rememben  d  by 
both  the  workingmen  and  employers  with  anything  but  gratification. 

The  effect  of  co  operative  stores  in  London  has  been  to  compel  the 


54  LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 

general  retailers  to  reduce  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  the 
present  competitive  warfare  tends  to  benetit  the  condition  of  the  labor- 
iu<x  chusses  by  cheapening  their  supplies. 

Great  interest  in  the  furnishing  of  chea])  and  healthful  homes  to  the 
working  classes  is  being  manifested  by  cai)italists  in  London.  As  an  ex- 
ample, the  consul-general  refers  to  a  district  near  Paddingtou.  where 
the  system  of  cottage  tenements  is  in  successful  o])eration.  lu  this  dis- 
trict are  about  3,00;>  houses,  containing  a  population  of  15,000.  The 
buildings  are  of  brick,  two  stories  high,  the  whole  having  a  neat  and 
tasteful  appearance.  These  cottages  rent  for  from  $2  to  -$2.50  per  week. 
Churches,  schools  and  stores,  iu  connection  with  this  artisan  city,  fill 
out  the  general  design  and  supply  every  want. 

HOW  LONDON   IVIECHANICS  LIVE. 

Consul-General  Merritt  gives  the  results  of  an  interview  with  a  rep- 
resentative of  the  better  class  of  workmen,  which  illustrates  the  mode 
of  life  of  a  sober  and  industrious  mechanic : 

Is  an  engine-driver  in  electric  works;  52  years  of  age;  has  a  wife 
and  3  children ;  the  eldest  boy  earns  *2.44  ])er  week  ;  liis  own  earn- 
ings are  $9.72 ;  iu  1882  his  wages  were  $12.12 ;  hours  of  labor  70^  ])er 
week  ;  steady;  does  iiot  drink ;  tries  to  be  as  contented  as  |)ossible ; 
total  annual  income  of  self  and  son,  $624.  Ex])enses  :  House  rent, 
$106  per  annum  ;  society  dues,  $8.90 ;  insurance  on  lives  of  self 
and  family,  $44.32;  food,  $280;  this  leaves  about  $186  for  miscel- 
laneous expenses,  clothes,  schooling,  medicine,  omnibus-fare,  &c. 
Were  it  not  for  the  earnings  of  his  son  he  could  not  support  his 
family;  has  enough,  but  none  to  spare. 

FEMALE  LABOR   IN   LONDON. 

The  consul-general  treats  of  female  labor  in  England  at  some  length 
and  in  a  very  interesting  manner,  clearly  showing  that  throughout  the 
Kingdom  woman  is  becoming  a  i>roniinent  fa(^tor  in  many  branches  of 
commerce  and  industrial  occupations.  This  ])hase  of  the  question  is 
referred  to,  however,  in  the  re.mme  for  Eiigland,  and  only  that  j)art  of 
the  report  which  deals  with  fennile  labor  in  London  is  introduced  here. 

The  consul-general  estimates  the  wages  earned  by  female  laborers  in 
London  as  ruling  at  about  half  of  those  earned  by  male  laborers  in  similar 
emi)loyments;  rarely  do  they  get  two-thirds  of  the  rates  paid  to  men, 
wliile  very  frequently  they  are  cut  down  to  even  lower  figures.  Female 
laborers  in  certain  trades  in  the  East  End  count  their  wages  by  pennies 
instead  of  shillings,  although  a  fair  minimum  may  be  estimated  at  $1.50 
per  week  without  board,  wliile  the  hours  of  labor  range  Irom  9i  to  16 
liours  i)er  day,  the  poorest  i)aid  working  the  longest  hours,  as  usual. 
The  tendency,  however,  is  toward  shorter  hours,  aiul  an  effort  is  being 
made  to  extend  the  ten-hour  law  to  shops  as  well  as  to  factories. 

The  i)hysical  condition  of  the  female  laborers  of  London  is  descril)e<l 
by  the  consul-general  as  very  good.  London  being  one  of  the  most 
healthful  cities  iu  the  world,  nowhere  is  the  sturdy  vijior  of  thc^  English 
constitution  more  apparent  than  among  the  women  em])loyes  of  that 
city.  Indeed,  since  the  factory  law  has  gone  into  o])eration  the  physi- 
cal and  moral  well-being  of  the  women  workers  of  England  has  shown 
marked  improvement. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


MANCHESTER. 


The  general  trade  and  other  wajxes  paid  in  Manchester  and  vicinity 
will  be  fully  set  forth  in  the  resume  for  England  and  again  in  the  gen- 
eral recapitulation  showing  the  comparative  rates  of  wages  between 
those  which  rule  in  that  country  and  those  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
therefore  only  necessaiy  to  refer  here  to  such  particular  conditions  as 
cannot  be  expressed  in  ligures,  but  which  in  many  ways  are  of  moment 
in  illustrating  the  real  conditions  of  labor. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  living  in  Manchester,  Consul  Shaw  writes 
as  follows : 

American  work-people,  as  a  whole,  would  not  live  under  the  con- 
ditions in  force  here  among  operatives,  nor  could  they  be  induced 
to  adopt  the  English  system.  Here  whole  families  live  in  the  mills 
and  are  satisfied  to  do  so.  Here  the  children  are  compelled  to  help 
p;iy  the  family  expense. 

Great  numbers  of  houses  visited  by  me  contained  each  only  one 
living  room,  and  this  served  as  kitchen,  dining-room,  sitting  room, 
an<l  in  some  instances,  also,  bed-room.  Into  some  of  these  small 
houses  large  families  are  crowded,  and  the  manner  of  life  is  almost 
necessarily  demoralizing  and  unfortunate. 

In  I'egard  to  the  habits  and  general  condition  of  the  working-people 
of  Manchester,  Consul  Shaw  considers  them  on  the  whole  as  steady  and 
trustworthy,  being  more  thrifty  and  better  off  than,  perhaps,  the  work- 
ing-people of  anj^  other  portion  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  majority, 
however,  save  very  little  after  paying  current  expenses,  and  iutemi)er- 
ance,  although  perhaps  on  the  decline,  is  still  a  deplorable  evil  among 
them. 

The  feeling  between  employers  and  the  emj^loyed  has  greatly  improved 
since  1878,  princii)ally  on  account  of  the  more  perfect  organization  of 
both  capital  and  labor,  whereby  all  disputes  are  submitted  to  intelli- 
gent arbitration.  Public  opinion,  which  formerly  looked  on  while 
strikes  and  lockouts  ran  their  careers  of  strife,  stagnation,  destruction 
and  general  suffering  has  also  had  much  to  do  in  forcing  both  labor  and 
capital  to  settle  their  disputes  by  arbitration  and  mutual  concessions. 

Consul  Siiaw's  rej)ort  deals  at  much  length  and  in  an  interesting  man- 
ner with  trades-unions,  co-operative  societies,  co-operative  stores,  and  the 
laws  and  regulations  governing  labor  within  the  mills  and  factories.  That 
portion  of  his  report  tlealing  with  the  question  of  "co  operative  mills" — 
mills  wherein  the  employes,  in  addition  to  their  wages,  are  also  sharers 
in  the  i)rotits  and  practically  partners  in  the  concern — is  particularly 
interesting. 

The  perfect  working  of  an  Oldham  cotton  mill,  where  everything 
moves  with  the  precision  of  a  well-disciplined  armj',  is  i)articularly 
worthy  of  careful  perusal.  The  fact  that  the  British  cotton  industry 
controls  the  world's  markets  is  principally  due  to  this  perfect  organiza- 
tion of  capital,  machinery,  labor,  and  facility  for  the  distribution  of  the 
product. 

FEMALE  LABOR  IN  MANCHESTER. 

The  total  number  of  females  employed  in  the  mechanical  and  manu- 
facturing industries  of  Manchester  and  Salford  is  estimated  by  Consul 
Shaw  at  about  80,000,  of  which  the  following  are  the  principal  indus- 
tries, and  numbers  of  employes  euga^ged  therein :    Cotton  and  Hax 


56  LABOR   IN    EUROPE. 

mills,  24,000;  dressmaking,  sboemakiiifr,  and  halierdashery,  17.0C0; 
domestic  service,  office-keepers,  &c.,  24,000;  builders,  house-furnisbers, 
&c.,  1,000;  wool,  silk,  and  all  other  textile  industries  outside  of  cotton, 
G,2O0.  These  numbers  represent  actual  workers  only,  and  those  carry- 
ing on  business  in  their  own  names;  the  many  females  keeping  stores 
and  shops  carried  on  under  their  husband's  names,  females  engaged  in 
domestic  service  for  their  parents,  &c.,  are  not  included.  These,  and 
others  who  do  not  possess  any  business  occupation,  number  in  Man- 
chester and  Salford  about  14G,"000. 

Female  icages. — Female  operatives  in  the  ftictories  earn  the  following 
weekly  wages:  Drawing-frame  tenters,  $2.43  to  $4.38;  slubbingfVame 
tenters,  83.05  to  84.3S ;  throstle  spinners,  $2.92  ;  winders,  S2.43  to 
84.80;  beam  warpers,  $4.38  to  $4.80;  weavers,  $1.22  to  $1.40.  The 
female  operatives  being  paid  by  ])iecework,  it  is  hard  to  arrive  at  a  true 
average,  but  Consul  Shaw  sets  down  the  average  wages  of  the  women 
operatives  of  Manchester  at  $3.05  per  week. 

The  hours  of  female  labor  in  Manchester  are  50^  per  week  in  facto- 
ries, and  from  8  to  9  j)er  day  in  retail  shops. 

The  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  female  working  classes  of 
Manchester  will  bear  favorable  comparison  with  that  of  any  other  large 
marufacturiug  center. 

The  effects  of  female  employment  in  Manchester  are  not  considered 
as  having  any  lowering  tendency  on  the  wages  paid  to  the  males,  while 
on  the  general  wealth  of  the  community  female  labor  has  a  beneficial 
effect. 


NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. 

In  drawing  comparisons  between  the  condition  of  trade  in  the  North 
of  England  in  1878  and  tliat  which  now  prevails,  Consul  Locke,  of  New- 
castle-ou-Tyne,  in  his  noteworthy  report,  says: 

The  condition  of  trade  on  the  Tyne  to-day  is  even  worse  thaii  at 
tho  same  time  in  1878,  and  there  is  no  ])rospect  of  its  immediate  recov- 
ery. This  great  depression  has  naturally  affected  labor  in  all  its 
branches,  and  wages  have  fallen  in  i)roportiou  to  the  decline  of 
business. 

Shipbuilding. — The  building  of  ships,  writes  Consul  Locke,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  industries  in  the  north  of  England.  At  present  this 
industry  is  ar  a  standstill.  During  the  latter  i)aTt  of  1883  a  sudden  re- 
cession occurred  in  this  trade,  whicli  up  to  that  time  was  seemingly  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  The  market  was  overdone,  and  a  sudden  col- 
lapse was  the  result.  With  hundreds  of  vessels  lying  idle  at  the  docks, 
no  new  contracts  could  be  secured,  and  the  builders  discharged  their 
employes.  Skilled  laborers  unexijcctedly  Ibund  themselves  out  of  work, 
or  at  least  working  on  short  time,  and  now,  writes  the  consul,  the  Tyne 
shipyards  present  a  scene  of  idleness.  The  woiknien  emi)loyed  at 
l)reseut  in  the  Tyne  yards  earn  from  $11.80  i)aid  to  painters,  to  $8.50 
paid  to  pattern-maUfMs  and  shii)-carpenters,  i)er  week. 

Miners^  wages. — Coal-mining  is  the  characteristic  industry  of  New- 
ca^stle,  and  coal  the  great  ])roduct  of  the  north  of  England.  Its  mines 
and  miners,  wages  and  general  con<litions,  may  therefore  be  taken  as 
representative  of  their  kind  in  England.  The  number  of  men  employed 
nndergionnd  in  the  mines  of  Northumberland  in  1883  is  given  as  19,542, 
and  in  Durham  G(»,5855  a  total  in  both  counties  of  80,127  miners. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


57 


The  following  statement  compares  tbe  wages  per  week  paid  to  the 
miners  in  1878  and  1884: 


Description  of  employment. 


Hewers 

Deputies 

Engineers : 

Winding 

Hauling 

Pumping 

Fan   

Locomotive . 

Shifters 

Stonemen 

riiemen 

Furnace  men  — 

Hand  putters. .. 

Pony  putters 

Ref  kei's  ^.. 

Screeners  

Ordinary  smiths 

Boiler  smiths  ... 

Joiners 

Masons 

Fitters 

Laborers 

Coal  drawers 

Coke  fitters 

Coke  laborers ... 


1878. 

1884. 

$0  90 

$6  72 

6  3C 

6  60 

5  52 

5  88 

5  88 

5  76 

6  72 

5  76 

5  04 

5  84 

0  00 

0  24 

T)  40 

4  08 

5  m 

5  84 

4  68 

4  V2 

4  00 

3  84 

5  04 

5  1-6 

5  64 

4  OG 

4  80 

5  24 

3  96 

4  20 

5  04 

fi  28 

5  28 

5  28 

5  04 

5  28 

5  52 

5  K 

5  16 

5  28 

3  96 

4  08 

0  72 

6  84 

5  84 

5  76 

4  32 

4  44 

The  majority  of  the  foregoing  laborers,  that  is,  all  the  married  men, 
with  the  exception  of  putters  and  cokemen,  are  given  houses  rent  tree, 
and  coal,  each  paying  12  cents  per  fortnight  for  loading  the  coal.  It 
will  be  noted  by  the  toiegoing  list  that,  with  few  exceptions,  there 
has  been  considerable  decrease  in  wages  since  1878. 

Wages  in  the  iron-worlcs. — The  iron  industry  is  one  of  the  leading  trades 
in  the  north  of  England.  Consul  Locke  reports  a  general  dei>res- 
sion  in  this  industry,  although  not  nearly  so  serious  as  that  wbich  is 
seen  in  ship  building  and  some  other  trades.  Many  of  the  large  iron- 
works are  running  on  three  quarters  time  with  greatly  reduced  statfs, 
while  others  have  suspended  altogether.  The  weekly  wages  paid  in 
the  blast  furnaces,  foiges  and  plate-mills  in  the  north  of  England  will 
be  found  in  the  general  recapitulation  showing  the  wages  i)aid  in  the 
industries  of  the  various  countries  in  Europe,  Newcastle-on-Tyne  being- 
taken  as  representing  the  shipbuilding,  coal-mining,  and  iron-work 
and  foundry  industries  of  England. 

Consul  Locke  reports  the  present  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
as  in  no  material  degree  ditfering  from  those  which  ruled  in  1878, 
although  during  the  "good  times"  of  1882  and  1883  the  prices  were 
higher.  This  shows  that  food  prices  are  very  sensitive  to  the  prevalent 
rates  of  wages,  and  that  the  working  people  eat  more  and  spend  more 
freely  when  trade  is  brisk  and  wages  good  than  in  times  of  depression. 

Is'otwithstanding  the  great  proportion  of  miners  in  the  district  whose 
hours  of  labor,  as  well  as  the  labor  itself,  are  considered  as  iiaving  a 
tendency  to  drive  oi)eratives  to  the  public  houses,  all  things  considered, 
Consul  Locke  considers  the  working  classes  of  the  district  as  steady  and 
trustworthy,  although  little  inclined  to  be  saving.  He  gives  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  improvidence  in  the  strike  of  the  engineers  in  Sunderland, 
who,  after  the  exhaustion  of  their  society  funds,  had  become  reduced  to 
such  straiti?,  that  at  the  time  his  report  was  written  committees  were  be- 
ing formed  to  canvass  the  town  for  funds  to  support  the  families  of  the 
strikers.     The  number  of  families  in  want,  including  those  of  other 


58  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

trades  shut  out  by  the  strike  of  the  eugiueers,  was  about  5,000.  ^he 
strike  had  lasted  two  uioiitlis  at  the  date  wheu  the  report  was  uiailed, 
and  the  consul  rei)ortGd  both  strikers  and  employers  as  being  deter- 
mined to  keep  up  the  tight. 

The  consul  states  that  the  public  house  is  the  principal  bank  where 
the  workingmen  of  his  district  deposit  their  savings. 

The  labor  organizations  in  the  north  of  England  are  both  numerous 
and  powerful;  indeed  there  is  no  trade  without  its  union  and  no  work- 
ingman  who  does  not  belong  to  one  or  more  protective  and  benetictnit 
societies.  The  union  proper  regulates  all  the  trade  cotiditions,  such  as 
hours  of  labor,  wages,  &c.,  and  these  rules  are  equally  binding  on  mem- 
bers and  non-members.  Happily  these  unions  have  substituted  arbi- 
tration for  strikes,  when  differences  arise  between  the  employers  and 
em])loyed,  and  the  result  is  that  this  jjortiou  of  England  is  particularly 
free  from  those  "lock  outs"  which  entail  great  jiecuniar^'  loss  on  one 
side  and  misery  and  suffering  on  the  other.  Consul  Locke's  treatuienfe 
of  these  two  questions,  labor  organization  and  strikes  in  the  north  of 
England,  can  be  studied  with  much  protit  bv  the  workingmen  and  em- 
])loyers  of  the  United  States;  his  history  of  co-oi)eration,  trom  its  incep- 
tion at  llochdale  in  1844  to  the  present,  is  a  valuable  contribution  to 
labor  statistics.  The  returns  of  the  co-operative  union  for  the  uortheru 
section  of  England,  IS'orthumberland,  Durham,  Cumberhmd,  Westmore- 
land and  York  for  1883  show  a  membership  of  97, 943,  with  a  share  ca|)- 
ital  of  $3,475,000  and  a  loan  capital  of  $2,235,000.  The  value  of  land, 
buildings  and  fixed  stock  amounts  to  $1,405,000.  The  sale  of  goods 
during  the  year  amounted  to  $10,383,(H)0;  the  net  profits  to  $l,739,OiiO, 
of  which  $7,200  were  applied  to  educational  and  $2,700  to  charitable 
]mrposes.  Consul  Locke  reports  the  oo-operative  system  as  steadily 
growing  in  his  district. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

From  the  i)eculiarly  masmline  character  of  employment  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Newcastle,  female  labor  does  not  fill  so  large  a  space  in  its  in- 
dustrial conditions  as  in  other  portions  of  England.  The  wages  i)aid 
to  feniiiles  ;ire  invariably  lower  than  those  paid  to  men  doing  similar 
work,  and  on  an  average  they  are  5  to  10  per  cent,  lower  than  in  1878. 
The  condition,  morally  and  physically,  of  female  employes  in  the  district 
is  said  to  be  good,  and  the  i)reiudice  which  existed  against  their  em- 
ployment outside  of  shoj)s  aud  factories  is  rapidly  disapiJearing. 


NOTTINGHAM. 

The  making  of  lace  goods  and  hosiery  forms  the  principal  industry  at 
this  manufacturiug  center,  by  which  a  large  ])ortion  of  the  foreign  wants 
of  nearly  every  country  on  the  globe  is  supplied,  tin;  United  States  being 
regarded  as  one  of  the  princii)al  consumers.  During  the  year  1883  the 
exports  of  lace  goods  declart'd  at  the  consulate  alone— for  much  of 
the  i)roduct  of  the  district  nuist  be  shipped  to  the  United  States  from 
other  portions  of  England — amounted  to  about  $5,200,000,  and  of  hosiery 
to  $1,700,000.  An  apj)arent<lecline  in  recent  demands  from  the:  United 
States  causes  much  anxiety  in  Nottingham,  for  the  shutting  out  from 
our  market  of  these  products  in  any  serious  (juantity  would  mean  short 
tinje  if  not  total  idleness  and  consefpient  sufiering  to  a  large  number  of 
the  mill-hands  of  the  district. 


\ 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  59 

The  consul  cannot  note  any  change  in  the  conditions  of  to-day  com- 
l>;ired  with  those  which  prevailed  in  1878,  as  far  as  wage-rates  and 
food-prices  are  concerned ;  1878  was  the  end  of  a  long  depression,  and 
1881  would  seem  to  be  the  beginning  of  another.  JB'roui  1878  to  1882 
there  Avas  a  steady  improvement  in  the  foreign  demand  for  Nottingham 
goods,  especially  from  the  United  States;  but  the  past  year  has  wit- 
nessed a  perceptible  falling  oft'  in  both  foreign  and  home  demand.  A 
continuance  of  this  state  of  affairs  must  result  in  great  suffering,  and 
the  next  winter  is  looked  forward  to  with  much  concern. 

The  consul  does  not  consider  the  general  condition  of  the  working 
people  of  this  district  as  unfavorable;  their  wages  are  sufficient,  ordi- 
narily, for  the  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life;  the  grown-up  mem- 
bers of  families  can  secure  employment  in  the  mills,  and  household 
servants  are  always  in  demand. 

FEMALE   LABOR   IN   NOTTINGHAM. 

Tbe  district  of  Nottingham  embraces  besides  the  city  of  Nottingham, 
with  a  population  of  200,000,  the  cities  of  Leicester  and  Derby,  with 
l)opulatious  of  135,000  and  85,000,  respectively,  besides  many  flourish- 
ing towns,  such  as  Grantham,  Belper,  Long  Eaton,  &c.,  all  containing 
factories  and  knitting  mills — not  taking  into  account  the  hand  knit- 
ting-machines run  throughout  all  the  valleys.  It  would  be  almost  im- 
j)0ssible  to  estimate  the  number  of  females  engaged  in  the  various 
labors  connected  with  the  lace,  hosiery,  and  associated  industries. 
There  is  much  of  what  the  Germans  call  "house  industry"  carried  on 
in  the  district.  The  female  members  of  families  are  employed  at  their 
houses  in  lace-clipi)ing,  stocking  seaming,  making  family  underweor, 
and  running  hand  knitting-machines.  This  interesting  blending  of  fac- 
tory and  house  labor  embraces  lour  counties.  It  can  therefore  be  easily 
imagined  how  sensitive  this  distiict  nnist  be  to  foreign  demand,  upon 
which  the  prosperity  and  hai)pinessof  nearly  every  household  depend. 

On  the  whole  the  ])hy.sical  and  moral  condition  of  the  female  opera- 
tives of  Nottingham  is  fully  as  satisfiictory  as  in  other  manufiicturing 
districts;  and  as  they  prefer  factory  to  domestic  life — although  the 
latter  has  many  advantages  in  the  district — it  may  be  assumed  that  they 
are  satisfied  with  their  lot. 

The  wages  paid  in  the  lace  and  hosiery  industry,  being  taken  as  an 
illustration  of  this  class  of  labor  for  all  England,  will  be  found  in  the 
recapitulation. 


SHEFFIELD. 

Consul  Webster  reports  the  wage-rates  prevailing  at  present  in  his 
district  as  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  lower  than  in  1878.  Not  only  is  this 
the  case,  but  on  account  of  the  great  depression  which  at  present  pre- 
vails, few  manufactories  in  the  district  are  running  on  full  time;  con- 
sequently the  rates  given  are  higher  than  the  real  wages  earned.  The 
princii)al  causes  assigned  for  this  slack  labor  condition  are  the  introduc- 
tion of  labor-saving  machinery  and  the  sharp  competition  of  other  na- 
tions, especially  Germany. 

Labor  is  well  organized  in  Sheffield,  and  the  consul  thinks  that  the 
trades-unions,  under  good  direction,  are  equall}-  beneficial  to  labor  and 
capital.  Strikes  are  infrequent  in  the  district,  arbitration  being  the 
mode  of  settling  disputes  between  the  employer  and  the  employed. 


60  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Mr.  Webster  has  selected,  for  illustratiou  of  the  mauuer  in  which 
the  Avorkiug-  people  of  Sheffield  live,  the  case  of  an  artisan,  whose 
family  consists  of  himself,  wife  and  three  children,  whose  weekly  earn- 
ings amount  to  $6.01,  which  may  be  considered  a  good  average  illus- 
tration. 

Weekly  exjienses. 

Cents. 

Rent,  including  taxes  and  water-supply $i}  97 

Fuel  and  light 3G 

Gi  oceries :  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  &c GO 

Bntcber's  meat 97 

Clothing,  boots,  and  shoes 85 

Potatoes  and  vegetables  'M\ 

Bread 97 

Beer    3(5 

Tobacco 12 

School  pence 12 

Trade  society 24 

Friendly  society 12 

Total G  04 

The  meat  is  consumed,  chiefly,  by  the  head  of  the  family  ;  the  women 
and  children  living  mostly  upon  bread,  or  bread  and  butter  or  drip- 
ping, with  cheap  tea,  supplemented  by  pennyworths'  of  cheese  or  scraps 
of  bacon.  This,  however,  is  the  dinner  bill  of  fare.  In  the  straitened 
condition  of  the  laboring  classes,  one  of  the  causes  of  the  greatest  hard- 
ship— for  it  greatly  increases  the  price  of  their  necessaries — is  tlie  pur- 
chasing of  cheese,  bacon,  canned  meats,  &c.,  by  the  pennyworth  and  coal 
by  the  paillul.  Their  very  ])overty  is  a  hindrance  to  economy,  and  their 
drinking  habits  are  largely  the  cause  of  their  extreme  poverty,  for  the 
amounts  spent  weekly  in  beer  would  suffice  to  give  them  better  food. 

In  Sheffield,  adds  Consul  Webster,  there  is  one  licensed  house  for  the 
sale  of  beer,  or  beer  and  spirits,  to  every  200  of  the  population.  The 
great  majority  of  these  are  mainly  supported  by  the  woiking  classes, 
and  a  very  large  portion  of  their  hard-earned  wages  is  deposited  in  these 
"banks." 

The  consul  desires  it  to  be  understood  that  all  workingmen  are  not 
of  this  type,  for  in  Sheffield,  as  in  all  other  labor  districts,  there  are 
very  many  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  conditions.  Some  trades  are 
well  paid,  and  the  workingmen's  families  are  comparatively  comforta- 
ble where  thrilt  and  steadiness  ])revail. 

What  is  known  as  "  Sheflield  ware"  being  selected  as  representing  the 
highest  conditions  of  its  class,  tlie  rates  of  wages,  hours  of  labor,  «S:c., 
in  connection  therewith  will  be  found  in  the  recapitulation  for  all  Eng- 
land. 


TUNSTALL. 

THK   POTTERS   OF   TUNSTALL. 

Although  Consul  Lane's  report  covers  nearly  every  division  and  sub- 
division of  labor,  as  (lelincd  in  the  Department  circular,  it  deals  si)e- 
citically  with  the  leading  industry  of  his  district — which  is  the  most  im- 
portant district  in  this  particular  branch  in  the  United  Kingdom — the 
manulacture  of  earthenware.  In  the  i)reparatiou  of  his  report  he  en- 
countered opposition  from  some  of  the  Tuustall  factors,  who  refused  all 
information. 


LABOR    IN    EUEOPE. 


61 


lu  answer  to  Consul  Lane's  request  for  the  necessary  statistics  to  com- 
pile his  report,  seventeen  firms,  out  of  a  total  of  about  fifry  to  whom  the 
application  was  submitted,  responded  favorably,  twenty  two  ])romised 
but  failed  to  supi)ly  statistics,  and  the  others  refused.  It  is  due  to 
many  of  those  who  failed  to  redeem  their  promises  to  state  that  the  con- 
sul believes  their  silence  to  be  occasioned  by  a  mistaken  corporative 
closeness,  and,  perhaps,  by  the  fear  that  publicity  might  injure  tiieir 
interests  if  an  exhibit  of  their  wage  list  did  not  com])are  favorably  with 
the  establishments  which  so  courteously  gave  Consul  Lane  the  requested 
statistics. 

Mr.  Lane,  to  leave  no  room  for  criticism,  gives  the  wage-tables  of  the 
Tunstall  ])0tters  from  four  different  sources,  viz,  from  the  chairman  of 
the  Manufacturers'  Association,  from  sixteen  manufactories  taken  at 
large,  from  the  secretary  of  the  Manufacturers'  Association,  and  from 
the  workmen's  average.  The  latter  is  here  given  as  the  best  average 
full-time  weekly  rate  of  wages,  although  the  difference  between  all  the 
returns  is  slight. 

Statement  shotving  the  weekly  wages  paid  to  the  Tungt all  potters. 


Description  of  employment. 


Flatpresaers  

Dishniakers 

Cupmakers 

Snucer-inakcTS    

Haud-basin  makers 

Iloilowwaro  pressors  

HoUowware  presser  jiggerers 

Printers 

Oveimen 

Saggar  makers  

Moldmakers 

Turners 

Handlers 

Fiiemen    

Throwers 

Warehousemen 

Total 


Percent- 

fl,ge  fit 

workers 

Hours. 

Wages. 

em- 

ployed. 

5 

54 

$7  32 

4 

48 

8  04 

3 

48 

7  \V> 

4 

48 

7  .'i2 

1 

48 

H  76 

25 

48 

7  32 

2 

48 

9  49 

20 

51 

G  GO 

20 

54 

G  60 

3 

54 

6  CG 

3 

48 

8  04 

4 

51 

7  32 

2 

."".l 

8  40 

1 

60 

11  55 

1 

48 

9  72 

2 

57 

C  28 

300 

The  wide  difference  between  the  potters'  nominal  and  real  earnings 
is  discussed  at  more  length  in  the  recaj)itulation  of  British  trade  con 
ditions  under  the  head  of  glass  and  jiottery  works  in  England. 

FEMALE  LABOR   IN   THE   STAFFORDSHIRE   POTTERIES. 

The  total  number  of  persons,  male  and  female,  engaged  in  the  vari- 
ous employments  in  connection  with  the  pottery  industry  of  Stafford- 
shire is  estimated  at  50,000,  or  about  one-fourth  of  the  whole  i)opuhi- 
tion  of  the  district.  The  consul  considers  that  ot  this  whole  number 
employed  in  the  potteries  25,000  are  females.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
the  female  potters  form  a  very  important  element  in  the  standard  in- 
dustry of  the  district,  comprising  as  they  do  one-eighth  of  the  whole 
population. 

A  large  percentage  of  these  female  potters  are  young  and  vigoi'ous 
women  i)etween  the  ages  of  18  and  30,  and  strike  the  looker-on,  as  they 
go  to  and  return  from  their  work,  bare-armed  and  bare-headed,  as  the 
embodiments  of  cheerfulness  and  good  health.    The  girls  and  women 


62 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


are  employed  in  varrous  departments  in  the  potteries,  their  wajjes  rang- 
ing: idl  tiie  way  from  GO  cents  to  $4.87  per  week.  The  consul  furnishes 
the  following  table  showing  the  female  potters'  e4npk>yments  and  earn- 
iui;s: 


Description  of  employment. 


Throwers'  attendants 

Turners'  atten'liiiits 

H;in(llers 

Jigirerers'  attendants  ... 
Flat-prcssera'  attendants 

TVansferers  (girls) 

Translerera  (women)  . ... 

EnaiiK-lers 

Burnishers 

Warehousewonien 


w 

L-ekly   i 

waseB.   1 

1 
$2  92 

2  G« 

4  38 

1  95 

1  95 

$0 

97 

to  1  82 
2  92 
2  92 

1  95 

2  43 

Hours  of 
1.1  bor. 


48 
51 
51 

48 
54 
51 
51 
48 
42 


Consul  Lane  further  states  that  women  are  the  chief  employees  in  the 
ordinary  painting  departments,  where  they  give  entire  satisfaction. 
Technical  schools  are  established  in  connection  with  the  pottery  lor  the 
artistic  education  of  females,  a  very  interesting  account  of  these  schools, 
their  systems,  and  results  being  given  in  the  consul's  report  under  the 
general  head  of  "  apprenticeship." 

In  regard  to  the  effect  of  female  employment  on  the  wages  of  males, 
the  consul  reports  that  wherever  tjie  former  can  compete  successfully 
in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  work  accomplished,  which  they  can  do 
in  many  departments  of  potters'  work,  the  effect  is  to  lower  the  wages  of 
the  men,  instead  of  raising  those  of  the  women.  In  the  i>ainting  and 
decorating  departments,  in  the  work  performed  by  "handlers,"  and  in 
the  warehouses,  female  labor  is  equally  as  effective  as  male  labor,  while 
the  wages  are  disproportionately  small.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work 
is  peculiarly  suitable  for  females,  and  its  effect  on  their  physical  and 
moral  condition  is  elevating. 

Consul  Lane's  entire  report  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  interest  to 
the  potters  of  the  United  States,  male  and  female,  and  is  confidently 
recommended  to  them  as  a  picture,  with  all  its  lights  and  shadows,  of 
English  ])ottery  life,  from  which  much  may  be  learned  by  those  here 
engaged  in  the  same  inustry. 


Valuable  reports  on  the  labor  conditions  of  "Wales,  prepared  by  Con- 
sul Jones,  of  Cardifi",  and  Consular  Agent  Hoard,  of  Newport,  which  will 
be  found  in  their  i)roper  })laces  in  this  volume,  were  received  too  late 
to  be  drawn  upon  for  coiniiarative  statistics  in  this  review.  While 
many  conditions  pe<juliar  to  Wales  are  shown  therein,  and  while  the  re- 
port of  Consul  Jones  is  replete  with  facts  and  figures  illustrative  of  labor- 
life  in  that  i)ortiou  of  the  United  Kingdom,  there  is  nothing  in  either 
which  would  have  materially  changed  the  English  conditions  herein 
represented. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  report  of  Mr.  Jones  concerning  labor, 
wages  and  emigration,  will  be  read  with  much  interest : 

In  the  preceding  pages  I  have  supplied  j)articulars  of  interviews 
with  printers,  masons,  stevedores,  laborers  and  others,  showing 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  63 

their  earnings  and  the  disposition  they  make  of  their  wages.  It 
seems  to  me  next  to  impossible  for  the  men  to  do  more  than  to  keep 
themselves  and  their  families  in  sufiicientfood  and  clothing-  by  their 
earnings.  That  they  do  occasionally  save,  through  industry  and 
thrift,  something  ibr  a  rainy  day,  or  enough  to  carry  them  to  the 
West,  where  they  may  improve  their  fortunes,  speaks  volumes  in 
their  praise.  And  these  are  the  class  of  men  who  constitute  the 
bulk  of  American  immigrants. 

Thriftless  and  worthless  jieople  are  not  in  the  habit  of  sav- 
ing £10  ($48.(;()),  or  more,  necessary  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  trans])ortation  of  tliemselves  and  their  families  from  the  old 
country  to  any  of  the  Atlantic  ports.  Moreover,  a  certain  amount 
of  courage,  independence  of  thought  and  action,  as  well  as  physi- 
cal strength,  are  almost  necessary  conditions  to  emigration;  and 
from  a  somewhat  intimate  acquaintance  with  this  question  I  ven- 
ture to  state  that  European  immigrants  to  the  United  States  are 
comi^osed  of  the  best  members  of  the  working  classes. 

Mr.  John  Bryson,  ex-president  of  the  Northumberland  Miners' 
Association,  writing  to  me,  says :  ''  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  an  energetic  and  thrifty  miner  with  a  family  has  nine  chances 
to  one  of  rearing  them  in  decent  comfort  in  America  to  what  he  has 
here.  Healthy  men  of  average  skill,  who  keep  from  drink  and  set- 
tle down  in  one  place,  must  and  will  do  well  in  America,  and  much 
better  than  they  can  do  here.  There  one  has  a  chance  of  buying 
a  ]»lot  of  land  on  easy  terms,  and  he  and  his  family  can  cultivate 
it  at  their  leisure.  The  average  wages  at  Northumberland  at 
present  is  5s.  Gd.  ($1.25)  per  day,  with  house  and  tire  coal  for  (id. 
(12  cents)  per  fortnight.  The  cost  of  living  will,  I  think,  be  very 
much  in  favor  of  the  American  as  compared  with  the  English 
miner." 


RECAPITULATION  OF  LABOR  COXDITIOXS  IX  EXGLAND  AND   WALES. 

Following  the  sequence  laid  down  in  the  Department  circular,  the  fol- 
lowing statements  are  designed  to  show  for  England  and  Wales  what 
has  been  cursorily  shown  as  to  the  conditions  which  i>revail  in  the  sev- 
eral consular  districts. 

In  the  general  trades,  wherein  uniformity  prevails  moreor  less  through- 
out Great  Britain,  the  wage-rates  are  given  in  detail  for  each  consular 
district,  and  the  average  rates  for  all  England  and  Wales.  In  other  in- 
dustries, wherein  contradictory  elements  api)ear,  the  conditions  which 
govern  in  particular  districts  are  given,  as  for  cotton  manufactures  in 
Manchester,  lace  and  hosiery  in  Nottingham,  ship-building  and  mining 
in  Newcastle,  earthenware  in  Tunstall,  &c.  As  these  conditions  are  in 
the  main  more  favorable  in  these  representative  districts  than  in  simi- 
lar industries  in  other  districts,  they  may  be  accepted  as  giving  some- 
thing more  than  a  fair  average  for  the  whole  country. 

The  following  statement  was  prepared  at  the  consulate-general  in 
London  from  the  reports  of  the  several  consulates,  the  last  column 
showing  the  average  wages  paid  to  the  general  trades  throughout  Eng- 
land and  Wales. 


64 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


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LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


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LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

II. — Factories  and  mills. 


WOOLEN  MILLS   IN   BRADFORD. 

The  average  wages,  per  week  of  56^  hours,  paid  in  the  Bradford 
woolen  mills  are  given  as  follows  in  Consul  Grinuell's  tabulated  state- 
ment: 


Description  of  labor. 


WOOL  COMBtSG. 

Wool-sorters 

Wool-sorters,  boys 

Foremen  wasbcrs 

Assistaut  washers 

Dryers 

Foremen,  overlook eis ; 

Canlins,  overlookers 

Counting,  overlookers 

Carders,  males ,.. 

Carders,  females 

Carders,  boys 

Baek waste  winders 

Card  jobbers 

Card  grinders 

Combers  

Box  minders 

Preparer  3 

Finishers,  females 

SriXNIXG  AND  MANUFACTURING, 

Drawing  overlookers 

Spini)ing  overlookers 

Dra  wers,  females 

Spinners 

Eovers,  boys 

Doffers,  spinning,  females,  girls 

Doffers,  twisting,  females,  giiis 


Weekly 

wages. 

$7  17 

3  04 

4  86 

4  38 

3  71 

11  20 

8  14 

7  30 

4  01 

2  43 

2  49 

4  62  i 

4  62 

5  34 

3  65 

3  28 

3  40 

2  49 

7  90 

7  53 

2  25 

2  43 

2  37 

2  19 

2  00 

1 

Description  of  labor. 


SPINNING  AND  MANUFACTURING— Cont'd 

DofTers,  half-timers,  females,  girls 

Jobl)ers,  spinning,  boys 

Jobbers,  twisting,  boys 

Finishers,  females,  girls 

Doublors,  females,  girls 

Foremen  twisters  

Twisters,  females 

Warpers , 

Warpers,  women 

Winders,  women 

Keelers,  women 

Warp  dressers 

Twistcrs-in 

Weaving  overlookers 

Weavers,  coatings,  females  

Weavers,  dress  goods,  males 

Weaveis,  dress  goods,  females 

Packers 

Heald  and  slay  makers 

Warehousemen 

Sliverers,  boys 

Engine  tenders 

Stokers 

Meelianics 

Smiths 

Joiners 

Masons 

Laborers 


Weekly 
wages. 


$0  75 
2  37 
2  12 
2  19 
2  -13 
8  38 

2  31 

3  97 


16 
92 
52 
53 
17 
53 

4  38 
3  40 

3  52 

5  71 

6  00 

4  62 
2  43 
8  76 

5  60 

7  30 

6  80 

6  92 

7  30 
4  86 


WOOLEN   CLOTH  FACTORIES   IN  WILTSHIRE. 

The  following  statement,  compiled  by  Consul  Latlirop,  of  Bristol, 
shows  the  average  weekly  wages  paid  to  operatives  in  two  representative 
woolen  cloth  factories,  the  first  ftictory  employing  133  women,  59  men 
and  33  boys;  the  second,  418  women,  150  men  and  70  boys.  Average 
wages  in  factory  No.  1:  women,  $3.02  i^cr  week  ;  men,  $5.G4  per  week  ; 
boys,  $2.25  per  week.  Average  wages  in  factory  No.  2:  women,  $2.66 
per  week ;  men,  $5.44 ;  boys,  $2.39. 


Workers. 


Factory  No.  1. 


No.  of 
hands. 


Weekly 
wages. 


Factory  No.  2. 


No.  of 
hands. 


Weekly 
wages. 


Sconrers , 

Dyers 

Tuckers  . , 

Mule  spinnt  rs 

Warpers  

Weavers 

Brayers 

Millers 

Foreman 

Dressers 

Tenterers 

Cutters  and  brushers 


$4  62 
4  62 

3  89 
7  30 

4  86 
4  38 
4  86 

"e  07 
7  30 


$5  10 
5  10 

3  65 

5  83 

6  32 
5  10 

4  13 
4  37 

"k'ii 

4  37 
4  13 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 
Woolen  cloth  factories  in  TVillsMre — Continued. 


67 


"Workers. 


Men — Continued. 


Pressers  and  steamers . 

Packers  

Enyino  drivers 

Looiu  titters 

Engineer 

Smith 

Carders 


Average  wages . 


Sorters ■-... 

Carder  feeders 

Doubleis 

Self-actor  piecers 

Weavers 

Bnrlers,  menders,  &c. 

Average  wages . 


Warpers 

Carders 

Pressers 

Cutters 

Smiths  

Weavers 

Dyers 

Scourers  

Tuckers  . 

Self-actor  piecers . 

Warpers 

Donblers 

Brayers 

Carters 

Millers 


Average  wages . 


Factory  No.  1. 


No.  of 
hands. 


Weekly 
wages. 


$5  34 


7  30 

7  30 

8  51 
8  51 
8  51 


5  64 


2  43 

2  07 

3  40 

2  43 

3  40 
2  92 


3  02 


1  58 

2  43 

1  94 
1-  9i 

2  43 
2  92 
1  46 


Factory  No.  2. 


No.  of 
hands. 


3 

30 

n 

24 

280 

70 


Weekly 
wajies. 


4  86 
4  86 
6  07 


8  50 
5  44 


i  94 

1  70 

2  43 

1  82 

2  91 
2  43 


2  CO 


1  21 

2  92 
2  43 
2  43 


2  92 
2  19 
2  19 
2  19 
1  82 

1  21 

2  43 
2  43 
2  43 
2  43 


2  39 


COTTON  MILLS   IN   THE  MANCHESTER  DISTRICT. 


[Statem.ent  prepared  by  Consul  Shaw.] 

4 

Average  list  of  wages  taken  from  a  cotton-spinning  mill  at  Oldham,  employing  about  300 

opirators. 


Subdivisions  of  employment  in  each  department. 


Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

Carders 

Striyipers  and  grinders 

Blowers  and  scutchers 

Drawers 

Slubbers , 

Rovers 

Mule  overlookers 

Self-actor  minders 

Piecers 

Warehousemen 

Loom  Jobbers 

Weavers,  per  loom,  about. 

Winders 

Warpers 


Men,  average 
weekly 
wages. 


$10  22 
5  10 
9  24 
5  59 
5  22 


10  22 
8  02 


5  83 
9  00 


Women,  av-     ^T^J^^' 
,  I        sons,  aver- 
erage  weekly    ^ge  weekly 


wages. 


wages. 


$4  32 
4  'J6 
3  89 


Children, 
average 
weekly 
wages. 


1  30 
4  01 
4  32 


$2  74 


$0  63 


68  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Average  wages  in  a  large  cotton-spmning  mill  at  Oldham. 


Sabdi visions  of  employment  in  each  department. 


Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

Carders 

Strippers  and  grinders 

Blowers  and  scutchers a 

Draweis 

Slubbers. 

Rovers 

Mule  overlookers 

Self-actor  minders 

Piecers 

■Warehousemen 

Loom  jobbers 

"Weavers,  per  loom,  about 

Winders 

"Warpers 


Men,  average 
■weekly 
wages. 


$11  19 

5  10 

10  22 

5  41 

5  10 


10  95 
7  54 


5  35 
9  24 


"Women,  av- 
erage weekly 
wages. 


Young  per- 
sons, aver- 
age weekly 
wages. 


$4  62 
4  50 
4  01 


1  30 

3  80 

4  38 


Children, 
average 
weekly 
wages. 


$2  55 


Average  wages  per  week  in  a  large  cotton  mill  at  Bolton,  England. 
[Taken  from  the  books  of  the  company.] 


Men,  average  I  "Women,  av. 
Subdivisioneofemploymentineachdepartment.       weekly        erageweekly 

wages. 


Young  per- 
sons, aver- 
age weekly 
wages. 


Children, 
average 
weekly 
wages. 


Spinners 

Overlookers 

Piecers 

Children  employed  in  various  ways . 

Outdoor  laborers 

Overseers 

"W.  h.  hands 

Eugineers 

Card  tenters 

Scutc-hers 

Strippers  and  grinders 

Drawing  frame  tenter 

Shibbing  fraiue  tenter 

Roving  tenters 

Intennediate  frame  tenters 

Ring  frame  tenters 

Joiners 

Mechanics 

Moldors 

Winders 

"Warpers 

Dressers 

Slashers 

Drawers 

Twisters 

Weavers,  overlookers 

"Weavers,  4  loom  (net) 

"Weavers,  3  loom 

"Weavers,  2  loom 


$7  78 
9  73 
4  38 


5  59 
9  73 

7  54 

8  75 


4  14 

5  35 


8  51 

7  66 

8  51 


10  95 
9  24 
4  62 
3  93 

10  22 


$1  88 


3  04  to  3  28 

2  61 

3  53 
2  61 

4  01 


3  89 

4  38 


4  86  to  5  22 
4  86  to  5  10 
3  16  to  3  41 


43  to  2  92 


$0  61 


Apprentice  boys,  some  of  whom  are  bound,  from  ?0.61  up. 

The  above  mills  employ  2,084  operatives,  with  308  working  days  in  a 
year,  and  averaging  50  hours  per  week. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  69 

Copy  of  the  weekly  pay-roll  of  a  ajnnning  mill  at  Bollington,  Cheshire,  England. 


Subdivisions  of  em- 
ployment in  such 
department. 

Men,  weekly  wages. 

"Women,     weeklj* 
wages. 

Young      persons, 
weekly  wages. 

Children,      weekly 
wages. 

S 

P 

O 

1 

Number. 
Highest. 

i 

c 

a 

s 

-a 

3 

m 
o 

a 

3 

.a 
5 

*5 

o 

1 
1 

10 
21 

4 
35 

1 

6 
4 

4 
12 

$4  86  $2  68  $3  77]     1    $2  68  $2  68  $2  68 
6  81    3  65   5  22    65     3  89    ■''  00    S  i^ 

n    *9  Ifl'tl   86'*9  0.^ 

Throstle  spinning. 

Mnle  spinning 

KuliD'' 

5  83    3  65   4  74   41      2  43 
7  78,  4  14'  5  95; 

7  78   7  78   7  78   64     Si  2S 

2  19'  2  31'  20 

1 |36 

1  82    2  .>;5'  24 

2  43 

3  68 
3  28 

3  65 

1  45    1  95 

2  55   2  61 
1  82   2  55 

32 



$0  85  $0  73  $0  79 

6 
4 

i  6i'      57       79 

Bundling  and  pack- 

1 
10  95'  2  43   6  68 

8  02    5  10   7  54 

9  97   5  10,  7  54 
s  sa'  a  fis   4  74 

3 

2  92 

3  28 

1          1 
1  09       85       71 

i 

Engineers  and  fire- 

171 

1 



42 



Total 

97 

72 

1          1 

Mule  spindles 

Throstle  spindles 

Rulers  working 

Whole  number   of  employes   in   establishment  for  week 

ending  November  8,  1883 

Pay-roll  (whole  establishment)  for  week  ending  November 

8,  1883 

Number  of  working  days  in  year 

Hours  of  labor  per  week 


AGES. 


Men 

Women 

Young  persons , 
Children 


37, 056 

20, 724 

94 

382 

L,211  27 
307 
56i 


21  to  60 

19  to  56 

13  to  21 

8  to  13 


Average  earnings  per  iveeTc  in  spinning  and  weaving  mills  at  Bolton. 

[Taken  from  the  books  of  one  of  the  largest  mills  in  the  district.] 
Each  loom |1  54 

3  looms,  at  $1.54 4  62 

2  half-timers,  at  62|  cents 1  25 

Net  earnings  of  weaver 3  37 

4  looms  at  $1.54  per  loom 6  16 

2  half-timers,  at  62^  cents 1  25 

Net  earnings  of  weaver 4  91 

Overlookers  have  charge  of  72  looms,  and  receive  on  an  average  $10  per  week. 


Description  of  employment. 

Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  25 

$4  50 

$4  37 

4  25 

4  25 

10  00 

12  50 

4  50 

3  50 

io  00 

12  50 

11  25 

17  50 

10  00 

70 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE. 
WORSTED  MILLS  IN  LEEDS. 

Average  wages  per  weelc  of  56  hours. 


Description  of  employment. 


Sorters 

Fetiers 

"VTooliers 

Girl  combers 
Girl  drawers 
Girl  primers 
Boy  primers 


Average 
■wages. 


$5  82 
5  88 
5  82 
2  88 
2  88 
1  24 
1  24 


Description  of  employment. 


Dressers.. 
Weavers  . 
Tuners. ... 
Assistants 
Knollers.. 
Perchers  . 
Carriers  .. 


Average 
•wages. 


$5  82 
10  00 
10  00 
5  82 
2  88 
2  88 
5  04 


LACE  AND   HOSIERY  MILLS   OF  NOTTINGHAM. 

Wages  per  week  in  hosiery  viills. 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 
•wages. 


H06IERT  MANUFACTUKE  (50  TO  56  HOUES). 


Hand  frame  knitters,  men 

Eotary  power  frame,  men 

Circular  power  frame,  men 

Circular  power  frame,  women 

Cottons  patent: 

Men 

Attendant  boys 

Attendant  girls 

Hand  stitcher  and  searaer,  women  . 
Power  stitcher  and  seamer,  women. 

Power  •wilters  and  turners  off 

"Winders 

Cutters : 

Men  

Women 

Menders,  women 

Folders : 

Men  (piece) 

Women  (piece) 

Girls  (piece) 

Men  (time)   

Lads  (time) 

Women  (time) 

Menders: 

Women  (piece) 

Women  (time) 

Girl.s  (time) 

Makers-np : 

By  hand,  women 

By  power,  women 


COTTON  DOUBtING  (56  HOURS). 


Donhlers: 

Women  .. 

Girls 

Keelcrs: 

Women  . 

Giris  .... 
Doffers,  girls  , 


2  20 
1  70 

1  70 
1  40 
1  00 


$4  14 
9  73 
9  73 
4  86 

12  16 
4  14 

2  43 
1  95 

3  65 

4  86 
3  16 


3  65 

3  90 

10  95 

4  15 

1  95 
7  78 

2  92 

2  92 

3  65 
2  92 

1  95 

2  90 

4  86 


2  92 
2  20 

2  20 
1  95 
1  46 


$3  75 
9  00 
9  00 
4  86 

10  00 
3  60 

2  43 

1  95 

3  le 

4  36 

2  90 

6  80 

3  65 
3  49 

7  60 
3  75 

1  80 

7  oe 

2  75 

2  80 

3  00 
2  7« 

1  50 

2  50 

3  60 


2  60 
2  00 

2  00 
1  75 
1  25 


*  Some  ■work  by  time,  some  by  piece,  according  to  arrangement  ■with  different  firms. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


71 


Wages  paid  per  week  ofi'A  hours  in  lace  factories  or  toarehouses  in  Nottingham. 


Description  of  employment. 


FA^•CT  LACE  MANUFACTURE. 

Lace  makers,  men 

"Winders,  lads  and  boys 

Wendt'i-s,  girls 

Threaders,  lads  and  boys 

"Warpeis,  uirn " 

Desiguois  aud  draughtsmen,  men 

Clippers  aud  scoUopers,  ■women 

Makers  in  silk : 

Men 


LACE   CUKTAIXS. 


Lads  and  boys 
Makers  in  cotton: 

Men    

Lads  and  boys 
Mendel  s: 

Women 

Gills  

Winders: 

Women 

Gills 

Warpers: 

Men  (time) 

Lad.s  and  boys 
Draughtsmen : 

Men   


Lowest 
■wages. 


Lads  and  boys 

Threaders,  lads  and  boys 
Smith  (time) ". ... 


Men 

Lads  and  boys 

Women "... 

Girls 


LACE  DRESSING. 


$11   50 
2  411 

2  40 
1  45 
6  00 

10  00 

3  40 


6  30 
4  86 


2  68 
1  45 


2  92 
1  95 


2  00 
2  43 
7  78 


Highest 
■wages. 


Average. 


$24  00 

2  90 

3  40 
2  40 
7  25 

24  00 

4  90 


19  00 
8  63 


12  60 
6  30 


3  40 

2  68 


3  40 
2  68 


6  30 
3  90 


2  92 
8  63 


$16  00 

2  60 

3  00 
2  00 
7  00 

15  00 

4  00 


18  00 

7  00 

8  oe 

5  50 

3  00 

2  20 

3  20 

2  20 

6  30 

3  00 

15  00 
3  50 

2  60 
8  00 

12  1« 

3  65 
3  41 
3  20 


The  majority  of  men  receive  set  wan;es,  whether  fully  emijloyed  or  not.    Women  and  girls  paid  ac- 
cording to  time  made.    Lads  j)aid  according  to  time  made. 

.     HOW  ENGLISH  FACTORY   OPERATIVES  LIVE. 

Referring  to  the  general  statements  in  the  foregoing  review  of  factory 
life  and  Labits  in  the  several  mauufactuiiug  centers,  and  to  the  tabu- 
lated rates  of  wages  paid  in  rei)reseutative  factory  centers,  the  follow- 
ing series  of  interviews  (thirteen  in  number)  with  factory  operatives, 
from  the  report  of  Consul  Lathrop,  of  Bristol,  will  give  a  fair  idea  of 
the  conditions  of  English  factory  and  mill  life. 

1.  Age, 42  years;  occupation,  wool  scourer;  wages,$4.34  per  week j 
hours  of  labor,  5G ;  can  save  nothing ;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week; 
wife  and  S  children  ;  2  children,  aged  17  and  18,  receive  at  self-act- 
ing mules  $1.58  each  jier  week.  Weekly  exi)enses:  rent,  85  cents; 
fuel,  73  cents;  food,  $4.37;  clothing,  CO  cents ;  club  dues,  incident- 
als, schooling,  insurance  for  G  children,  $1.09 ;  total  weekly  ex- . 
penses,  $7.64. 

2.  A  spinner,  G5  years  old ;  wages,  $4.8G  per  week ;  hours  of  labor, 
56;  can  save  nothing;  has  fresh  meat  four  times  a  week;  wife  ana 
7  children  ;  children  all  married.  Week's  expenses:  rent,  60  cents; 
fuel,  48  cents  ;  food,  $3.40;  clothing,  24  cents  ;  club  dues,  30  cents; 
incidentals,  6  cents;  total  weekly  exi^enses,  $5.08. 

3.  A  broad  loom  weaver,  35  years  old ;  wages,  $4.86  per  week ; 
hours  of  labor,  02 ;  can  save  nothing  ;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week; 
wife  and  three  children  ;  wife  receives  at  weaving  $1.95  ])er  week. 
Week's  expenses :  Kent,  79  cents ;  fuel,  72 cents;  food,  $4.13;  school, 
6  cents;  clothing,  24  cents;  club  dues,  24  cents;  incidentals,  60 
•cents ;  insurance,  6  cents  i)er  week ;  total  weekly  exi)enses,  $6.84. 

4.  A  laborer  in  woolen  wash  mill,  57  years  old  ;  wages,  $2.68  i^er 
week ;  hours  of  labor,  58 ;  saves  12  cents  a  week  for  Christmas ; 
has  fresh  meat  only  on  Sundays ;  wife  and  nine  children,  four  at 


72  LABOR    IN    EUEOPE. 

liome ;  two  boys  and  one  girl  receive,  as  picker,  carter,  and  piecer, 
respectively,  8 1 .70,  $2.43,  $1.22  per  week.  Weekly  expenses :  Kent, 
60  cents;  fnel,  36  cents;  food,  $3.60;  clothing, 36  cents;  club  dnes, 
twenty  years  in  a  shop  club,  which  broke  up  last  year;  insurance 
for  three  persons,  6  cents ;  incidentals,  24  cents ;  schooling,  8  cents  j 
total  weekly  exi»euses,  $7.30. 

5.  A  tucker,  25  years  old;  wages,  $3.90;  hours  of  labor,  56;  can 
save  nothing ;  has  fresh  meat  four  times  a  week  ;  wife  and  three 
children ;  wife  receives  as  weaver  $1 .25  per  week.  Weekly  expenses : 
Eent,  73  cents  ;  fuel,  48  cents ;  food,  $2.80;  clothing,  60  cents  ;  club 
dues,  13  cents;  incidentals,  24  cents;  insurance  lor  three  chihireu, 
6  cents ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $5.10, 

6.  Condenser  attendant,  40  years  old;  wages,  $3.40  per  week; 
hours  of  labor,  60;  can  save  nothing ;  wife  receives  $1.46 ;  meals  con- 
sist of,  for  breakfast  and  tea,  bread  and  butter,  i)erhai)s  an  egg ;  for 
dinner,  vegetables  and  a  little  meat  of  the  cheaper  kind.  Weekly 
exi)euses :  Kent,  60  cents ;  clothing,  36  cents ;  a  new  suit  only  once 
in  six  years  ;  food,  $3.16  ;  fuel,  36  cents ;  school  fees,  18  cents ;  club 
dues,  6  cents;  incidentals,  12  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $1.86. 

7.  Warper,  24  years  old  ;  wages,  $4.86  i)er  week ;  hours  of  labor, 
62;  has  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week;  wife  and  two  children;  wife 
receives  as  weaver  $2.18  per  week.  Weekly  expenses :  Eent,  82 
cents  ;  fuel,  43  cents  :  food,  $3.65 ;  clothing,  48  cents ;  club  dues,  40 
cents;  incidentals,  37  cents ;  insurance,  4  cents ;  servant,  85  cents; 
has  to  hire  servant  to  take  charge  of  children  while  at  work ;  total 
weekly  expenses,  $7. 

8.  Carder,  42  years  old ;  wages,  $3.90  per  week;  hours  of  labor, 55; 
can  save  nothing ;  has  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week ;  wife  and  five 
children  ;  wife  receives  as  weaver  $1.46  per  week ;  two  children 
work,  ages  19  and  17,  weaver  and  grocer;  weaver,  $1.46  per  week  ; 
grocer, food  and  $1.21  per  week.  Weekly  expenses:  Eent,  80  cents; 
fuel,  00  cents;  Ibod,  $4.38;  clothing,  $1.34;  club  dues,  24  cents; 
incidentals,  00  cents  ;  schooling,  0  cents ;  insurance,  14  cents  per 
■week  for  seven  people ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $8.16." 

9.  W^eaver,  37  years  old ;  wages,  $4,86;  hours  of  labor,  62;  saves 
about  $2.43  per  quarter ;  has  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week ;  wife 
and  five  children.  Weekly  expenses :  Kent,  60  cents;  fuel,  37  cents; 
food,  $4.38;  clothing,  60  cents;  club  dues,  37  cents;  incidentals,  97 
cents;  schooling,  20  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $7.49." 

10.  Pressman,  25  years  old ;  wages,  $4.38  per  week ;  hours  of 
labor,  57;  can  save  nothing;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week;  wife  and 
two  children;  wife  receives  $1.50  per  week  as  weaver.  Weekly 
expenses:  Kent,  73  cents;  fuel,  30  cents;  food,  $3.65;  clothing, 
48  cents ;  club  dues,  14  cents ;  incidentals,  48  cents ;  insurance,  2 
cents  per  week  for  one  child ;  total  weekly  ex])enses,  $5.80." 

11.  Fuller,  32  years  old;  wages,  $4.86  per  week;  hours  of  labor, 
60;  can  save  nothing;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week;  wife  and  five 
children.  Weekly  expenses:  Kent,  61  cents  ;  fuel,  36  cents ;  food, 
$2.92;  clothing,  24  cents;  club  dues,'  30  cents;  incidentals,  24 
cents;  schooling,  18  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $4.85." 

12.  Dyer,  35  years  old ;  wages,  $4.88  ])er  week ;  hours  of  labor,  55 ; 
can  iiave  nothing ;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week ;  wife  and  four 
children ;  wife  receives  at  weaving  98  cents  per  week.  Weekly 
expenses:  Kent,  73  cents;  fuel,  37  cents;  food,  $3.90;  clothing, 
very  little;  club  dues,  14  cents;  incidentals,  24  cents;  insurance 
for  two  children,  44  cents;  schooling,  20  cents;  total  weekly  ex- 
I)enses,  $5.62. 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


73 


13.  Broad-loom  weaver,  26  years  old;  wages,  $4.13  per  week; 
hours  of  labor,  G2 ;  can  save  Dotbing ;  fresli  meat  three  times  a 
week;  wife  and  child.  Weekly  expenses:  Kent,  43  cents;  fuel, 
24  cents ;  food,  $2.92 ;  club  dues,  24  cents ;  incidentals,  37  cents ; 
insurance,  4  cents ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $4.24. 


III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  England. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  MACHINERY  IN  BRADFORD. 

The  manufacture  of  machinery  employed  in  the  various  processes  of 
treating  wool  is  a  famous  Bradford  industry.  The  following  wage-list 
of  Bradford  machine-shops,  and  various  works  in  Birmingham,  Hull, 
Holyhead  and  Kewcastle-on-Tyne  is,  therefore,  of  representative  in- 
terest : 


Descrip.tion  of  employmeDt. 


MACHLNE-SH0r6  EC  BRADFORD. 

Cxipola-men 

Molders 

Laborers 

Loam-molders 

Laboi  era 

Fettlcrs 

Patiein-makera  

Tnrncis , 

Fitters 

Caiters 

IRON-WORKS  IN  BIRMINGHAM.* 

MoMeis 

Holdi-rsup 

Boiler-makers 

Eivetera   

Planers  and  slotters 

Drillers  ., 

Pressors ! 

Pattem-makeis  

Tnruers 

Stokers 

Anvil  and  viae  makers 

BIRMINGHAM     TIN-PLATE     AAT)     IRON- 
WORKS.! 

Iron-plate  makers 

Iron  braziers 

Tin-plate  workers 

Blacksmiths,  or  mounting  forgers 

Tinners 

Japauners,  ornamenters 

Stampers 

Colorers  (women,  44  hours) 

Tin  cleaners  (women,  44  hours) 

FOUNDRIES,   MACHINE-SHOPS,    AND  IRON 
W0Rii!3  LX  HULL. J 

Fitters 

Turners 

Borers 

Madiine-men 

Laboiers  

Smiths 

Strikers 

Molders 

Laborers 

Brass-finishers 

Pattern-makers 

FOUNDRIES,  MACHINE-SHOPS,  AND  IKON- 
WORKS  IN  HOLYHEAD. § 

Molders 

Pattern-makers 

Fitters 


Weekly 
wages. 


$7  30 
8  26 
4  38 
8  78 

4  86 

5  83 
7  54 
7  54 
7  54 
5  10 


11  50 

8  00 

10  50 

9  CO 
9  60 
7  00 
7  75 

11  50 
10  50 

6  25 
10  00 


7  25 

7  75 

6  25 

8  00 

9  75 
8  50 

7  25 
2  90 
2  90 


7  20 
7  20 
7  20 
5  50 
4  56 

7  20 

4  80 

8  IG 

5  50 
7  20 
7  92 


8  47 
8  25 
8  30 


Description  of  employment. 


Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron- 
works IN  HOLYHEAD — Continued. 

Laborers 

Engineers 


BLABT-FURNACES     IN    NEWCABTLE-ON- 
TYN-E. 


Barrowmen 

Oversetters 

Chargers 

Slaggers 

Laborers : 

Men 

Boys 

Stovemen 

Metal  carriers,  pig-iron  men 

Drawing  metal  flag  locomotives . 
Firing  metal  flag  locomotives . . . 

Blast-engines 

Hoist-engines 

Mending  gas-boilers 

Blast-engine  cleaners 

Sand-boy 

Limestone  breakers 


NEWCASTLE  FORGES.  |1 

Puddlers , 

Underhand  puddlers 

Hammermen  , 

Assistant  hammermen 

Boilers 

Assi-stant  rollers 

Bogning,  shearing,  and  stocking  hot 

pudder  bars  

Breaking  and  wheeling  pig-iron 

Drairging  and  fileing  taps 

Cleaning  hammers : 

Men 

Boys 

Grindiing  and  wheeling  fettling : 

Men 

Boys 

Burning  tap-cinders 

Wheeling  tap-cinders 

Wheeling  scraps  to  furnace,  boys 

Wheeling  coals  and  a^ihes 

Charging  and  drawing  bull-dog  kilns. . 
SundiT  laborers : 

Men 

Boys  

Sundry  account  keepers: 

Men 

Boys 

Forge  enginemen 

Forge  hammer  attendants 

Forge  boUermen  : 

Men 

Boys  


Weekly 
■wages. 


$4  97 
8  70 


6  72 

7  68 

8  16 
7  68 

4  64 

3  00 

5  04 

5  64 

6  12 

4  80 

7  32 

5  04 
5  52 

4  20 
3  12 

5  04 


10  14 
5  52 

19  26 
8  10 

17  74 
5  88 

7  56 

8  52 
4  98 

4  56 

1  56 

4  98 

2  46 
7  20 

5  76 
2  40 
5  42 
5  88 

4  32 

1  98 

5  94 

2  52 

6  24 

4  86 

5  64 
2  16 


*  54  hours  per  week. 

J  Average  wages  per  week  of  53  hours. 

II  Average  wages  per  week  of  66  hours. 


t  Wages  per  week  of  56  hours. 

^  Average  wages  per  week  of  60  hours. 


74 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE, 


In  relation  to  the  workers  in  foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron  mills 
in  the  north  of  England — and  the  statement  may  be  taken  as  applying 
equally  to  other  i)oitioDS  of  the  country — Consul  Locke,  of  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  says  that  the  condition  of  this  imi^ortant  class  of  laborers  is 
and  iias  been  for  some  time  i)ast  the  reverse  of  prosperous.  The  dull- 
ness in  the  shipping  trade  has  liad  its  efi'ect  on  the  iron  works,  necessi- 
tating the  restriction  of  the  output,  the  discharge  of  men  and  reduc- 
tion in  wages,  though  it  may  be  said  that,  as  a  rule,  the  iron  works  of 
the  district  have  not  as  yet  felt  the  depression  to  such  an  extent  as  other 
branches  of  trade.  There  has  not  been  that  general  cessation  of  busi- 
ness which  is  noticeable  in  the  ship-building  trade,  and  there  are  com- 
paratively fewer  laborers  out  of  em]>loyment;  but  there  is  a  slackness 
in  the  trade,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  works  which  last  year 
at  this  time  were  running  full  force  on  full  time  are  now  working  a  much 
smaller  staff  three-quarters  to  half  time,  while  in  a  few  instances  firms 
have  been  obliged  to  suspend  work  altogether.  This  state  of  affairs  has 
of  course  had  its  effect  on  wages,  whicli  have  been  gradually  reduced 
(usually  by  means  of  arbitration)  from  1878  to  the  jireseut  time. 

IV. — Glass  and  pottery  workers  in  England. 

SOUTH  SHIELDS  PLATE-GLASS  WORKS. 

Average  wages  per  week  of  59^  horns. 

Pot  makers $8  24 

Fumacemen 8  48 

Casters 9-00 

Grinders 7  00 

Smoothers , 7  00 

Smoothers,  women 2  42 

Polishers 7  24 

Cutters  and  packers - 6  08 


TUNSTALL  POTTERS'  WAGES. 

rotters'  average  weekly  wages,  according  to  statement  of  sccretai-y  of  Potters''  Manufactwr- 
ing  Association,  statements  made  by  workmen,  and  statements  furnished  hy  sixteen  vianu- 
facturers,  with  the  general  average  of  the  three  statements  thus  obtained. 

[Statement  compiled  by  Consul  Lane.] 


Description  of  occupation. 


eS  C  ce  o 

2m£§ 


Is  a 


fe"K 


p<     >-, 

'gag 

f,  5  5 

n  '^  2 

t:  B  * 

C-        o 

^  .a  jd 

c      p 
o  "'■  i: 


Fliit  pressers 

Dish  niakwrB 

Cup  milkers 

Saucer  makers 

Hand-liasin  makers 

llollow-waio  piessers 

Hollow-ware  pressor  jiggerers 

Printers 

Ovcniiien 

Sajrgar  makers 

Mold  makers 

Turners    

Handlers 

Firemen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


$6  57 
9  48 

8  40 
7  48 

9  12 

7  32 
10  20 

6  57 

6  66 

8  04 

9  48 
8  04 

7  32 
10  20 
10  20 

6  57 


$7  32 
8  04 
7  32 

7  32 

8  76 

7  32 

9  49 
C  CG 
0  00 
G  GO 

8  04 

7  32 

8  40 
11  55 

9  72 
6  28 


$7  67 

8  78 

9  48 
7  64 
9  49 
7  57 
9  90 
7  39 
G  04 
7  43 

10  20 

7  38 

8  05 

11  81 
11  31 

6  43 


$7  19 
8  77 

8  40 
7  48 

9  12 
7  40 
9  53 
C  84 

6  65 

7  38 
9  24 
7  58 
7  93 

11  19 

10  41 

6  43 


G-eneral  average  of  earnings  per  man  per  week,  $7.40. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


75 


BRITISH  POTTERS'  NET   WAGES. 

The  foregoing  statement  is  given  on  the  assumption  that  the  potters 
are  employed  full  time,  but  the  fact  is,  says  Consul  Lane,  many  of  them 
are  not  running  on  full  time. 

Taking  the  Staffordshire  potters'  actual  earnings  the  year  round,  Mr. 
Lane  considers  a  weekly  average  of  $5.92  i)er  man  as  a  liberal  estiinate. 
Upon  this  estimate  the  net  earnings  of  the  100  potters  given  in  the  fore- 
going statement  would  be  as  follows : 

statement  showing  the  full  time  and  net  weeUy  earnings  of  100  Staffordsliire  potters. 


Description  6f  work. 


Flat  pressors 

Dish  makers 

Cup  makers 

Saucer  makers 

Hand-basin  makers 

BoUow-ware  pressors 

Dollow-waro  presser  jiggerers 

Priiitors 

Ovcniicn 

Saytrariiien  

Mold  makers  

Turners 

Handlers 

Firemen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 

Average 


as 


Weekly  wages. 


Fnll  time.   Net 


$7  32 
8  04 
7  32 

7  32 

8  76 

7  32 

9  49 
6  66 

6  e6 

6  66 

8  04 

7  32 

8  40 
11  55 

9  72 
6  28 


7  40 


$5  72 
7  02 
6  72 

6  03 

7  30 
5  90 
7  88 
5  47 
5  30 

5  90 

7  39 

6  06 
6  3ft 

8  95 
8  83 
5  03 


5  92 


It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  consuls  elsewhere  did  not  deal  more  in 
net  averages  after  the  manner  of  Mr.  Lane's  analyses  and  the  direc- 
tions of  the  Department  circular.  Basing  conditions  upon  full  time 
when  full  time  does  not  prevail,  and  calling  an  average  the  simple 
multiplication  and  division  of  lowest  and  highest  rates  of  wages,  is 
not  the  true  way  to  arrive  at  actual  conditions.  Upon  general  princiides 
the  Tunstall  potters  would  be  credited  with  an  average  full-time  earn- 
ing of  $7.40  per  week,  while  the  true  average  earning,  as  shown  by  Consul 
Lane,  is  only  $5.92  per  week. 

Estimating  an  average  British  workingman's  family  as  composed  af 
husband,  wife  and  three  children.  Consul  Lane  computes  the  minimum 
weekly  wages  necessary  to  their  i)lain  comfort  at  £L  5j?.,  or  $G.08,  and 
gives  the  following  statement  as  to  a  mechanic  with  this  family : 


JVeeklij  expenses  of  a  Tunstall  carpenter^s  family — wages  of  husband,  xcife 
three  children,  $6. 

Rent $i  7-> 

Club 16 

Taxes 9 

Coal 48 

Bread 1  00 

Bacou,  2  poiiuds 32 

Cheese,  2  pounds 32 

Butter,  1  pound 32 

Potatoes,  one-half  peck IG 

Fresh  meat,  4|  pounds 71 


76 


LABOR    IX    EUROPE. 


WeeMy  expenses  of  a  TunstaU  carpenter  s  family,  ^c. — Continued. 

Tea,  three-fourths  pound $0  36 

Sugar,  4  pounds ■ 28 

Soap,  2  pouuds 12 

Flour,  3  pounds 12 

Milk,  1  quart 6 

Candles,  one-half  pound 6 

Tobacco,  2  ounces 12 

Beer 12 

Clothes 48 

Total P  00 

Taking  the  foregoing  as  tlie  minimum  living  rate  of  a  workingman's 
family,  Mr.  Lane  shows  by  the  following  statement  that  out  of  every 
100  potters  employed  only  17  earn  wages  above  $6  per  week,  while  83 
earn  less  than  $6,  and  must  therefore  cut  their  expenses  below  that  of 
the  Tunstall  carpenter,  or  sujiplement  their  wages  in  some  manner. 

Statement  shoiving   the  percentage  of  Tunstall   potters  earning    above  and  below  £1  5s. 

($6.08)  per  week. 


Branch  of  labor. 


Flat  pressors 

Dish  makers 

Cup  juakers  

Saucer  makers 

Hand-baaiii  makers 

Hollow-ware  pressors 

Hollow-ware  pressor  jiggerers. 

Priutera 

Ovenmen 

SafTgar  makers 

Mold  makers  

Turners 

Handlers 

riremen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


Total 


No.  of 
workers. 


83 


Weekly 

net 
earnings. 


$5  72 
7  01 
6  72 

6  02 

7  30 
5  92 
7  89 
5  47 
5  32 

5  90 

7  40 

6  06 
6  35 

8  95 
8  30 
5  02 


Surplus.      Deficiency. 


$0  93 
64 

1  22 

1  81 

1  32 

24 

2  87 
2  25 

$0  36 


02 


1  06 


Continuing  his  interesting  analyses  of  averages,  the  consul  shows  in  a 
subsequent  table  tliat  if  the  foregoing  100  potters  were  to  pool  their 
earnings  there  would  be  a  weekly  total  deficiency  for  the  minimum 
amount  necessary  to  the  support  of  the  average  family  of  $10.10  per 
week. 

The  conclusion  suggested  by  these  tables  is  that  the  wages  which 
make  saving  possible  among  the  Tunstall  potters  are  limited  to  a 
small  number. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

V. — Mines  and  mining  in  England. 

Average  wages  per  week  paid  in  mines  and  mining. 


77 


Description  of  employment.     |  Hours,     wasps^ 


COKXWALL. 

Underground  men 

Shaftmen 

Ore  dressers 

NEWCASTLE 

Hewers , 

Deputies , 

Engineers : 

Winding , 

Hauling , 

Pumping..'. , 

Fan , 

Locomotive 

Shifters 

Stouemen 


$3  12 
4  05 
3  02 


6  72 
6  60 

5  88 
5  88 

5  76 

6  64 
6  24 

4  68 

5  64 


Description  of  employment. 


Newcastle— Cbn  tinned. 


Firemen 

Fuinacemen 

Hand  putters 

Pony  putters 

Keepers 

Screeners 

Ordinary  smiths. 
Boiler  smiths. ... 

Joiners 

Masons 

Fitters 

Laborers 

Coke  drawers  ... 

Coke  fillers 

Coke  laborers  . . . 


Hours. 


Weekly 

wages. 


$4  02 

3  84 
5  76 

4  56 

5  04 

4  20 

5  28 
5  28 
5  28 
5  52 

5  28 

4  08 

6  84 

5  7« 
4  44 


XOTE. — The  majority  of  the  Newcastle  miners — that  is,  the  married  men — with  the  exception  of 
patters  and  cokemen,  are  supplied  with  free  coal,  paying  12  cents  per  fortnight  for  its  loading. 

VI. — Railway  employ]&s  in  England. 

Wages  paid  toeekly  to  railway  employe's  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <^'C.)  in  England. 


Description  of  employment. 


LIVERPOOL  AND  LONDON.* 


Station  masters  - . . 

Inspectors 

Porters    

Engine  drivers  — 

Firemen 

Cleaners 

Railroad  laborers  . 


Guards 

Porters 

Signalmen 

Lampmen 

Engine  drivers - 

Firemen 

Cleaners  

Fitters 

Laborers 


NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.t 

Passenger  department. 

Station  masters 

Station  mawters'  assistants 

Booking  and  passenger  clerks  . 


Description  of  employment. 


XEWCA6TLE-0N-TTNK— Continued. 

Passenger  department — Continued, 

Telegraph  clerks 

Guards 

Guards'  assistants 

Foremen  porters 

Parcel  porters 

Excess  porters 

Porters 

Lampmen 

Carnage  cleaners 

Ticket  collectors 

Signalmen 

Gatemen 

Goods  department. 

In.spectors 

Guards , 

Foremen 

Pot  ters , 

Timber  loaders , 

Shunters  , 

Rollymen 

Horsemen 

Number -takers 


Average 


$5  68 
6  84 
5  00 
5  48 

4  75 

5  72 
4  36 
4  60" 
4  36 

6  24 
6  00 
4  12 


8  16 
4  06 

4  04 

5  20 
5  60 
5  72 
5  62 
5  48 
4  12 


*  As  the  consul-general  in  his  report  refers  to  this  table,  compiled  in  Liverpool,  as  showing  the  rates 
of  wages  in  London  also,  it  may  thus  be  taken  as  representing  both  Liverpool  and  London, 
t  Northern  division  of  the  Northwestern  RaUway  Company. 


78 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


Wages  paid  per  week  to  railroad  employes  in  locomotive  department,  northern  division  Norlh- 
castern  liailway  Companii,  yeiccasile-on-Tyne. 

I  [Per  week  of  54  hotu'S  for  men  in  repairing  departments.] 


Description  of  employment. 


LOCOMOTIVE  WOKKB. 

Foremen 

Chai gemen  (erectors) 

Fitters 

Boilei  smiths 

Bdilersmiib.s'  assistants. 

TiA  auil  copper  smiths 

Blaeksniiths 

Strikers 

Turaers  and  machine  men 

Brass  inoldcrs 

Brass  tiniMhers 

Cariiafie  liuilders 

Wajiou  builders 

Cairiajie  painters 

Engine  painters 

Pattern  makers 

Sawyers 

Laborers 

Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

Mineral  guards 

Engine  cleaners 

Boiler  cleaners 

Lighters-up 

Stationary-engine  drivers 

Coke  and  coal  tillers  

Wagon  greasers* 

ENGIKEERING  DEPARTMENT, 

Inspectors 

Gangers 

Navvies  (pickmen) 

Navvies  (shovelers) 

Platelayers  

Platelayers,  extra  gang 

Joiners     ...    

Joi  ners'  laborers 

Bricklayers 

Plnnibers  and  gas-fitters 

Signal  titters 

Gas  makers 

Painters 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Masons 

Masons'  laborers 


Average 
wages. 

$11  00 

8  66 

7  33 

8  30 

6  03 

8  00 

7  13 

4  51 

6  89 

7  13 

8  12 

6  36 

6  36 

4  51 

6  12 

7  3» 

5  27 

4  6!> 

9  45 

5  69 

6  36 

3  03 

4  70 

5  27 

5  45 

4  76 

4  39 

8  48 

6  48 

5  48 

5  48 

5  6D 

5  48 

7  54 

5  36 

7  04 

7  54 

7  04 

5  48 

6  36 

7  42 

5  24 

5  67 

2  48 

*  These  rates  are  irrespective  of  piece-work  profits,  overtime,  &c.    Boys  and  apprentices  have 
been  disregarded  in  this  return,  except  in  the  case  of  engine  cleaners. 

Average  weekly  railway  tcages  in  Manchester  and  Tunstall. 

[Men  in  goods  department  woik  six  days  per  week;  men  in  passenger  department  work  seven  days 
per  week.    Uniforms  are  furnished  free  by  the  company.] 


Description  of  employment. 

Weekly 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Weekly 
wages. 

MANCHESTER. 

Engine-drivers* 

$8  76 
6  54 
6  80 
6  32 

5  34 

3  89 

4  86 

6  80 
6  32 
4  38 

TUNSTALL. 

Station  department. 

Firemen* 

$25  73 
14  59 

9  73 

8  42 

8  43 

7  48 

7  29 

Laborers 

Ccdleclors 

6  08 

12  hours  per  day. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Average  weeTcly  railway  wages  in  Manchester  and  Tunstall — Continued. 


79 


Description  of  employment. 


Tunstall— Continued. 

Passen<?er  guards 

Porters 

Sisniil-tnen 

Shi>uti-r3 

Horse-drivers 

Parcel  porters 

Engine  deparment. 

Firemen 

TJnder  firemen 

Enfiinc-drivers 

Engine-clfeaners 

Firnmen 

Fitters 


"Weekly 
wagL'S. 


$6  81 
4  26 
6  68 
4  86 
6  81 
4  86 


14  59 
9  73 
9  73 
3  65 
5  59 
8  51 


Description  of  employment. 


TuxsTALL— C  ontinued. 

Inspector 

Clerk 

Examiners 

Road  department. 

Inspector 

Clerk 

Firemen 

Platelayers 

Goods  department. 

Inspector 

Clerk 


Weekly 
wages. 


$9  73 
7  27 
6  68 


6  68 

7  48 
7  29 
4  86 


15  50 
5  65 


VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  54  hours  in  ship-yards  in  England. 


Description  of  employment. 


Carpenters  and  shipwrights. 

Joiners 

Painters 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Platers 

Helpers 

Calkers 

Ri  ve"  ers 

Kivet-boys 

Sawyers 

Pattein-makers 

Fitttrs   

Helpers 

Machinists 

Hiilders-np 

Clippers 

Drillers 

Laliorers  

Iron- workers 

Angle-iron  smiths 


Newcastle- 
on-Tyne. 


$8  51 
8  03 

6  80 

7  78 


03 


7  54 

8  03 


7  78 

8  51 
8  15 


7  42 


Liverpool. 


$9  12 
8  57 

7  78 

8  51 
5  83 

9  24 

5  35 

6  81 

7  78 
1  58 


8  27 


6  32 
8  51 
5  46 
5  23 


Bristol. 


7  92 
7  92 


6  48 

7  20 


8  64 
6  48 


5  47 

8  64 

9  36 


Consul  Locke  says  that  the  building  of  ships  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant industries  in  the  north  of  England — the  three  north  of  Eng- 
land 1  ivers,  the  Tyne,  the  Wear  and  the  Tees,  are  lined  with  ship-yards 
wherein  thousands  of  men  are  or  have  been  employed.  During  the  lat- 
ter part  of  1883  overproduction  developed  into  a  glut  of  the  market,  and 
there  was  then  a  sudden  and  serious  collapse.  The  smallest  yards  suc- 
cumbed and  the  largest  were  obliged  to  discharge  a  number  of  their 
hands  and  reduce  the  hours  of  labor.  As  the  foregoing  table  shows  the 
full  rate  of  wages,  the  net  or  real  earnings  are  of  course  much  less. 


80  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VIII. — Sea^ien's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men)— distinguishing  hetiveen  ocean,  coast  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  England. 


Dgscription  of  employment. 


OCEAN  BTBAHSHIPS. 


First  officerB 

Secouil  officera'... 

Third  officers 

Able  seamen 

Ordinary  seamen . 
First  engineer  . . . 
Second  engineer.. 
Third  engineer... 
Firemen 


OCBAN  8AILINQ  SHIPS. 


First  mate  . . 
Second  mate. 
Seamen 


COASTDiG  TRADE. 


Master 

Mate,  first 

Mate,  second  . 
Seamen 


Liverpool. 


$63  26 
50  47 
30  74 
15  81 


83  94 
66  91 
50  48 
18  90 


33  25 
28  07 
13  78 


29  16 
24  32 
*27  24 


Hull. 


$72  00 
43  20 
36  00 


64  80 
43  20 


26  40 


33  60 
24  00 
14  00 


57  60 
38  40 
28  50 
22  08 


Bristol. 


$45  20 
31  60 

17  62 
9  73 

73  00 
53  50 
34  06 

18  80 


37  70 
25  50 
21  89 


A verage 
Newcastle-   wages 
on-Tyne.    for  all 
England. 


$36  40 
28  00 
12  40 


72  00 
48  40 
28  30 
12  60 


28  00 
20  40 
12  00 


77  00 
45  76 
32  96 
28  32 


$67  33 
43  82 
33  08 
15  27 
9  73 
73  44 
53  00 
37  61 
19  18 


33  14 
24  48 
15  42 


67  00 
37  77 
28  59 
25  88 


*  And  find  their  own  food. 

IX.— Shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  shops,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females. 


Description  of  employment. 


Grocers : 

ilen 

Boys 

Drapers : 

Men 

Boys 

Druggists 

Hosiers : 

Males 

Females 

Milliners 

Irouiuimgers 

Hatters : 

ilales 

Females 

Eai  thenware 

Stationers : 

Males 

Females 

Tobacconists,  females  . 
Confectioners,  females. 
Boots  and  shoes: 

Males 

Females 

Foncy  goods : 

Males 

Females 


Hull. 


$5  00 


5  50 


6  25 

5  75 
3  20 
2  44 

6  60 

5  30 


5  75 

5  00 
2  80 

2  80 

3  40 


Leeds. 


$5  50 

1  20 

7  00 

2  00 
7  00 

7  20 
2  50 
2  50 
7  50 

7  00 

'  246 


7  00 
2  50 


6  00 
2  50 


7  00 
2  50 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 
Store  and  shop  {household  supply  stores)  wages  in  Birmingham. 


81 


Description  of  employment. 


MALES 

Perters  and  laborers . . . 

Delivery  porters 

Salesmen 

Chiefs  of  departments 


Average 
wages. 


$4  86 
5  50 
5  37 

13  37 


Description  of  employment. 


FE  HALES. 

Young  girls  who  copy  orders 

Toung  girls  who  weigh  and  pack  up.. 

Sale.sworaen 

Principal  assistants    

Superior    clerks,  cashiers,  and  book 
keepers 


Average 
wages. 


$2  10 
2  10 

2  no 

5  10 

6  00 


The  above  amounts  sbould  be  increased  by  tbe  value  of  a  good  plain 
dinner,  which  is  supplied  free  of  charge  to  the  employes  at  a  cost  to  the 
employers  of  about  tive  shillings  per  week,  according  to  a  note  attached 
to  the  returns  by  the  manager  of  the  firm  which  furnished  the  statistics. 
Whether  this  free  dinner  is  a  general  custom  or  a  special  arrangement 
by  this  particular  firm,  is  not  stated. 

Gloueester. — The  consul  at  Gloucester  gives  his  shop  wages  as  run- 
ning from  -^2.40  to  $14.40  per  week,  without  any  further  detail. 

The  foregoing  are  the  only  statistics  given  in  regard  to  shop  wages  in 
England  which  could  be  tabulated.  To  the  dissimihirity  of  working 
customs  and  rates  of  wages  for  shop  service,  together  with  the  extent 
and  intricacy  of  the  field  embraced,  may  be  attributed  the  meagerness 
of  the  returns  under  this  head. 

XI. — Agricultural,  wages. 

Wages  paid  pertceek  to  agricultural  laborers  in  the  west  of  England,  with  or  without  hoard 

and  lodging. 


Description  of  employment. 


A  verage 

wagoe 

. 

$3 

65 

2 

01 

1 

14 

2 

13 

3 

65 

1 

46 

9 

01 

o 

(i7 

1 

40 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE . 

In  summer,  without  food  and  lodging 

In  winter,  without  food  and  lodging 

Females,  ordiuary   

Females,  harvest  hands 

SOMERBETSHIUE. 

Males,  food  soraetiines  supplied  at  harvest      

Women,  field  labor,  cider  and  sometimes  food 

WILTSHIRE  AXD  DOKSETSHIKE, 

Males  in  summer 

Males  in  winter  

Women  field  laborers    


Of  agricultural  labor  in  the  above  districts,  Consul  Lathrop,  of 
Bristol,  cannot  s{)eak  favorably.  Wages  are  lower  in  the  west  tliau 
in  any  other  part  of  Englaiul. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  apjiearance  of  agricuUmal  hi- 
borers,  as  seen  by  the  consul  at  a  "hiring  fair"  at  Chippen  Sodbniy,  in 
Gloucestershire : 

Worn  out,  their  years  gone,  their  muscles  stiff,  they  are  us<^less 
to  the  employer,  and  cannot  get  a  |»lace.  They  are  literally  tn  iieil 
out  to  die,  and  their  only  refugee  is  the  workhouse;  for  it  was  impos- 
sible for  them  to  save  anything  for  their  old  age.  WImmi  a  pan-  of 
boots  costs  half  a  week's  wages,  a  iSunday  suit  three  weeks'  wa^es, 
a  pound  of  the  cheapest  meat  two  aiid  a  half  hours'  work,  how 
could  they  save*? 

92  A— LAB G 


82  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Agricultural  wages  in  the  Hull  district,  county  of  Ywi,  and  Liverpool  and  London  di-itrids. 
Description  of  employmeot.     i  Average  wages.  {I    Description  of  employment.    I  Average  wages. 


HUI-L  DISTRICT. 

Faim  laborers' per  year. 

Dairymaids  ' do. . . 

Houstniaids ' do... 

■Wagoner' do  . . 

COUNTY  OF  YORK. 

Laborer : 

First  man  ^ i)cr  week . 

Second  man  ■* do  .  - 

Foreman  of  farm per  year . 

Second  man' do... 

Third  plowman' do. . . 

Plowboy ' do. . . 

Shepherd  ^ per  ■week . 

Blacksmith* per  day. 

.Joiner' do.  - . 

Herdman  * per  week . 

Groom ' per  year. 

Servant  girl ' do. . . 


.$29  00  to  .$7-.'  00 

ti7  00  to  86  00 

.-.8  00  to  67  00 

1)7  00  to  06  09 


$i  06 
■A  70 
12it  00  to  100  00 
82  00  to  97  03 
68  00  to 
48  00  to 
4  06  to 


County  of  york— Continued. 

Scnllery  maids per  year..]    $59  00  to  .$40  00 

LIVERPOOL  DISTRICT. 


4  06  to 
6;!  00  to 
58  00  to 


78  00 

68  00 

4  40 

96 

96 

4  40 

78  00 

78  00 


Teamster  * per  year. 

Herd* do... 

IJ  DairjTnaid*  . .  ■. do.  .. 

i|  Cheese  maker* do. . . 

I  Field  boy"  do... 

Ii  Herdsmen' per  week. 

,i  Laborer' do... 

II  Boys' do... 

[  LONDON  DISTRICT. 

I    Laborers  in  Kent',  .per  week. 

Laborers  in  Middlesex  '  .do. . . 

Laborers  in  Snrrey  ' do. . . 

I    Laborers  in  Essex ' do . . . 

i  I  Laborers  in  Hereford ' . . .  do . . . 


7;i  00 
68  00 
.•53  00 
121  00 
29  00 

3  89 

4  01 
1  70 


4  13 
4  13 
4  38 
3  6.5 
3  89 


'  With  board  and  lodging. 

•■'■With  cottage. 

'No  cottage  :   no  board. 


*  And  a  cottage. 

■•  And  two  piiits  of  beer. 

""With  board. 


'"Without  board. 


Ill  the  agricultural  districts  around  London  the  agricultural  laborers 
earn  on  an  average  about  $220  per  annum.  It  is  customary  to  give  a 
bonus  at  harvest  time,  and  during  that  season  the  laborer  is  supplied 
with  beer.  The  general  tendenc}'  in  agricultural  wages  (notwithstand- 
ing the  depression  in  agriculture)  is  upwards,  since  the  farmers  are 
obliged  to  pay  their  hands  sufficient  wages  to  overcome  the  natural 
tendency  to  drift  into  the  cities  to  seek  a  living. 

AGRICULTURAL    LABOR   IN   THE   NEWCASTLE   DISTRICT. 

The  system  ot  half- yearly  "fair  hiring"  still  prevails  in  this  district. 
During  the  first  week  in  May  the  consul  attended  a  hiring  at  the  Corn 
Market  in  Newcastle.  There  was  a  large  attendance  of  both  masters 
and  men,  women  and  girls.  The  laborers,  it  Mould  seem,  tixed  their 
terms,  and  the  employers  were  forced  to  accept  them,  \iz :  For  the  half 
year,  men,  $48  to  $78;  boys,  $17  to  $24;  females,  from  $81.04  to  girls 
to  $43.80  to  women. 

It  is  usual  on  these  occasions  to  advance  money  to  the  laborers, 
which  the  latter  spend  at  night  in  the  public  houses.  The  excesses 
on  these  occasions  hav«'  iiroused  public,  sentiment  against  the  sys- 
tem, and  it  is  likely  that  it  will  soon  be  done  away  with.  With 
all  its  drawbacks,  this  system  has  its  atlviintages ;  it  enables  the  la- 
borers to  meet  and  consult  about  terms,  and  it  also  enables  the  masters 
to  select  the  lal)orers  most  suitable  to  their  requirements. 

XTI. — C01{IM)i;AI'10ISf    EMPLOYES, 

Wngvif  paid  per  i/mr  to  tlw  Kiihordiiiatc  vorporution  einplojii'n  in  tlir  citij  of  London. 
[Compiled  at  the  consulate-general.] 


Description  of  employn,en,  '^_  H^^i^        ^^-^ 

Oity  goveriiinent  {London  proper,  Guihlhnll,  and  Maniiion  Hoxiae). 

Chief  clerks  (Guildhall) -$820  00  ,    $3,  550  00    

Copying  clerks 486  00             790  00    

Laborers,  a  week 5  40  7  20 

Porters,  a  week 5  40  ,  7  20  i 


■$6  00 
6  00 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


83 


As  to  ordinary  trades — carpenters,  bricklayers,  &c. — employed  by  the 
city  of  London,  it  is  nsual  for  the  proper  officers  of  the  vestries  or  par- 
ishes (local  divisions)  to  give  ont  the  work  by  contract,  and  then  the 
average  rates  as  tabulated  under  "General  trades"  are  in  force.  On 
an  average,  a  common  laborer  will  receive  10  cents  per  hour,  and  a 
skilled  mechanic  17  cents  per  hour,  for  52  hours,  a  week's  woi'k.  Street 
cleaners,  men,  62  to  90  cents  a  day;  boys,  30  to  62;  dustmen  (carmen), 
15.35  to  $5.83  a  week. 

XIII. — Government  DEPARTjffiNTs  and  offices. 

Wages  j)ai(1  per  i/ear  to  employee  in  Government  departments  avd  offices — erelusire  of  tradea- 
inen  and  laborers — in  England. 

[Compiled  at  the  oouealate-genertJ.] 


Description  of  ernplojment. 


GENBRAT,  CIVIL  SERVICE  GRADES. 


Higher  division  clerkst 

Lower  division  clerks; 

Lover  division  clerk,  (7  hours  oflicesj§- 

Boy  clerks  (age  15  to  17  years) 

Men  copyists  (20  cents  an  hour) 

Boy  copyists  (8  to  9\  cents  an  hour) . . . . 

Men  messengers 

Boy  messengers 


SALAKr   MHT   OF  THE   FOREIGN  OFFICE. 


Secretary  of  state 

Under  secretary  of  state 

Three  assistant  secretaries  of  state 

Chief  clerk 

6  senior  clerks 

6  assistant  clerks 

20  tirstclass  .junior  clerks 

4  second-class  junior  clerks 

Librarian 

Sublibrarian ^ 

2  first-class  clerks,  librarian's  department. . . 
2  second-class  clerks,  librarian's  department 
4  third-class  clerks,  librarian's  department .. 

Superintendent  treaty  department 

Assistant  treaty  dej)artment , 

Clerk  in  treaty  department 


Lowest  I  Highest 
■wages.*    wages.* 


389 
462 
195 


230 
76 


CHIEF  CLERK'S  OFFICE. 


Three  first-class  clerks 

Two  second-class  clerks. .. 

Five  third-class  clerks 

Translator 

Oriental  interpreter 

Four  clerks  lower  division. 

Clerk  in  passport  office 

Private  secretary 

Precis  writer 

Two  temporary  clerks 

Printer . 


4,  866 

4,380 
3,  400 
973 
486 
3,  400 
2,676 
1, 1(46 

1,  216 
486 

3,  406 

2,  676 
1,216 


1,<)46 

1, 216 

486 


389 


Proof-reader 

Otticekeeper 

Assistant  oflicekeeper 
Assistant  oflicekeeper 

Coal  porter 

Assistant  coal  porter-. . 

Porter 

Porter 

Ho\isekeeper 


253 


292 


$1,  946 

973 

1,217 

245 


250 
114 


0,083 
4,  806 
3,893 
2,  920 
973 
4,866 
3, 162 
2,  433 
1,752 
1,167 
4,866 
3,162 
1,752 


2,  433 

1,752 

1,167 

2,433 

1,946 

173 

1,  216 

1,460 

1,460 

680 

729 

505 

973 

438 

427 

316 

215 

438 

389 

607 


Average 
wages. 


$973 
681 
840 
220 
420 
210 
?40 
95 


24,  332 
9,733 
7,300 


*  The  two  amounts  indicate  the  limits,  the  salary  being  dependent  on  length  of  serv'ice. 
1  Commencing  at  $486  and  increasing  by  trienni.Kl  increments  of  $73. 
;  Same  triennial  increment. 
J  Same  triennial  increment. 


84  LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  employes  in  Government  departments,  <fc. — Continued. 


DeBcription  of  employment. 

Lowest 

wages.* 

Highest 
wages.* 

Average 
wages. 

EXTRA  ALLOWANCES. 

Pprmanent  under  eecretary  of  state,  for  management  of  secret  service 
fund 

$1,460 
729 
729 
1,946 
1,216 
973 
729 
146 

For  lanyuages       

Dxamlning  medical  officer 

POST-OFFICB  DEPARTMENT. 

Secretary's  ojfice. 
Postmaster-General 

$12, 166 

SecFftar V  

9,733 

Fiiiaiiciai  Recretary 

7,300 

Assistant  secretaries 

$4,  866 

5,840 

Chief  clerk 

4,770 

5  princii)al  clerks,  npper  section 

3,406 
2,  8'J2 
1,  !I46 
1,265 
730 
389 

4,282 
3,310 
2,433 
1,849 
973 
973 

10  first-class  clerks 

24  third-class  clerks 

Misting  letter  branch. 
1  clerk 

2  433 

1  first-class  clerk , 

1,508 

1,  021 

486 

1,946 

1,  021 

.  973 

584 

380 

2r.8 

228 

88 

802 
535 
389 
194 

584 
225 
330 
177 
201 

2.190 

1,400 

973 

2,  433 
1,460 
1,  400 
705 
444 
340 
316 
126 

1,460 
730 
486 
3(J5 

634 
302 
570 
216 
316 

Secoiid-clasB  clerk 

Third-class  clerk 

Storekeeper's  branch. 
Storekeeper 

1  clerk. 

1  supervi.'Hor 

3  overseers 

6  foremen  of  laborers 

52  ]K)rters  and  liiborers 

18  porters  and  laliorers 

Messengers  (boys)  

Superintendent 

10  first-class  clerks   

13  fit  st-cUfls  returners  (I'eniale) 

14  second-class  returners  (male) 

37  sccond-i'lass  returners  (female) 

5  third-class  returners  (female) 

At  northern  district 

2,433 
2,433 

At  K.  C.  distiict 

3,  40G 

3,285 

At  W.  C.  district 

3,940 

AtE.distiict 

2,433 

I'adilington 

2,480 

Galing 

730 

Putney-            .'.. 

584 

Wandsworth,  <tc 

1,703 

591  small  letter- receiving  offices  in  London 

24 

202 
228 
176 

228 

228 
205 
240 

584 

380 
265 
228 
342 

352 
342 
310 

Letter-carriers  and  sorters. 
.360  letter-can iers 

94  junior  letter-carriora,  second  class 

.^.  .         _                      Suburban  letter-carrier s.\ 
Division  I 

Division  IT. 

Division  III  (estimated) 

..  i.w,  i,Y»u  uiii, ,11111.1  luiiicau;  ine  limits,  toe  sa 
t  Wages  regulated  by  varying  circumstances. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE.  85 

XIV. — Trades  and  labor — Government  employ. 

Wages  paid  hy  the  week  of  average  48  hours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  em- 
ploy in  city  of  London. 

[Compiled  at  the  consulate-general.  J 


Description  of  employment. 


Laborers  and  porters  (standard  Government  scale) 
Custom-house : 

Watermen,  first  class 

Watermen,  second  class 

Extra  men 

Admiralty : 

Foreman,  coopers,  bakers,  &c 

Coopers,  bakers,  &c 

Policemen  (privates)  :* 

Third  chiss,  two  years'  service 

Second  class,  five  jears'  service 

First  class,  seven  years'  service 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest    Average 
wages. 


$4  38 


8  00 
6  56 


$6  57 

9  35 

7  52 


$5  48 

8  67 
7  04 
5  10 

11  20 
7  10 

5  83 

6  56 

7  40 


*'D'niform,  boots,  <fec.,  fnmislied. 

In  some  branches  of  trade  and  labor  under  Government  employment 
the  rates  fall  below  the  ijrices  paid  by  individuals  or  firms  for  the  same 
work,  but  the  steadiness  of  employment  and  the  less  number  of  daily 
hours  of  labor  more  than  account  for  the  difl'erence. 


XV. — Printers  and  printino  offices  in  England. 


Description  of  employment. 

Liverpool  (60 
hours). 

Cornwall  (54 
hours). 

Bristol  (54 
hours). 

to 

1 

Manchester  (53 
hours). 

Tunstall. 

ffi 
o    . 

c3  a 

US 

Compositors : 

$6  50 

$5  04 

$6  81 
7  30 
9  23 

7  77 

6  81 
1  70 

7  30 

$8  76 
9  73 
9  73 
9  00 

'""i'oo' 

9  50 

$8  70 
9  75 
9  75 

"'k'ii' 
"ii  66 

$7  53 
8  75 
8  75 
8  02 
8  02 
1  46 

$7  29 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 

$7  23 
8  77 

8  95 

6  50 
6  50 

5  04 
5  04 

7  27 

6  98 

Boys 

1  69 

5  04 
5  04 

8  46 

6  58 

10  20 

7  25 

8  76 
3  30 

8  76 

3  30 

Lithographers 

7  53 

7  53 

1" 

86  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


As  the  trade  couclitions  in  Scotlaud  do  not  materially  diifer  from  those 
in  England,  and  as  the  consul-general  has  prepared  from  the  reports  of 
the  several  consuls  in  Scotlaud  a  statement  showing  the  rates  of  wages 
paid  to  the  general  trades  in  that  country,  a  brief  review  here  of  the 
reports  from  Dundee,  Dunfermline,  Glasgow  and  Leith  will  suffice. 


DUNDEE. 

The  food  of  the  working  classes  in  this  manufacturing  center,  writes 
Consul  Wells,  is  simple  and  homely  :  breakfast,  porridge  and  milk,  or 
tea  or  cofltee  and  bread  and  butter,  with  perhaps  an  egg,  a  small  bit  of 
bacon  or  a  herring;  dinner  is  frequently  Scotch  broth,  cooked  with 
cabbage  or  other  vegetables,  and  beef  in  small  quantities;  supper,  tea, 
with  bread  and  butter.  Mill  and  factory  girls  who  do  not  reside  at 
home  are  compelled  to  live  more  plainly,  their  wages  being  insufficient 
to  procure  them  the  full  fare  here  specified. 

The  working  classes  of  Dundee  are  poorly  provided  for  in  the  way  of 
house  accommodation.  There  are  in  the  city  8,620  houses,  of  only  one 
room  each,  occupied  by  23,670  persons;  16,187  two-room  houses,  occu- 
l)ied  by  74,374  men,  women,  and  children.  Of  the  140,000  people  in 
Duudee,  118,000  live  in  one,  two  and  three  room  houses. 

Consul  Wells's  description  of  life  in  what  he  calls  the  single-room 
"  hovels"  shows  a  condition  of  affairs,  where  ''five  or  six  human  beings 
are  sheltered  with  nothing  to  lie  on  but  the  floor,  and  covering  them- 
selves, when  they  have  an  opportunity,  with  jute  burlaps  which  they 
take  in  to  make  into  hand-sewed  bags." 

As  to  the  habits  of  the  working  classes  of  Dundee,  while  there  is 
much  dissipation  and  recklessness,  there  is,  the  consul  says,  a  large 
number  who  are  both  i^rudent  and  economical,  and  manage  to  save 
considerable  money.  The  jute  mills  give  employment  to  many,  and 
labor  is  drawn  thither  from  the  smaller  towns  and  from  rural  districts. 
Boys  and  girls  under  14  find  employment  as  "half-timers,"  and  earn 
from  60  to  70  cents  per  week  of  28  hours'  work.  All  above  14  enter  as 
full-timers,  and  earn  the  average  wages  given  below  in  the  statement 
showing  the  general  labor  conditions  in  Scotland, 

The  feehng  between  emi^loyers  and  <'.m])loyes  in  Duudee  is  reported 
as  harmonious,  which  fact  largely  affects  in  a  favorable  manner  the 
prosperity  of  the  city. 

Trade  is  well  organized  and  labor  is  regarded  as  benefited  by  the 
unions. 

Strikes  are  not  of  frequent  occurrence,  arbitration  being  chiefly  re- 
sorted to  in  case  of  differences  between  capital  and  labor  ;  when  strikes 
do  take  place  family  suffering  is  not  acute,  as  the  union  generally  pays 
the  striker  about  half- wage  rate  while  funds  last. 

The  general  condition  of  the  Dundee  working  classes  is  not  satisfac- 
tory, and  the  very  few  opportunities  offered  for  their  improvement  is 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  emigration. 

The  consul  estimates  the  number  of  women  and  girls  emploved  in  the 
jute  and  linen  factories  of  Dundee  at  between  50,000  and  60,000.  Fe- 
males in  the  factories  average  $2..50  per  week,  and  the  same  rate  holds 
good  in  dressmaking  and  other  shop  employments. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  87 

The  moral  aucl  physical  couditiou  of  the  female  operatives  is  consid- 
ered good,  on  the  whole,  and  the  consul  credits  much  of  this  satisfac- 
tory condition  to  the  well-ventilated  factories,  the  simple  dietary,  and 
the  active  co-operation  of  the  churches. 

The  wages  of  the  women  workers  of  Dundee  have  increased  5  per 
cent,  during  the  last  five  years,  while  the  decrease  in  the  price  of  the 
necessaries  of  life  has  amounted  to  from  3  to  5  per  cent. 


GLASGOW. 

Ship-building  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  of  Glasgow,  but,  as 
on  the  Tyne,  it  seems  to  have  fallen  into  depression.  During  the  years 
1881,  1882  and  1883  it  was  characterized  by  the  greatest  activity  in 
the  history  of  the  trade,  writes  Consul  Harte,  but  at  present  its  con- 
dition is  gloomy.  During  the  mouth  of  December,  1883,  4,000  workmen 
were  discharged  from  the  Clyde  ship-yards.  It  was  estimated,  the 
consul  says,  that  at  the  date  of  his  writing,  June  17,  1884,  1,500  opera- 
tive ship-builders  were  out  of  emi)]oyment. 

The  present  wage  rates  in  the  Clyde  ship-yards,  being  what  are  called 
"  depressed  rates,"  are  given  by  Consul  Harte  as  follows,  per  week  of 
54  hours : 


Description  of  employment.  j    Wages. 


Shipwrights i  $7  66 

Shipjointers i  7  11 

Blacksmiths 7  00 

Engineers 6  60 

Ship-2)ainters 7  66 

Plumbers |  8  78 

Riggers  8  85 


Description  of  employment.  i  "Wages. 


Machine-men I  $6  .56 

Hammer-men '.  4  65 

Laborers I  .3  89 

Kiveters  (piecework) !  12  16* 

Fitters  (piecework)   I  13  38* 

Calkers  (piecework) j  17  00* 


The  workingmen  of  the  Glasgow  district,  writes  the  consul,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  have  a  struggle  to  make  both  ends  meet,  and  only  by  steady 
habits  can  they  succeed  in  having  a  balance  on  the  right  side.  The  high 
wages  paid  until  quite  recently  have  had  the  effect,  it  is  said,  of  demor- 
alizing a  large  proportion  of  the  Clyde  ship-builders.  Earning  good 
Ijay  in  comparatively  short  hours  during  the  flush  times,  they  absented 
themselves  from  work  and  spent  their  evenings  in  drink.  The  result 
was  that  when  depression  came  the  iron- workers,  who  gained  the  best 
wages,  were  the  least  prepared  for  the  reaction. 

Mr.  Harte  deals  at  some  length  with  the  labor  organizations  and  co- 
operative societies  of  his  district,  from  which  much  can  be  learned  of 
the  conditions  and  habits  of  the  working  people  of  the  Clyde. 

Legislation  regulating  the  public  and  general  relations  between  mas- 
ters and  men  seems  to  be  more  favorable  to  the  working  people  in 
England,  without  being  oppressive  to  honest  employers,  than  in  Scot- 
laud;  or  if  similar  legislation  is  in  existence  in  both  countries,  it  is  not 
enforced  in  Scotland. 

Few  opportunities  for  the  improvement  of  his  condition  are  offered 
to  the  Glasgow  workingman.    It  is  almost  impossible  for  a  workingman 

*  Highest  wages. 


88  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

to  bouse  bis  family  decently  on  bis  wages ;  laying  up  anytbing  for  old 
age  is  tbe  rare  exception. 

The  number  of  females  employed  in  tbe  Glasgow  consular  district  is 
given  as  follows  in  Consul  Ilarte's  report: 

Mannfactnring  and  mechanical 71,  583 

Professional,    clerks,    teachers,    laundresses,    house-keepers, 

hotel  and  boarding-house  keepei-s,  &c 4,827 

Agriculture 3,  040 

Total - 79, 450 

According  to  official  returns  tbe  population  of  Scotland  numbers 
3,73.5,573,  of  wbicb  1,936,098  are  females.  Female  workers  of  all  classes 
and  grades  are  put  down  for  all  Scotland  at  498,271,  so  tbat  nearly  26 
per  cent,  of  all  tbe  female  population  is  engaged  in  some  employment. 

Consul  Harte  estimates  the  weekly  wages  paid  to  females  in  bis  dis- 
trict as  follows:  Minimum,  $1.46;  maximum,  $4.74;  average,  $2.68. 

Tbe  physical  and  moral  condition  of  the  Glasgow  female  operatives 
is  good,  having  improved  greatly  during  late  years.  Tbis  improved 
condition  is  attributed  to  the  operation  of  tbe  Factory  and  Worksbops 
Act. 

The  wages  in  mills  and  factories  are  about  tbe  same  as  tbey  were  five 

years  ago,  but  tbe  w^ages  of  milliners,  dressmakers,  &c.,  bave  increased 

consideraijly.     Owing  to  tbe  imports  of  food  supplies,  especially  from 

tbe  United  States,  tbe  prices  of  tbe  necessaries  of  life  bave  decreased 

in  tbe  last  ten  years. 


DUNFERMLINE. 

This  being  wbat  is  called  a  country  district,  its  working  classes  may 
be  considered  tbe  best  representatives  of  tbe  proverbial  Scotch  thrift 
and  economy. 

Consul  Myers  reports  tbat  as  a  rule  they  are  steady,  industrious, 
orderly  and  temperate;  slow  in  their  movements,  and  in  competition 
wath  American  workmen  would  be  left  behind,  botb  in  tbe  quantity 
and  quality  of  their  work.  Tbey  are  religiously  inclined — attending 
church  twice  every  Sunday — yet  are  fond  of  amusement,  and  spend 
their  holidays  in  dancing,  national  games  and  excursions.  They  are 
economical  in  household  expenses,  but  wbat  is'teaved  thereby  is  spent  in 
amusement  and  dress,  and  few  lay  up  anything  for  enjergeucies. 

Tbe  population  of  the  Dunfermline  district  is  almost  entirely  a  work- 
ing poi)ulation,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  household  napery,  oil- 
cloth for  floors,  coal  mining,  and  farming.  Their  houses  are,  on  the 
whole,  comfortable,  their  food  plain  and  wholesome,  their  clothing  sub- 
stantial ;  they  are  mainly  strong  and  healthy,  and  so  well  contented  with 
their  condition  that  very  few  emigrate. 


labor  in  europe. 

wages  thbougrout  scotland. 

1. — General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  51  to  77  Iwurs. 


89 


Occnpations. 


Glasgow. 


BUILDIKe  TRADE& 


Bricklavers , 

Hod- carriers  - 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Slaters  

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plambers 

Assistants  .., 

CaJT)enter8 

Gas-fitters , 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brickmakers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab,  carriage,  and  street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Hoi  se-shoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &-c 

Lithographers 

Millwrights 

!Nailmakers  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers , 

Teachers  (public  schools) 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Sailmakers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailora 

Telegraph  operators  (men) 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  «f  mills) 


$8  15 

5  61 
7  13 
4  59 

6  n 


Dundee. 


7  89 
6  87 

4  59 
6  11 
6  11 
9  17 

5  61 

6  62 

7  38 
6  11 
6  11 

6  62 

7  13 
6  11 

6  00 
6  00 

6  50 

5  61 

7  13 

6  62 

5  10 

6  62 

7  13 
7  13 
4  59 
7  13 
C  11 


$7  50 
4  65 
7  53 
4  65 

6  72 
4  65 

7  23 


7  23 
4  86 
7  73 
6  44 


6  32 

6  32 

4  63 

7  29 

5  83 

5  34 

6  08 
6  72 
6  08 
6  80 


Leith. 


Dunferm- 
line. 


6  32 


4  49 

4  86 

5  10 

6  56 

7  29 
7  50 
4  86 
7  29 
6  80 

6  56 
4  12 

7  53 
7  41 


6  62 
8  15 


5  61 

6  11 

5  10 

6  11 

7  00 


6  62 
5  10 


7  89 
18  69 

5  58 

6  08 
4  12 

6  80 

7  77 
13  00 

6  56 
2  67 


$7  13 

5  11 

6  62 

4  86 

6  62 

5  10 

7  13 


6  08 


6  08 
'5'59 


5  35 

4  62 

5  10 


10  95 


9  73 

6  69 

7  30 
4  38 


6  57 

7  30 
6  00 


6  81 

12  16 

6  81 


$7  14 
4  59 


5  86 


5  76 

6  50 


Average 

for  all 
Seotlaud. 


5  76 
5  28 


00 


'  Seal  average,  $7. 


90  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

II. — Factories  and  mills  in  Scotland. 

Average  wages  {per  week  of  5(1  hours)  ui  the  Jhitidee  jute  viills. 
[Compili'd  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
■wages. 


Description  of  employment. 


Jutc-prcparing  department. 


Pickers  of  jute,  men 

Stricters-up,  piecework,  women 

Hand  at  softeners,  young  men 

Preparers,  women 

Boys  14  to  15  years o)'  age,  juto- workers. 

Foremen  or  "overseers  over  all  these 

workers,  men  


Jute-spinning  department. 

Coarse  spinners  of  jnte,  women 

Fine  spinners  of  jute,  women 

Piecers,  girls  14  to  15  years  of  age,  jute- 
workers,  gii'ls 

Shifters,  girls  14  to  15  years  of  age,  jute- 
workers,  girls  

Half-timers,  boys  and  girls,  10  to  14 
years  of  age,  jute-workers,  hoys  and 
girls 

Heelers,  piecework,  women 

Bobbin  winders,  piecework,  women 

Cop  winders,  piecework,  women 

Warpers,  piecework,  women 

Foremen  or  overseers  over  all  these 
workers,  men 

Jute-wcaving  department. 

Single-loom  weavers,  piecework,  wo- 
men   


$4  18 
3  28 
3  40 
2  24 
2  13 

C  44 


2  30 

2  18 


70 

2  91 

3  75 
3  65 
3  65 

5  83 


2  57 


Jute-weaving  department — Continued. 

Double-loom  weavers,  ]>iecework.  wo- 
men   

Tenters,  men 

Dressers,  men 

Foremen  or  overseers  over  all  these 
workers,  men 


Finishing  department. 


Croppers,  men     

Calenderers,  men  

Measurers,  men 

Lappers,  men 

Packers,  men 

Foremen  or  overseers   over  all  these 
workmen,  men 


Mechanical  department. 

Mechanics  (iron  fitters  and  turners), 
men 

Millwrights,  men 

Joiners,  men 

Other  tradesmen  employed  in  these 
works,  men 

Foremen  or  overseers  over  all  these 
tradesmen,  men 


Average 
•wages. 


.■H  06 
6  20 
6  44 


3  88 

4  80 
4  44 

4  24 

5  04 


7  04 
7  41 

6  SO 

7  04 

8  51 


^OTE. — Above  noted  wages  are  also  a  fair  average  of  what  is  paid  in  the  linen  factories  or  mills 
■within  this  consular  district. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  56  hour^  iu^fadoriex  or  mills  in  Glasgow. 
[Copied  by  Consul  Harte.] 


Description  of  employment. 


"VToiileu  and  wincey  factory  weavers  — 

Cotton  factory  weavers 

"Woolen  and  wincey  pirn  winders 

Beam  warpers 

Cop  winders  for  bobbins 

Tenders  and  young  girls  [general] 

Packers,  &c 


Average 
wages. 

i: 

$3  04 
2  55 

2  19 

3  40 
3  04 
1  94 
1  70 

Description  of  employment. 


Averagrt 
wages. 


MALES.* 

Tapers  in  woolen  and  wincey  factories 
Tenters  in  woolen  and  wincey  factories . 
Mechanics  in  woolen  and  wincey  fac- 
tories  

Drawers  in  woolen  and  wincey  factories . 
Twisters  in  woolen  and  wincey  factories 
Beamers  in  woolen  and  wincey  factories . 


$9  78 
10  21 


C  33 
0  07 

8  02 


'  With  very  few  exceptions,  all  the  above  classes  are  on  piecework,  and  the  average  earnings  in  a 
Glasgow  mill  are  given. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


91 


JVages  paid  per  tveek  in  factories  or  mills  in  the  consular  district  of  Leith. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Malmros.] 

_  ^- 

■e  ! 
wages 


Description  of  employment,  i    Hours,  j    ^.f^^f     Description  of  employment. 


Paper  mills.* 

Paper  makers : 

Men 

Boys 

Glazers : 

Women 

Girls 

Finishers,  women 

Kag-sorters,  women 

Esparto  sorters : 

Women 

Men , 

Firemen 

Mechanics,  &c 

Laborers 

Envelope  manufacturers. 

Cuttermeu,  time  workers,  men 
Mechanics,  time  workers,  men 
Unskilled,  time  workers,  men . 
Hand  folders,  piece  workers, 

girls 

Machinists,    piece    workers, 

girls 

Gummers.  piece  workers,  girls 
Forewomen,  time  workers  . . . 


.$.')  11 

1  46 

2  67 

1  70 

2  92 
2  55 

2  67 

4  38 

5  84 

6  32 

3  89 


C  32 
7  30 
4  13 


2  79 
2  19 
4  13 


Fishing-net  manufacturers. 

Female : 

Mill  workers,  on  time 

Net  work  ers,  on  piece  work 

Male  net  workers,  on  piece 
work 

Mechanics 


Hours. 


Vulcanite  manufacturers. 


Vulcanite  makers. 

Polishers,  girls 

Cutters,  boys 

Sawers,  girls 

Buffers 

Grinders 


Tobacco  manufacturers.^ 

Female  workers,  first  class, 
piece  work 

Female  workers,  second  class, 
piece  work 

Male  workers,  time  work 

Flour  mills. 
Men,  per  week 


Aveiage 
wages. 


$2  55 
4  13 


5  23 
0  32 


4  86 

2  43 

3  05 
2  43 

8  03 

5  5a 


1  46 

5  84 


7  05 


*  In  the  Valleyfield  paper  mills,  near  the  town  of  Penicuik,  about  10  miles  south  of  Edinburgh, 
fully  900  people  are  employed,  of  whom  about  one  half  are  women  and  girls, 
t  There  are  no  cigai-  manufacturers  in  this  district,  or  perhaps  in  Scotland. 

III.— Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  Scotland. 

Wage-''  paid  per  weelc  of  54  honrs  in  foundries,  machine- sho2)s  and  iron-works  in  the  district 

of  Dundee. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Pattern-makers . 
Joiners , 


Brass  molders 

Iron  molders 

Dressers 

Assistants  ... 
Blacksmiths 

Hammermen  , 
Tun 


raers 


Planer:^ 

Slotters 

Drillers 

Screwers 

Finishers  and  fitters 
Assistants 

Coppersmiths 

Assistants 

Boilf-r-makers : 
Platers . 


lUveters  and  caulkers. 
Assistants 


Average 

wages. 

$7  41 

6  68 

8  26 

8  31 

4  86 

4  66 

7  29 

4  88 

7  29 

6  38 

5  IS 

5  54 

4  66 

7  14 

3  96 

7  8.-? 

3  76 

8  57 

8  01 

4  71 

The  Glasgow  and  Leith  tables  are  not  in  form  for  exhibit  under  this 
head,  the  first  giving  the  wages  by  the  hour  only,  and  the  latter  in 
eluding  ship-yards.  ' 


92 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE, 

IV. — Glass-workers  in  Scotland, 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  56  hours  to  glasa-icorkers  in  United  States  consular  district  of  Dun- 
dee, Scotland. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  "Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


GAUGE  GLASSES. 

Men,  piecework  

Boys,  time  wages 

BOTTLES. 

Men,  piecework  

Appientites,  piecework 

Boys,  time  wages 

Firemen  for  above 


Average 
wajjes. 


$8  38 

1  er 


8  51 
5  42 
1  21 
3  48 


Wages  paid  per  weelc  to  glass-toorkers  (rough  plate)  in  Glasgow, 
[Compiled  by  Consul  Harte.] 


Bescription  of  employment. 


Hours 
per  week. 


Ladlers 

Kilnmen 

Kiln  assistants 

PuUers-off 

Koller-men.... 
Bo<r<iie-boys... 

Founder  .' 

Teasers 

Carcmen 

Potmakers 

Joiners 

Crate-makers  . 


Average 
wages. 

$9  24 

8  75 

6  56 

6  81 

5  83 

3  65  : 

9  73 

7  29  i 

6  56 

8  51 

6  08 

4  38 

Description  of  employment. 


Hours      Average 
per  week,  j    wages. 


Blacksmiths 

Mixers 

Glass-cutters 

Packers 

Warehouse-boys 

Furnace-builder 

liaborers 

Carters 

"Watchmen 

Glass -pickers  (women). 
Manager 


$5  83 
5  83 

8  81 
4  80 
2  07 

9  73 

4  ^ 
G  08 

5  10 
2  43. 

24  33 


Note. — Only  rough  plate-glass  is  manufactured  in  Glasgow. 

Y. — Mines  and  mining  in  Scotland. 

Wages  jyaid  per  day  of  8  hours  in  and  hi  lonnection  tvith  coal  minesin  Glasgow  and  distriot. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


ZPnder-ground  tnen. 

Firemen 

Rrjadsmen 

Drivers 

Bottomers 

Miners 

Ahove-ground  men  {per  day  of  12  hoiiri). 

Engine-man 

Pitfiead-man 

Boiler  fireman 

Kuniiers 

Screenmen 

Platelayers 

"Wagoners  and  brakesmen 

Blacksmiths 

Jeiners 


$0  91 
85 
54 
81 
97 


85 
83 
»l 
64 
08 
81 
85 

1  ei 

1  01 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


93 


Wages  paid  per  day  of  8  houra  in  and  in  connection  with  coal  mines  in  the  consular  district 

of  Leith. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Malmros.] 


Description  of  emplojinent. 


Average 
wages. 


Miners 

Eugine-men 
BaHkarnen . , 
Engineers  .. 

Joiners 

Smiths 

Laborers  ... 


Consul  Malmros  says : 

Wages  for  miners  are  much  the  same  now  as  they  were  in  1878, 
when  last  reported  on.  The.y  fell  slightly  in  1879  during  a  period 
of  general  depression,  but  rose  again  in  1880  when  times  improved, 
and  have  fluctuated  variously  since  then.  Previous  to  the  year 
1850,  when  the  movement  for  bettering  his  condition  was  only  in 
its  infancy,  the  pay  of  the  miner  was  61  cents  per  day,  and, 
counting  off  his  usual  deductions,  he  was  left  with  a  sum  even  less 
than  was  paid  to  the  poorest  agricultural  laborer.  Wages  i)er  d;iy 
have  varied  very  considerably  since  1850,  as  the  following  brief 
note  will  show:  Year  1854,  $'l.21;  1859,  79  cents;  18(54,  97  cents; 
1809,91  cents;  1872  to  1874,  $1.4U  to  $2.43;  1879,  73  cents  to  $1.09. 

The  miners  generally  did  not  save  much  out  of  the  high  wages 
obtained  during  the  period  1872  to  1874.  Such  a  time  is  not  likely 
to  occur  again,  as  the  high  prices  then  got  for  coal  stimulated  other 
nations  to  search  for  it,  with  the  result  that  several  countries  to 
which  coal  used  to  be  exported  in  large  quantities  from  Great 
Britain  have  now  coal  mines  of  their  own. 

With  reference  to  the  cost  of  living,  it  may  be  stated  that  miners, 
as  a  rule,  make  the  cost  of  living  exactly  the  same  as  the  wages 
they  earn.  The  rents  they  pay  are  generally  about  24  to  30  cents 
per  week,  and  deductions  are  made  from  their  wages  of  G  cents  per 
man  per  week  for  doctor's  fees,  4  cents  for  sharpening  their  work- 
ing tools,  and  4  cents  for  school.  This  last  is  a  great  ad\'antage  to 
a  man  with  a  large  family,  which  nearly  every  married  miner  has. 

Strikes  are  frequent,  and  the  feeling  between  the  miners  and 
their  employers  for  a  long  time  has  not  been  of  an  amicable  nature. 

Almost  every  colliery  has  a  benefit  society  for  itself,  the  men 
paying  each  fortnight  a  sum  into  the  funds,  and  in  the  event  of 
sickness,  personal  or  otherwise,  getting  help. 

In  many  collieries  they  have  co-operative  stores,  which  are  con- 
sidered of  great  benefit  to  the  men. 


94 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


VI. — Eailavay  employes  in  Scotland. 

Jfagcs  paid  per  xeeek  to  railway  emplojit's  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  carft,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^'C.)  in  the  consular  district 
vf  Dundee. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 

Avages  per 

week  of 

t)0   hours. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 

wa^es  per 

week  of 

60  boars. 


St-ation.masters I 

Goods  agents 

Inspectors 1 

Engine-drivers i 

Engine-Btiikers ; 

Book  agents  and  clerks I 

Guards  or  conductors j 

Goods  cashiers  and  clerks | 

Parcels  clerks ; 

Ticket  examiners  and  collectors i 

Signalmen 

Gatekeepers 


$8  38      Yardsmen $5  58 

10  20  '    Goods  checkers  |  :i  46 

8  30  I    Goods  porters '  4  51 

8  30  !    Masons i  5  70 

5  58      Joiners ti  08 

3  40      Plumbers 6  32 

6  08      Painters    5  83 

4  00      Blacksmiths    «  08 

4  02      Signal-fitters    j  5  83 

4  49    ;  Platelayers [  4  64 

4  98      Laborers !  3  83 

4  02    I  Passenger  porters !  3  8!) 


Hates  of  wages  paid  to  the  rariotis  classes  of  tvorkmen  employed  upon  railways  in  Scollaiul 

in  1878,  1878  and  1884. 


Description  of  employment.                 |  1873,  per  week. 

Passenger  department* 

Passenger  guards .$4  80  to  $6  00 

Goods  guards  5  28  6  96 

Block  signalmen 4  56  5  04 

Pointsmen 4  32  4  56 

Ordinary  station  porters 4  00  4  20 

Porters  "in  Edinburgh 4  32  4  56 

Goods  porters     4  32  4  56 

Goods  pollers  in  Edinburgh 4  80 

Foremen  in  goods  dejiartment 4  80  •'>  57 

Engineer' t  department. 

Chief  foreman 5  76  6  48 

Squad  foreman 5  28  5  52 

Ordinary  surfacemen 4  56  

Special  ixjuads 4  80  5  04 


1884,  per  week. 


$5  04  to  $6  48 

(•$5  11  to  $6  57 

5  76    7  20 

1  5  84    7  30 

5  00    5  50 

:4  86    5  33 

4  32    4  80 

4  38    4  02 

4  00    4  20 

4  13    4  26 

4  32    4  56 

4  38    4  62 

4  32    4  80 

§  A  few  at   4  62 

5  04 

4  86 

5  76 
5  04 
4  32 
4  56 


6  48 
5  28 


4  80 


7  30  10  95 

5  35  6  08 

4  13      

4  38  4  62 


*  All  the.<te  classes  are  paid  extra  for  Sunday  or  extra  night  shift.    The  rates  are  for  six  days  of 
t'li-elve  hours  at  the  utmost,  but  around  Edinburgh  eight  hours  shifts  for  signalmen. 
t  Rising  24  cents  per  year. 
;  According  to  class  of  cabin  and  signals. 
§  But  all  over  the  line  $4.80  is  the  rate. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


95 


YII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building  in  Scotland. 

Wages  paid  per  iveeh  of  54  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  heticeen  iron  and  wood  ship- 
huilding — in  United  States  consular  district  of  Dundee. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Iron  ships. 


So 

u  o 
*  2  s 


Carpenters $0  54 

Joiners 48 


Laborers  in  ship-yard 

Blacksmiths 

Blacksmith's  hammermen . . . 

Platers  and  fitters 

Platers  and  fitters'  laborers. 
Painters ; 

Grainers 

Ordinary  

Laborers 

Riveters 


Heaters 

Holders-up 

Hole-borers 

Caulkerp 

Titters,  henchmen ,  and  vertical  drillers . 

Wood  ghipg. 

Carpenters 

.Joiners 

Blacksmiths 

Laborers  to  blacksmiths — hammermen. . 
Laborers  in  ship-yard 


$7  65 
7  37 
4  00 

6  56 
4  62 

7  41 

3  88 

7  65 
7  10 

4  86 
7  04 
2  18 

5  00 
5  00 
7  04 
5  58 


7  65 
5  58 
4  86 

3  15 

4  12 


' 

c 

bi 

1 

tt 

,4j 

a: 

V 

bJ 

1 

w 

' 

$8 

1 

1 

13  1 

1 

65 

4 

50 

8  01  i 

4  86  ! 

28 

54  1 

6 

08  ; 

7  65  j 

7 

10  1 

J 

70  i 

18 

12 

4 

12 

13 

60  ! 

8 

00  I 

;  12 

15  : 

!  « 

;}2 

7 

65 

•      7 

38  ' 

1   8 

26 

4 

86 

4 

12 

.$8  00 
7  01 
4  24 
7  29 

4  84 
17  98 

5  04 

7  65 
7  10 

5  28 
12  63 

3  15 
9  41 

6  44 
9  60 
5  95 


7  65 
7  00 
6  87 
4  56 
4  12 


Statement  showing  the  present  rates  of  wages  earned  per  week  in  the  Clyde  ship-yardx. 
[Prepared  by  Consul  Harte.J 


Description  of  employment. 


Shipwrights '  .$7  66 

Shipjoiners 7  11 

Blacksmiths ,  7  00 

Ensrineers !  6  60 

Kliip  painters 7  66 


Description  of  employment. 


Plumbers 

Riggers 

Machine  men. 
Hammermen. . 
l^uborers 


^Veekly 
wages. 


$8  TS 
8  85 
6  56 
4  65 
3  89 


VIII. — Seamen's  wages  in  Scotland. 


Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men),  distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam,  in  the  United  States  consular  district  of  Thin- 
dee,  Scotland. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment 


Sail. 

Captain 1  $97  20 

Mate i  38  88 

Second  mate 30  71 

Carpenter j  29  16 

Sailmaker 25  50 

Boatswain 20  60 

Steward i  23  04 

Cook. j  20  61 

Able-bodied  seaman '  14  58 

Steam.  ' 

Captain !  97  20 


Mate 

j  Second  mate 

'\  Carpenter 

Boatswain 

Steward 

Cook 

!  Able-bodied  seaman 
I  Fli-st  engineer 

Second  engineer 

Third  engineer 

Donkeyman 

Fireman 


Average 

wages. 

$41  31 

29  16 

30  71 

18  82 

24  30 

21  83 

17  01 

72  76 

43  74 

29  10 

18  22 

17  01 

96 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


Wages  paid  per  month   to  seamen  (officers  and  men),  distinguishing  betteeen  owan,  coast 
and  river  navigation  and  between  sail  and  steam  in  Glasgow. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Harte.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Ocean  pannenger  $teaiMr», 

Captain 

First  officer  

Srcoiiil  officer 

Tliinl  officer 

Fourtli  officer  

Bo;it. swain 

Al>le-lio<lie<l  nesiraan 

Eiif;ineer         - 

Seconil  enjiiiieer 

Tliiid  eu;:ilicer 

Fourth  engineer 

Triiiiiuera 

Firemen 

Cook 

Steward 

Ocean  cargo  ttonmert. 

Captain 

Fust  olficer 

Second  officer 

Boatswain    

Carpenter    ...         

Al)l<'-l)o(lieil  seaman 

Ordinary  seaman 

First  eii^rineer 

Secontl  engineer 

Third  eusineer 

Finruen  

Cook  and  steward 

Ocean  tailing  vesselg. 

Captain     

First  olficer 


Average 
wages. 


72  99 
37  71 
27  98 
21  89 
24  33 
17  02 
9  73 
68  13 
41  36 
29  19 
19  46 
26  76 


87  59 
38  93 


Description  of  employment. 


Ocean  tailing  »««««Z#— Continued. 


Second  ofiBeer 

Third  oflicer 

Fourth  officer '. 

Boatswain    

Carpenter     

Able-bodied  seaman 

Cook 

Steward 


Coasting  trade  tteamert. 


Captain  

First  mate 

Able-bodied  seaman 

Carprnter     

Fiist  en^iineer       

Second  eiiiziueer 

Firemen  and  triinmers. 


Coasting  trtrde  tailing  vessels. 


Captain 

Fiiat  mate     

Able-bodied  seaman . 


Steam,  river  navigation. 


Captain 

First  mate    

Able-bodied  seaman. 

Caipenler     

First  euj;ineer 

Second  euuineor 


Average 
wages. 


m  89 

19  46 


20  67 
27  98 
17  02 

21  33 
19  46 


51  08 
26  76 
15  80 
20  67 
31  62 
43  79 
26  27 


34  06 
18  24 
14  59 


72  99 
31  62 
26  78 
31  62 
51  08 
38  93 


IX. — Shop  wages  in  Scotland. 

fr'«(/e.s  paid  p"'-  week  of  HO  hours  in  grocerg,  drg  goods  and  other  general  stores,  wholesale 
or  relail,  to  males  and  femalts,  in  Dundee. 


Description  of  employment. 

Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

Average 
wages. 

('lerks  or  sliopmen: 
Males 

Grocery  stores. 

$5  34 
2  18 

6  08 
2  18 

'6  08 
2  18 

$7  77 
3  65 

10  94 
3  G5 

8  51 
3  65 

$6  06 

2  01 

f;lerks  III'  shopmen  : 

Dry  goods  stores. 

7  27 

Fon)aleH --.      -      -                                      .-..-.. 

2  91 

Clerks  or  shopmen  : 
Mai.  8 

Other  general  stores. 

7  29 

2  91 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Wages  paid  per  week  or  year  in  stores  or  shops  in  Leilh. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Malmros.] 


97 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 

wages. 


Stationers,  bookseUem,  t6c. 

Men  not  in  charge  of  departments,  per  week  of  56  hoiirs. 
Men  in  charge  of  departments,  per  year  J 


Drapers,  silk  mercers  {dry  goods  stores),  i£c. 


Female  assistants : 

Seamstresses,  per  week  of  56  hours. 

Sales  girls,  per  week  of  56  hours 

Sales  women,  per  year 

Boys,  per  year 

Tonng  men,  per  year 

Managers  of  establishments,  per  year. .. 
Milliners  and  dressmakers,  per  week  . . . 


Iron-vMngert,  die. 


Apprentices,  per  year. 
Young  men,  per  year. . 


Qrooert. 


Apprentices,  per  year  § 

Salesmen,  per  week  of  60  hours 


729  97 


1  70 

1  70 

243  32 

48  66 

194  66 

973  30 

97 


48  66 
146  00 


48  66 
3  40 


$12  16 
1,409  95 


4  38 

4  38 

632  64 

"*973'36 

3, 406  55 

3  89 


tl21  66 
;729  97 


102  20 

7  30 


$7  30 


2  43 

2  43 

389  32 

'243'32 

1, 459  95 

2  43 


6  08 


*  The  salary  of  $973.30,  or  anything  near  it,  is  that  of  buyers,  who  are  usually  heads  of  departments. 
t  First  and  second  year,  $48.66;  fifth  year,  $121.66. 
1  $729.97,  or  something  near  it,  to  managers. 

§  Apprentices  usually  receive  $48.06  the  first  year,  $58.40  the  second,  $73  the  third,  and  $87.60  the 
fourth  year.    When  a  fifth  year's  services  are  given  the  pay  is  generally  $102.20. 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities  in  Scotland. 

Wages  paid  per  year  io  household  servanis  itowHS  and  cities)  in  Dundee. 
[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 

wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 
wages. 


Blitcben  or  general  servant  (that  can  cook  or  wash) 

Cook  (to  do  a  little  housework)* 

Cook,  high  class* 

House  and  table  maid  * 

Nursery  maids  * 

Butlers* 

Butler's  assistants,  boys  * 

Coachman  t 

Gardeners  !• 


$48  60 
68  04 

116  64 
68  04 
58  32 

145  80 
68  04 

145  80 

145  80 


$68  04 
87  48 

145  80 
77  76 
77  76 

437  40 
77  76 

340  20 

486  00 


$58  32 
77  76 

126  36 
72  90 
68  00 

194  40 
72  90 

243  00 

243  00 


*  Found,  i.  e.,  including  board  and  lodging. 
92  A— LAB 7 


t  With  house,  small  garden,  light,  and  coal. 


98 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Wages  paid  per  year  io  household  servants  in  Glasgoiv. 
[Compiled  by  Consul  Harte.] 


Description  of  employment. 


FEMALES. 

Cook,  plain  *  

Cook,  with  ■washing  * 

Cook  and  housekeeper  * 

Cook,   liaviny    kitchen    and    scullery 

maids  under  * 

General  servant  * 

General  servant  (young  girl)  * 

Housekeeper  * 

Housemaid  * 

Kitchen-maid  * 

Laundry -maid  * 

Lady's-maid  * 

ScuUery-maid  * 


Average 
wages. 


$77  86 

97  33 

199  52 

145  99 
77  86 
43  79 
97  33 
77  86 
68  13 
92  46 

107  06 
58  39 


Description  of  employment. 


Females— Continued. 


Still-room  maid  * . 
Table-maid  *  . . . . 
Nurso,  upper  *  . . 

Nurse,  baby  * 

Nurse,  walking  * 


Butler  *  . . . . 
Footman  *  . . 

Groom* 

Gardener  t  . 
Coachman  t . 


I  Average 
'    wages. 


$82 

73 

87 

59 

116 

79 

!)2 

46 

''~ 

80 

243 

32 

145  99 

204  39 

253  05 

253  05 

With  board. 


t  Free  house,  coal,  gas,  &c. 


Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  serva7its  in  the  consular  district  of  Leith. 
[Compiled  by  Consul  Malmros.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Housemaids I  $97  33 

Cooks 107  06 

Table-maids 97  33 

Nurses  (above  25  years  of  age) 107  06 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Nurse-girls ; ]       $48  66 

Butlers i        389  32 

Footmen !        121  66 


XI. — Agricultural  wages  in  Scotland. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laboirrs  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  consular  district 

of  Dundee. 

[Compiled  by  Consul  Wells.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Foremen  (generally  married)  * per  year..] 

Second  and  third  hands  (generally  single)  t do ' 

Ordinary  hands per  day  J.,  i 

Ordinary  liands,  during  harvest  § per  week..  I 

Ordinary  hands,  if  engaged  || per  mouth..! 

Housemaids  11 per  year. . 

Outworkers — 

Female per  day. .  j 

Female,  during  harvest do I 

Female,  during  potato  lifting do I 


Lowest 

Highest 

Average 

wages. 

wages. 

wages. 

$155  52 

$174  96 

$165  24 

106  92 

136  08 

121  50 

61 

73 

67 

5  83 

6  07 

5  97 

21  87 

26  73 

24  30 

58  32 

87  48 

72  90 

25 

41 

33 

85 

90 

87 

49 

49 

49 

'  Including  free  house,  garden,  J  gallon  milk,  2i  pounds  oatmeal,  and  from  6  to  7  pounds  potatoes  per 
day. 

t  With  milk  and  meal  as  above,  and  sleeping  accommodation,  bedding,  and  fire  in  "  bothy."  X.  B.— 
They  usually  sell  half  their  allowance  of  meal,  value  $14. .08. 

I  Weekly  and  monthly  in  proportion. 

5  With  lunch  twice  a  day,  value  about  8  cents.     N.  B. — This  custom  is,  how*)vei',  dying  out. 

II  No  board  in  the  case  of  ordinary  agricultur.il  laborers. 
II  Including  board  and  lodging. 

N.  B. — In  all  cases  10  hours  constitute  a  day's  work,  commencing  at  6  a.  m.,  two  hours  in'tei  vul  from 
11  to  1  for  noon,  and  finishing  at  6  p.  m. 


LABOE    IN    EUROPE. 


99 


Wages  paid  per  year  or  per  day  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in 

Scotland. 

[Compiled  by  Consnl  Malmros.] 


Locality,  employment,  &c. 

1873. 

1878. 

1884. 

Increase 

or 
decrease. 

Wagespaid  to  farm  laborers/or  one  year  in  the  Lothians  and 
east  of  Scotland. 

Eree  cottage,  garden,  and  allowances  of  fire,  food,   &c., 

$105  60 
112  80 

$108  00 
134  40 

$108  00 
132  00 

218  40 

242  40 

240  00 

Increase,  1873-1878 

$24  00 
2  40 

Decrease,  1878-1884 

Increase  since  1873 

21  60 

67  20 
144  00 

67  20 
163  20 

67  20 
160  20 

Wagespaid  to  farm  laborers  for  one  year  in  the  southwest  of 
Scotland. 

I.— Makkied  men. 

Allowance  of  meal  and  potatoes,  with  free  cottage  and  gar- 
den  per  year.. 

Money  wages do 

211  20 

230  40 

227  40 

Increase,  1873-1878  

19  20 

Decrease,  1878-1884 

3  00 

Increase  since  1873 

16  20 

74  80 
136  80 

74  80 
153  80 

74  80 
150  00 

n.— Single  men. 
Board  and  lodging,  equal  in  value  to 

Money  wages 

211  60 

228  40 

224  80 

Increase,  1873-1878 

16  80 

Decrease,  1878-1884 

3  60 

■ 

Increase  since  1873 

13  20 

67  20 
60  00 

67  20 
76  80 

67  20 
78  00 

III.— Women. 
Board  and  lodging,  &c.,  equal  to 

Money  wages 

127  20 

145  00 

145  20 

Increase,  1873-1878 

16  80 

Increase,  1878-1884 

1  ''0 

Increase  since  1873 

18  00 

36  to  48 

72 

DAY  LABORERS. 

Day  laborers per  day  -  - 

Day  laborers : 

Men 

0  85 
0  30 

Women  t 

1 

Wages  paid  to  farm  laborers  for  one  year  in  Perthshire  and 
other  central  counties  of  Scotland. 

In  these  countie.s  the  wages  received  by  farm  laborers  are 
about  the  same  as  in  the  southwest  of  Scotland. 

In  1878  the  increase  from  1873  was  estimated  at  over  12 
per  cent. ;  since  1878  the  increase  is  probably  about  G  per 

18  per  cent. 

*  Day  laborers  receive  from  42  cents  to  91  cents  per  day,  according  to  demand  for  them  and  to  their 
ability. 

t  Without  food.  In  harvest,  however,  women  get  from  73  to  97  cents  per  day,  but  thev  have  to  do 
almost  men's  work. 


100 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


Wages  paid  per  year  or  per  daij  to  agricultural  laborers,  ^c— Continued. 


Locality,  employment,  &c. 


Wages  paid  to  farm  laborers  fur  one  year  in  the  northeastern 
counties  of  Scoilami  (from  Aberdeen  to  Invemesn). 

I.— Married  men. 


1873. 


Cottage 

Oatmeal 

Pint  of  milk  per  day,  at  8  cents. 

Four  loads  peats,  at  $1.20 

Allowance  of  potatoes 

Money  wages 


Increa.se,  1873-1878 . 
Increase,  1878-1884 . 


Increase  since  1873 

n.— SrSGLE  MEX. 


Oatmeal • 

Pint  of  milk  per  day,  at  8  cents 

Fire  and  house  room 

Money  wages 


$14  40 

31  20 

29  12 

4  80 

9  60 

108  00 


197  12 


1878. 


1884. 


221  12 


31  20 
29  12 

7  20 
127  20 


Increase,  1873-1878 . 
Decrease,  1878-1884 


Increase  since  1873 

FEMALE  KITCHEN  SERVANTS. 

Money  wages,  in  addition  to  board  and  lodging,  about. 


Increase,  1873-1878 . 
Increase,  1878-1884  '. 


Increase  since  1873 

WOMEN  WORKING  OUTSIDE. 


Receive  per  day  about . 
In  some  instances  only . 


MALE  DAY  LABORERS. 


194  72 


67  52 
153  60 


55  20 


$0  36 


Keceive  per  day  . .  - 

Increase,  1873-1878. 
Increase,  1878-1884. 


Increase  since  1873. 


Wages  paid  to  farm  laborers  for  one  year  in  the  extreme  north- 
ern counties  of  Scotland. 


I.— Married  men.* 


Cottage 

Oatmeal 

Milk,  say 

Potatoes 

2i  tons  coal . . . 
Money  wages 


■iXl  12 


76  80 


$0  48 
44 


Increase,  1873-1878. 
Increase,  1878-1884. 


Increase  since  1873 . 


9  60 

52  80 
21  CO 
14  40 
12  00 
64  80 


175  20 


l„ 


76  80 


187  20 


$94  72 
130  00 


Increase 

or 
decrease. 


224  92 


67  52 
148  00 


215  52 


$24  0« 
3  60 


27  60 


26  40 
5  60 


20  80 


78  80 


21  M 

2  oe 


23  60 


$0  48 
44 


90 


120  00 
78  00 


198  00 


$0  12 
10 


22 


12  D» 
10  80 


22  80 


«  Single  men  in  1878  were  reported  to  have  about  the  same  value  of  remuneration  as  received  by  mM-- 
ried  men,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  their  remuneration  at  the  present  time. 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE.  101 

Wages  paid  per  year  or  per  day  to  agricultural  laborers,  <S'c. — Continued. 


Locality,  employment,  &c. 

1873. 

1878. 

1884. 

Incroaso 

or 
decrease. 

WOMEN,  FOR  HOUSEWORK.* 

$62  40 
28  80 

$62  40 
38  40 

$62  40 

50  00 

91  20 

100  80 

112  40 

Increase  1873-1878        . .            

$9  60 

Increase  1878  1 884                                           

11  60 

21  20 

'  In  1878  -women  employed  by  the  day  at  field  work  got  about  24  cent.9  per  day.     The  rate  may  now 
be  stated  as  26  cents. 

The  figures  given  in  the  foregoing  table  afford  a  fairly  complete  view 
of  the  wages  throughout  Scotland. 

The  average  yearly  wages  of  plowmen  throughout  Scotland  may  be 
stated  thus : 


Mode  of  payment. 

1873. 

1878. 

1884. 

Increase  or 
decrease. 

$74  40 
129  60 

$74  40 
148  80 

$74  40 
146  80 

204  00 

223  20 

221  20 

Increase  1873  1878                    

$19  20 

Decrease  1878-1884         -                     

2  00 

17  20 

In  the  years  1879,  1880,  1881  and  1882  agricultural  wages  fell  con- 
siderably in  Scotland,  but  the  improvement  in  trade  which  took  place 
in  the  last-named  year,  together  with  the  scarcity  of  laborers  arising 
from  increased  emigration  and  a  general  migration  to  towns,  had  the 
effect  of  raising  the  wages  of  farm  laborers  in  1883  to  nearly  the  fig- 
ures of  1878.  Women  employed  in  agricultural  labor,  indeed,  receive 
rather  higher  wages  now  than  ever  before.  Agricultural  laborers,  as  a 
rule,  take  better  care  of  their  wages  than  city  laborers,  and  have  rela- 
tively better  health  and  fully  as  much  domestic  comfort.  The  housing 
accommodation,  although  improving,  is  still  defective. 

Not  only  are  farm  servants  growing  fewer  year  by  year,  but  their  value 
as  workers  is  decreasing.  In  other  words,  many  of  the  best  men  are 
abandoning  farm  work,  and  their  places  are  not  being  filled  with  labor- 
ers of  the  same  skill  and  experience. 

XII.— CORPOEATION  EMPLOYD^S  IN   SCOTLAND. 

Wages  paid  pe)-  week  of  under-noted  lioiirs  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  town  of  Bun- 
dee,  Scotland. 


Description  of  employ- 
ment. 


Police  constables. 


Hours  of 
labor. 


Masons. 


63  and  70 
hours  per 
week,  and 
1  day  off 
every  3 
weeks. 

51 


$5  83 


7  22 


Description  of  emplosrment. 


Hours  of  Average 
labor.    !   wages. 


Paviors I             51  $7  04 

Blacksmiths 60  |  7  29 

Joiners  or  cai-penters I             60  i  7  04 

Laborers :             51  4  86 

Carters 51  and  60  j  5  22 

Scavengers !             60  |  4  62 


102 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


xy. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statemoii  showing  the  tcages  paid  per  week  of  51  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen, 
proof-readers,  4'C-)in  United  States  consular  district  of  Bnudee,  Scotland. 


Descriptidn  of  employment. 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 
wages. 


PIECE-WOKK. 

Newspapers— daily  (morning): 

Minion  to  bourgeois  *per  1,000  ens. 

Nonpareil do... 

Ruby do... 

Newspapers— daily  (evening): 

Mmion  to  bourgeois do. . . 

Nonpareil do . . . 

Kuby do. . . 

Newspapors — weeklies : 

Minion  to  bourgeois do. . . 

Nonpareil do. . . 

Kuby do . . . 

ESTABLISHED  WAGES. 

Compositors : 

Daily  newspapers 

Evening  newspapers 

"Weekly  newspapers 

Mac-bine-nien  (daily  newspapers)   

Jobbing  compositors 

Jobbing  machine  or  press 

Proof-readers 


$9  72 
7  89 
6  32 
9  72 
6  32 
6  32 
6  32 


$12  15 
9  72 
9  72 
14  58 
9  23 
9  23 
10  69 


$0  15 
16 
16i 

13 
14 
144 

$12  to  12i 
13  to  14 
13  to  15 


$10  00 
8  50 
7  29 
10  00 
7  20 

7  00 

8  00 


*  In  Scotland  matter  is  cast  up  by  the  en  quad,  not  by  the  em,  as  in  the  United  States. 
Printers'  piece-work  scale. 

DAILY  MORNING   PAPERS. 

Cents. 

Miniou  type  and  upwards per  1,000  eus..  16 

Emerald  type  and  upwards do 17 

Nonpareil  type  and  upwards do 17 

Ruby  type  and  upwards do 18 

Pearl  type  and  upwards do 20 

EVENING  PAPERS. 

Minion  and  upwards per  1,000  ens. .  15 

Emerald  and  noujiareil  and  upwards do 16 

Ruby  and  upwards do 17 

Pearl  and  upwards do 19 

WEEKLY   PAPERS   AND   JOBBING  OFFICES. 

Minion  type  and  upwards per  1,000  ens..  14 

Emerald  and  nonpareil  and  upwards do 16 

Ruby  and  upwards do 15^ 

Pearl  and  upwards do 10 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  hour  (54  and  51  hours  per  week)  to  printers  {composi- 
tors, pressmen,  proof-readers,  <^'C.)  in  Glasgow. 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 
wages. 


HOOK  OFFICES. 

Compositors 

Pressmen 

Pioof-r(!ader3 

Copy -holders 

DAILY  MORNING  TAPERB 

Compositors,  on  time  (51  hours) 

Proof-ruadors,  on  time 

Copy-holders,  on  time 


Per  hour. 

$0  15 

15 

15 

11 


Per  hour. 

$0  15 

15 

16 

12 


Per  hour. 

$0  15 

15 

16 

11 


19 

19 

19 

39 

20 

19 

10 

13 

12 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  103 

Statement  shotving  the  wages  ])aid  per  hour  (54  and  51  hours  per  week)  to  printers,  ^c. — Cout'd. 


Description  of  employment. 


EVENING  PAPERS. 

Compositors,  on  time  (54  hours) 

Proofreaders 

Copy-holders 

WEEKLY  PAPERS,  UNCONNECTED  WITH   DAILY 

Compositors 

Proof-readers 

Copy-holders 

OTHER  EMPLOYES. 

Machine-men  (general) 

Stereotypers  (dailies) 

(evening) 

(general) 


Lowest     Highest 
wages.   I    wages. 


Per  hour.  Per  hour. 

$0  ]6  $0  16 

16  18 

8  12 


Average 
wages. 


Per  hour. 

$0  16 

16 

10 


Statement  showing  the  wages  per  week  o/54  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  i)ressmen,  proof- 
readers, 4~c.)  i7i  the  consular  district  of  Leith. 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Compositors 

Proof-readers 

Pressmen 

Skilled  laborers 

Unskilled  laborers  .  . .  . , 

Boys  (la.vers  on) 

Gu'ls  (pointers) 

Lithographic  printing: 

Machine-men 

Girls  (layers  on) 

Proofers'and  transferers  . 


.$7  30 
8  51 
7  30 


8  27 


$8  51 
10  22 
8  51 


9  12 


$7  78 
9  55 

7  97 
6  08 
4  86 
1  58 

1  94 

8  39 

2  43 

9  73 


Average  rate  of  toages  paid  per  week  of  54  hours  to  persons  employed  in  bookhinding. 


Description  of  employment. 


Forwarders piece-workers . . 

Ink  and  gold  blockers time. . 

Blind-blockers do 

Gold  layers do 

Case-makers,  limp-cloth  coverers 

Back-liners piece.. 

Unskilled  labor time.. 

Bookfolders piece.. 

Booksewers do... 

Platers do 

Collaters time . . 

Paperers piece . . 

Gatherers time, . 


Males. 


Females. 


Men. 


$7  91 
8  03 
6  08 


5  72 


Lads  and 
boys. 


"Women. 


$1  46 


S2  92 


3  16 


2  43 
2  43 
2  67 
2  92 
2  67 


Girls. 


$1  46 


1  46 
1  46 
1  46 


104  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


The  only  manufactures  in  Ireland  wbich  are  sufficiently  developed  t© 
come  into  direct  competition  with  those  of  other  countries  are  the  large 
linen  industry  and  perhaps  the  productions  of  some  few  woolen  mills 
in  the  southern  counties.  For  these  reasons  the  labor  conditions  which 
prevail  in  Ireland  have  little  immediate  bearing  on  those  of  other  coun- 
tries, and  so  have  not  that  competitive  interest  which  attaches  to  the  con- 
ditions of  England  and  Scotland. 

The  very  interesting  report  prepared  by  Consul  Piatt,  of  Cork,  shows 
that  the  wages  in  his  district  are  fully  equal  to  those  prevailing  in 
England  and  Scotland,  mechanics  employed  in  the  building  trades 
earning  about  $8  per  week  of  56  hours.  In  the  factories  and  mills  the 
average  wages  are  also  equal  to  those  which  are  paid  in  the  sister 
countries. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  in  the  Cork  district  are  considered 
good  when  the  workers  are  steadily  employed.  They  give  a  fair  day's 
labor  for  their  wages.  As  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  has  in- 
creased during  the  last  five  years  without  an  increase  in  wages,  it  is 
not  easy  to  see,  writes  the  consul,  how  the  working-people  can  save  any- 
thing for  emergencies. 

The  feeling  between  employers  and  employed  is  good.  Well  organ- 
ized labor  unions  exist,  but  only  for  the  purpose  of  i)rotecting  each  trade 
from  underworkers.  Labor  associations  for  beneficial,  banking,  co-op- 
erative and  other  protective  purjioses  apparently  are  not  found  in  the 
south  of  Ireland.  Strikes,  reports  the  consul,  are  foreign  to  Ireland, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  trades  unions  mentioned,  no  organiza- 
tions exist  for  purposes  of  mutual  support  in  times  of  anticipated  dis- 
agreements between  labor  and  capital. 

On  the  whole  the  situation  of  mechanics  in  the  south  of  Ireland  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  similar  work-people  in  England.  The  condition 
of  the  Irish  laborers  is,  however,  worse  than  that  of  the  English  laborers. 

The  number  of  female  workers  employed  in  the  south  of  Ireland  in 
industrial  pursuits  is  given  as  follows: 

Mills  (woolen  factories,  «fcc. ) 3,  600 

Commercial  (stores,  groceries,  &c.) 1,800 

Teachers,  artists,  hotel-keepers,  &c 900 

Agriculture  (dairy-maids,  field-hands,  &c.) 1, 800 

Total 8, 100 

The  mill  and  factory  hands  earn  from  73  cents  paid  to  girls  up  to  $3.65 
paid  to  women  per  week.  Field-laborers,  dairv-maids,  &c.,  earn  from 
$10.47  to  $48.66  per  year,  with  board  and  lodging. 

The  consul  gives  the  average  rate  of  wages  of  female  factory  hands  as 
$1.70  per  week,  and  of  female  agricultural  laborers  at  $29.20  per  year. 
Mill  and  factory  employees  work  56  hours  per  week,  and  agricultural 
laborers  72  hours  per  week.  Notwithstanding  these  very  low  wages,  Con- 
sul Piatt  says  that  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  these  female 
employes  is  good. 

The  education  of  female  factory  hands  in  the  south  of  Ireland  does 
not  go  beyond  reading  and  Avriting.  Tiie  mothers  of  families  gen- 
erally work  in  the  fjictories  until  the  children  reach  the  working  age 
of  14  or  15  years  and  begin  to  contribute  to  the  family  supi)ort,  when  the 
mothers  usually  give  up  factory  life  to  attend  altogether  to  house- 
hold duties.      Factory  hands  in  the  south  of  Ireland  generally  continue 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  105 

in  the  factories  where  their  parents  labored  before  them.  The  employers 
commonly  supply  them  with  cheap  and  suitable  cottages,  which  greatly 
adds  to  their  comfort  and  well-being.  The  moral  and  physical  condi- 
tion of  these  families,  both  parents  and  children,  is  claimed  to  be  ex- 
ceptionally good. 

Considering  the  tide  of  emigration  which  has  set  towards  the  United 
States  from  Ireland  during  the  last  forty  years,  and  which  still  continues, 
the  following  extract  from  Consul  Piatt's  report  giving  the  present, 
eauses  of  Irish  emigration  is  of  interest : 

CAUSES   OF  EMiaRATION — SELECTION   OF   NEW   HOMES. 

The  farming  class  emigrates  in  consequence  of  the  severity  and 
.irregularity  of  the  laws  appertaining  to  land,  non-security  of  tenure 
to  the  tenant  at  will,  and  the  facility  afforded  speculators  in  pur- 
chasing over  the  heads  of  others  ;  and  again  because  of  the  non- 
subdivision  of  the  land  into  small  holdings.  Seventy  per  cent,  of 
the  farming  class  who  emigrate  go  to  the  United  States — that  country 
being  the  easiest  and  cheapest  to  reach.  Then  some  member  of  the 
emigrant's  family,  relatives,  neighbors  or  friends  have,  it  generally 
happens,  gone  there  before  them.  They  are  impressed,  moreover, 
with  the  belief  that  there  they  will  have  a  better  field  for  their 
labor,  and  a  hope  that  at  some  future  time  they  may  possess  a  home 
for  themselves  and  families,  which,  to  the  majority  of  the  small 
farmers  who  emigrate,  seems  here  impossible.  The  periodical  visits 
to  this  country  of  Irish- Americans,  who  come  here  to  spend  a  few 
months  after  having  been  some  years  in  the  United  States — per- 
sons who  may  have  left  Ireland  originally  in  poor  circumstances 
and  are  now  evidently  in  good  credit  and  prosperous  (perhaps 
having  come  back  to  take  other  or  all  members  of  their  families, 
or  relatives  to  America) — these  have  a  great  influence  upon  the 
minds  of  those  with  whom  they  come  in  contact  and  lead  many  of 
them  also  to  emigrate.  The  political  land  agitation  to  which  this 
country  has  been  subject  for  the  past  five  years  has  resulted  in 
various  acts  of  Parliament  toward  remedying  the  evils  complained 
of  by  the  tenant  farmers  of  Ireland,  yet  though  there  has  been  a 
general  reduction  in  the  rents  i)aid  to  landlords  of  30  per  cent., 
still  the  small  and  poor  farmer  will  choose  to  emigrate.  The  land- 
lords have  suffered  great  losses  during  these  five  years,  but  the 
country — as  we  learn  from  the  addresses  of  judges  at  the  different 
assizes,  and  the  reports  of  the  police  officials  made  at  those  assizes — 
is  fast  returning  to  a  condition  of  reasonably  good  feeling  between 
the  landlord  and  tenant.  In  addition  to  the  small  farmers,  farm 
laborers,  male  and  female,  make  up  the  majority  of  the  emigrants 
to  the  United  States;  clerks  and  mechanics  furnish  a  small  quota. 
In  connection  with  this  matter  it  may  be  stated  that  when  once 
the  idea  of  emigration  is  entertained  no  abatement  of  rent  would 
change  the  intention  of  the  peasant. 

The  consul  at  Londonderry  supplements  his  wage-tables  with  a  few 
words  concerning  the  habits  and  conditions  of  the  laboring  classes  in 
his  district.  In  general  the  laboring  classes  in  Londonderry  are  temper- 
ate, their  character  is  good,  and  contentineut  prevails.  In  the  country 
the  poor  are  i^arsimonious  and  disposed  to  hoard,  but  their  economy  is 
Bot  as  wise  as  might  be  desired. 


106 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 

I. — General  trades  in  Ireland. 

(Average  weekly  ivages.) 


Occapations. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers . 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Slaters  


Roofers 

Tenders . . . 
Plumbers 

Assistants. 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths.. 
Strikers  . 
Bookbinders . 
Biickmakers 
Brewers 


Butchers 

Brass  founders  . 
Cal)inet-makers 
Confectioners  . . 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 


Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters  . 

Cab,  carriage,  &c 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

En  Lira  vers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseshoers 

Jewelers -• . . . 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithographers 

Millwrights 

Knil-niakers  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers,  public  school 

Saddle  and  harness  makers . . 

Sail-makers 

Stevedores  

T.inners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmitlis 


London- 1  Average 
derry.       -wages.* 


$8  03 

3  89 
8  03 

4  38 
8  03 
3  89 
7  30 

7  30 
3  89 

8  03 
3  65 
8  03 
8  03 


$6  40 
2  92 
6  20 

2  92 
6  20 

3  16 
6  40 

5  83 

2  92 

6  90 

3  10 
5  90 
0  90 


5  75 

6  10 

3  20 

6  40 

4  30 

7  30 


6  40 

6  40 

12  40 


32 


4  13 
4  13 
4  13 


4  38 
7  25 
3  60 
6  90 
6  55 
3  40 


7  30 


00 


6  00 
3  60 
6  10 
8  00 
6  00 


4  86 


$7  22 
3  40 
7  12 
3  65 
7  12 
3  S.-? 
6  85 

6  .57 
3  40 

7  47 
3  38 

6  97 

7  47 


6  53 

7  07 
3  79 
7  22 

6  41 

7  30 

6  81 

7  34 
7  22 
9  85 


6  81 
8  0.^ 

6  00 

4  26 
4  26 
4  26 
4  86 
8  27 
8  03 
4  86 

7  30 

6  21 

8  00 
4  00 

7  71 

7  30 
4  87 

4  38 

8  52 
8  52 
6  15 
8  03 

5  40 

5  45 

6  70 
8  87 
6  04 


*  If  DubUn  and  Belfast  wore  included,  the  average  wages  would  correspond  with  Cork  rather  than 
Londonderrj',  so  that  the  wages  in  Cork  miiy  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the  average  wages  for  .nil 
Ireland. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

II.— Factories,  mills,  etc.,  in  Ireland 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  o/56  houm  in  factories  or  mills  in  Cork. 


107 


Description  of  employment. 


WOOLEN  FACTORY. 

Foremau 

Assistant  foreman 

Spinners 

Carders 

Factory  bands : 

Male 

Female 


MATCH   FACTOBT. 


Machinist 

Splitter.... 

Box-makers,  female. 
Packers,  female 


POWDER  MILL. 


Engineer 

Fireman 

Press-honse  men. , 
Charcoal  makers . 

Mixers , 

Cooper 

Millwriaht 


FLOUR  MILLS. 


MUler 

Stone-dresser . 
Laborer 


DISTILLERIES. 


Distillers 

Tatmen 

Loftmen 

Skilled  bands. 


GLUB  FACTOBT. 


Makers . . 
Laborers 


TOBACCO  FACTORY. 


Spinners,  male . 
Pickers : 

Male 

Female 

Pressors,  male. 


FEATHER  AND  CURLED  HAIR  FACTORY. 


Pickers,  female. 
Driei-8,  female  . . 


Average 
wages. 


$9  73 


4  38 
3  40 


3  40 
2  43 


8  52 
4  38 
2  43 
2  43 


10  94 
8  52 
3  89 
3  89 
3  89 

8  03 

9  73 


9  25 
6  81 
3  40 


17  03 
4  86 
4  38 
4  38 


4  86 
3  65 


1  46 

1  46 

2  67 
4  38 


1  21 
1  21 


Description  of  employment. 


PAPER  MILLS. 


Skilled  hands,  paper-makers 
Junior  help : 

Boys 

Girls 


BREWERIES. 


Malster 

Loftmen 

Cask-washers. 


BACON-CURING  HOUSES. 


Bacon-cutter.. 
Baoon-curer  .. 
Pork-packers  . 


CARRIAGE  FACTORY. 


Body-makers  ... 

Trimmers 

Painters 

Smiths 

Smiths'  helpers. 
Wheelwright . . . 


FURNITURE  FACTORY. 


Machinist 

Sawyer 

Cabinet-maker . 
Upholsterer  . . . 


ORGAN  FACTORY  (CHURCH). 

Makers 


CURLED  HAIR. 

Spinners,  male 

Cu^rlers,  male 

Female  hands 

CONFECTIONERY  (MACHINE). 

Skilled  confectioner  (candies,  lozenges) 

GAS-HOUBE. 


Average 
wages. 


Engineer 

Fireman 

Coal  trimmers 

Laborers 

Pipe  layers 

Lamplighters 

SALT  AND  LIME  WORKS. 

Laborers 


1  46 
37 

14  60 
8  52 
5  35 

7  30 
6  81 
4  86 

8  03 

7  30 
6  81 

8  03 
4  13 
8  03 

8  76 
7  30 
7  79 
7  30 

12  16 
9  73 
1  70 


9  73 
15  33 
6  08 
4  13 
6  33 
3  89 


Much  of  the  work  done  in  factories  and  other  like  establishments  is  piecework,  the  employ6  beinj 
paid  according  to  the  amount  of  work  done  by  him. 


108 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


Ill,— Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  Ireland. 

Wagee  paid  per  week  of  56  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shopa,  and  iron-works  in  Cork. 


Deecription  of  employment. 


FOUNDRY. 


Foreman  molder 

Journeyman  molder . 

Helper 

Pattern-maker 

Helper 

Machinist 

Fitters 

Helpers 


Average 

wages. 

$12  16 

7  79 

4  38 

7  79 

4  38 

7  79 

8  03 

4  38 

Description  of  employment. 


FOUNDRY — continued. 


Blacksmith... 

Striker 

"Wheelwright . 
Stovomakers. 
Kange  setters. 


Average 
wages. 


$8  03 

4  62 
7  79 

5  76 
9  2& 


The  above  rates  will  also  apply  to  machine-shops,  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  &c. 

V. — Mines  and  mining  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  56  hours  in  and  in  connection  ioith  copper  ore  mines  in  Cork  County. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

!  Average 
wages. 

UNDER  GROUND. 

P  30 
5  35 
3  89 
2  92 

ABOVE  GROUND. 

Skilled  laborer 

$4  38 

Driller 

Laborer 

3  40 

Str  ker 

VI. — Eailway  employes  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  aiout  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^-c.)  in  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment.             '^&g^^ 

1 

Kailway  workshop : 

$12  16 
9  73 
9  73 

7  79 
7  79 
7  30 

Engine  fireman $6  81 

Cleaner 4  13 

Guard '          6  57 

Porter i          4  38 

Station  master 9  73 

Ticket  issuer '          8  52 

Traffic  superintendent 

Locomotive  superintendent 

17  03 
17  03 
13  38 

Railway  police  (at  station) 4  £6 

Linemen 5  84 

VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building  in  Ireland. 

paid  per  week  of  56  hours  in  ship-i/ards — distinguishing  betiveen  iron  and  wood  xhip- 
building — in  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 


IRON. 

Draftsman 

Foreman 

Boiler-makers 

Helpers 

Platers 

Helpers 

Joiners 

Xlacksmith 

Striker 


Average 

wages. 

$17  03 

14  60 

8  03 

4  86 

8  76 

4  86 

8  03 

.8  03 

4  86 

Description  of  employment. 


Iron— Continued 

Riveters 

Helpers  

wood. 

Draftsman 

ForeiiiJin 

Carpenters 

Riggers 

Sa  il-  makers 

Blacksmith 

Striker 


Average 
wages. 


$8  03 

4  38 


17  03 
13  38 
8  03 
8  03 
8  93 
8  93 
4  38 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VIII. — Seamen's  wages  in  Ireland. 


109 


Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  hettveen  ocean,  coast  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 


SAIL — OCEAN.* 


Captain 

First  officer... 
Second  officer. 
Boatswain   ... 

Cai'penter 

Seamen 


STEAM — COASTING.t 


Captain 

First  officer.... 
Second  officer.. 
First  engine'er . 


Average 

wages. 

$48  66 

38  93 

34  07 

29  20 

24  33 

19  47 

68  13 

48  60 

34  07 

58  40 

Description  of  employment. 


Steam— COASTING— Continued. 


Second  engineer . 

Boatswain 

Carpenter 

Seamen 


STEAM— KIVBK.: 


Captain 

Engineer  .. 

Fireman 

Trimmer 

Steersman  . 
Deck-hand. 


Average 

wages. 

$38  93 

34  07 

24  33 

19  47 

9  73 

9  73 

5  84 

4  62 

5  84 

4  38 

*With  board. 


t  "Without  board. 


X  Per  week  of  70  hours,  without  board. 


IX.— Shop  wages  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  dry  goods  and  grocery  stores,  toholesale  or  retail,  to 

males  and  females,  in  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 

wages. 

WHOLESALE  (WITHOUT  BOARD). 

Males : 

$14  60 
12  16 

7  30 

8  52 
3  89 
194 

6  08 
2  92 

Wholesale  (without  board)— Cont'd. 
Females: 

$3  65 
1  70 

Assistant  book-keeper 

retail  (with  board). 
Shop  assistants : 

Boys  (messengers) 

Females : 

4  86 

Book-keeper 

1  94 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  year,  with  hoard,  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Cork. 


Description  of  emplojrment. 


Cook 

Housemaids 
Butlers 


wages. 


$77  86 
38  93 
97  33 


Description  of  employment. 


Ifursery  maids 
Laundresses  . . . 


Average 
wages. 


$29  20 
29  20 


XI. — Agricultural  wages  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Cork 

County. 


Description  of  employment. 


waees  Description  of  employment. 


Plowman,  with  board  and  lodging 

Plowman,  without  board  and  lodging 

Laborer  (male),  with  board  and  lodging.. 
Laborer  (male),  without  board  and  lodg- 
ing   


$97  33 

146  00 

68  13 

116  80 


Laborer  (female),  with  board  and  lodging 
Laborer  (female),   without  board  ana 

lodging     

Dairj'-maids,  with  board  and  lodging.. 
Dairy-maids,  without  board  and  lodging 


Average 
wages. 


$48  66 

58  6& 
48  66 
58  40 


110 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


XII. — Corporation  EivrPL0Y:6s  in  Ireland. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  56  hours  to  the  corporation  employ^  in  the  city  of  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 


Inspectors : 

Sanitary 

Hackney  cabs 

Cliii^f  fire  brigade 

Members  of  tire  brigade 
Corporation  policemen. . 

Laborers 

Watchmen 

Teamsters 

Stone-breakers 


Average 
wages. 


$9  73 
8  52 
10  94 

5  60 

6  08 
4  38 
4  38 
4  38 
2  43 


Bescription  of  employment. 


Average 
vrages. 


$8  52 


Superintendent  scavenger 

CORPORATION  WATERWORKS. 


Engineer  (per  year) '  973  30 

Assistant  engineer  (per  year) I  389  32 

Clerk  (per  year) i;91  99 

Laborers  (per  week) ,  4  38 


The  maj'or  receives  a  salary  of  £CO0  ($2,919.90)  per  year,  £100  ($486.65)  of  which  is  understood  to 
be  for  charitable  and  other  subscriptions  ;  the  town  clerk's  salary  is  £800  ($3,893.20) ;  and  the  city  en- 
gineer's £300  ($1,459.95). 

XV. — Printers  and  printing-offices  in  Ireland. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  o/ 48  hours  to  printers  (compositors,  pressmeny 

proof-readers,  ^c.)  in  Cork. 


Description  of  employment. 


NEWSPAPER  OFFICES 

Compositors   

Machinemen 

Proof-readers 

Pressmen 

Boys 


$9  73 
12  16 
9  73 
5  35 
2  43 


Description  of  employment. 


,  Average 


JOB-PRINTING  OFFICES.  ! 

j 

Journeymen '  $7  30 

Paper-rulers  (machine) 6  81 

Binders,  trimmers,  &c. : 

Males  7  30 

Females 1  46 


FMAJ¥CE. 


In  the  production  of  machinery  Fiance  is  becoming  eminent,  and  in 
this  branch  of  industry  especially  the  advance  in  wages  is  marked.  In 
reporting  on  the  relative  cost  of  the  manufacture  of  machinery  in  Eng- 
land and  France,  the  consul  at  Rouen  says : 

For  the  last  few  years  labor  has  been  at  about  the  same  price  in 
England  as  in  France.  The  cost  of  labor  has  remained  stationary 
in  England  [it  has  rather  decreased,  as  has  been  seen]  V7hile  it  has 
advanced  in  France  20  to  2.5  per  cent. 

As  an  illustration  of  this  increase  of  the  rates  of  wages  in  France,  tlie 
following  trades  have  been  selected  as  representing  the  highest  wages 
paid  in  both  France  and  England : 

Weekly  uayes    in  France  and  England  in   1884. 


Occupations. 


France.    England. 


Blacksmiths 

Potters 

Cabinet-makers 
Furriers  . 


Lithographers . 
Millwrights  ... 
Glass  makers.. 
(Jlass-blowers  . 

Carpenters 

Pressmen 


Engravers 

Paper-rulers 

Saddle  and  harness  makers. 


$7  90 

11  58 

7  90 

8  50 

9  00 
9  80 
9  65 

12  75 

11  00 

13  00 

12  45 
11  87 

7  25 


$7  80 

9  50 

8  80 

8  50 

8  50 

8  70 

8  48 

9  00 

8  76 

8  24 

8  50 

7  80 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  Ill 

The  forcj,^oiDg  are,  of  course,  only  special  cases  where  wages  are  higher 
ill  France  than  in  England.  While  the  advance  in  the  former  country- 
has  been  evident  in  almost  every  branch  of  business,  the  wages  in  gen- 
eral, in  mills,  factories,  &c.,  are  still  much  higher  in  England  than  in 
France. 


BORDEAUX. 

The  consul  at  this  very  important  trade  center  of  France  has  fur- 
nished two  interesting  reports,  one  introductory  and  special,  the  other 
general.  The  first,  being  pertineiit  to  this  letter,  is  largely  drawn  upon 
for  the  review  of  the  trade  conditions  of  the  district. 

Consul  Eoosevelt  asserts  that  all  able-bodied  men  having  no  family 
charges  can  earn  sufficient  wages  to  secure  the  necessaries  of  life,  while 
steady,  skilled  workmen  can  save  modest  competencies  for  old  age.  The 
Bordeaux  workmen,  when  single,  usually  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  in- 
dulging in  dissipation  while  their  earnings  last.  The  deleterious  habit 
of  spending  "blue  Monday"  in  dissipation,  which  prevails  to  such  a 
degree  throughout  many  portions  of  continental  Europe,  is  general  in 
Bordeaux.  Unlike  the  laborers  in  other  portions  of  France,  the  work- 
men of  Bordeaux  are  described  by  the  consul  as  being  improvident, 
spending  without  a  thought  of  the  future. 

After  marriage  they  are  said  to  lead  more  regular  lives,  the  wives 
working  equally  with  their  husbands.  Through  the  greatest  frugality 
comparative  comfort  is  attained  at  home  and  small  savings  find  their 
way  to  the  banks.  When  there  are  children,  the  mothers  take  them  to 
the  nearest  asylums,  these  being  institutions  somewhat  on  the  plan  of 
the  German  kindergartens,  where  the  infants  are  cared  for  by  competent 
attendants,  at  a  cost  of  one  cent  each  per  diem,  without  food. 

The  workpeople's  food  consists  of  soup  made  from  vegetables  or 
bones,  or  the  cheapest  cuts  from  the  butcher's  stalls,  bread,  cheap  veg- 
etables, and  coarse  wine.  Single  workmen  eat  their  meals  at  cafes, 
where  for  15  or  20  cents  they  get  what  the  consul  describes  as  "  a  stew 
made  of  cheap  and  not  always  fresh  meat,  old  vegetables,  bread,  and  a 
bottle  of  wine,  at  least  a  horrible  beverage  made  from  a  mixture  of 
alcohol,  water,  and  logwood,  or  any  other  coloring  matter,  called  wine." 
These  restaurants,  adds  the  consul,  being  the  resort  of  all  the  unem- 
ployed, are  dangerous  alike  to  health  and  morals. 

The  Bordeaux  workmen  are  generally  slow  in  execution,  unless  when 
engaged  on  piece-work.  Their  trade  systems  are  primitive,  work  being 
accomplished  with  great  attention  to  cumbersome  details,  and  without 
the  combination  and  division  of  labor,  or  the  mechanical  ap]»liances 
which  are  recognized  by  the  trades  in  the  United  States  as  almost  in- 
dispensable. Everything  is  accomplished  on  the  principle  of  individual 
labor ;  hence  the  artisans  only  excel  in  those  trades  which  afford  scope 
for  individuality,  such  as  stone  and  wood  carving,  house  painting,  orna- 
mental cabinet-work,  and  decoration. 

A  family,  however  numerous,  seldom  rents  more  than  two  rooms, 
which  cost  on  an  average  $3  per  month.  The  exi^enses  for  clothing 
tv^ould  be  very  reasonable  were  the  working-people  satisfied  to  dress  ac- 
cording to  their  wages. 

Of  female  labor  in  the  Bordeaux  district  Consul  Roosevelt  deals  at 
some  length,  and  in  a  very  interesting  manner.  He  estimates  the  total 
number  of  female  laborers  in  his  district  at  nearly  62,000,  of  whom 
20,000  are  engaged  in  agricultural  labor,  and  12,500  in  manufacturing 
and  mechanical.     He  estimates  their  monthly  earnings  as  averaging 


112 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


about  $12.  They  are  healthy  and  iudustrious.  Women  empkiyed  in 
factories  and  mills  are  for  the  most  part  uneducated,  not  one  in  five 
hundred  being  able  to  write  her  name. 

Tbe  following  statement,  prepared  by  Mr.  Eoosevelt,  shows  the  aver- 
age daily  wages,  without  board,  earned  by  the  laboring  classes  of  Bor- 
deaux : 

Daily  wages  of  the  laboring  class  in  Bordeaux  {without  board). 


Occapation. 


Men. 


Women. 


Children. 


Bakers — 

Barbers — hair-dressers  . , 

Basket-makers 

Biscuit-makers 

Blacksmiths 

Boiler-makers 

Bookbinders 

Brewers 

Brick  and  tile  makers  . . 

Broom-makers 

Butchers* 

Cahiupt-makors 

Canned-jioods  makers. . . 

Candle-makers 

Capsule-makers 

Card  paper  box  makers  . 

Carjjeuters 

Carriaiic-makers 

Case-ruakers 

Chair-makers 

Chinaware-makers 

Confectioners 

Coopers 

Coppersmiths 

Cork-makers 

Crystal-glass  makers  . . . 
Cutlers. 


$0  67to$0  97 


Dressmakers : 

Dry-goods  clerks 
Dvors 


Embroiderers 

Engravers 

Flower-makers 

Founders 

Gardeners 

Gas-fitters 

Gilders  on  wood 

Glass-blowers 

Hatters 

Harness-makers  -  - . 

House-builders 

Im]dement-raakors 

Iron- workers 

Jewelers 

Lace-makers 

Laundresses 

Lime-woikers 

Lifiuor-iTiakors 

List  makers 

Lithographers 

Locksmiths 

Masons , 

Mechanicians 

Mill.^rs   

Nail -makers 

Oil  refiners 

Painters. 


Pai)er-makers  . 
Paper-hangers. 
Pastry  cooks  . . 

Plasterci's 

Plumbers 

Potters 

Printers 

Quarrvmen 

Boof- tilers 

Kope-mnkers  .. 
Kosin-makers.. 
Sail-makers  ... 


58 
67 
58 
48 
80 
80 
29 
39 
48 


97 
97 
77 
1  35 
97 
97 
91 
77 
77 


$0  24 
29  to  39 


67  to 

87 
58 
67 

58 
90 
6T 
58 
58 
77 
48 
53 
67 
48 
67 


1  15 

97 
97 
77 
97 
1  15 
1  20 
97 
67 
1  93 
87 
87 
68 
77 
58 
87 


58  to  67 
67     97 


96 


77 

to  97 

80 

97 

67 

97 

97 

1  15 

97 

1  15 

58 

1  15 

62 

1  15 

67 

77 

77 

97 

87 

96 

67 

1  15 

48 
67 

87 
58 

97 
48 
77 
58 
67 
39 
77 
67 

1  00 

87 
48 
67 
48 
48 
87 


29  to  34 

24     48 
24     39 


0  87 

1  15 
48 
97 
87 
77 

1  15 
87 
97 

1  15 
97 
87 
87 
77 
97 

1  20 
67 

1  15 
77 
77 
77 
87 
97 


29 
29  t©  67 
29     39 


29 

to  39 

39 

48 

29 

39 

48 

19  to  29 


29  to  48 

29  39 

39  48 

48  80 


40  to  60 


24  to  29 
34  39 
39     48 


35  to  50 
30     50 


29 

to 

39 
34 
39 

"29 

to' 

'39' 

29 

to 

39 

19  to  67 


29  to  48 


29  to  34 
89 
39 


$J  10 

.  19 

24  t*  39 


14  to  2» 


14  to  39 


19 
39  to  48 
29  39 
19  39 
19  29 
14     29 


10  to  19 


19 

ig 

ii'to"  48 


24  to  29 

10  29 

29  39 

19  29 

19  29 

19  20 


19  to  29 


19 
14  to  48 


29  to  39 

19     29 

19 


19 
19  to  29 


19 
19  to  24 


14  to  19 
19  29 
19     29 


•$19.  30  per  month  with  board  or  $33  without. 


LABOR    IN    EUKOPE.  113 

Daily  wages  of  the  laboring  cIuhh  m  Bordeaux  {ivithoiit  hoard) — Continued. 


Sawyers 

Seamstresses 

Sculptors 

Sbip-builders 

Sbii-t-makers 

Shoemakers 

Silversmiths 

Stonecutters 

Stove-makei's 

Sugar-reflners 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Tinsmiths 

Tool-makers 

Tuniers  in  metal  . 
Turners  in  wood  . 
ITmhrella-makers. 

Upholsterers 

"Watchmakers 

Wheelrights 

"Weavers 


Occupation. 


Men. 


39   ?0  97 


20 
67 
29 
58 
97 
90 
77 
77 
48 
58 
60 

87 
67 
67 
SO 
67 
67 
70 


to  1  50 
97 
44 
97 

1  15 
97 
97 
87 
97 

1  15 

1  10 
87 
97 
87 
97 
97 

1  15 
97 
80 


$0  39 
$0  30  to  40 


"Women. 


29  to  48 


Children. 


14  $0  29 


;:;:;::::":: 

29 

to 

44 
48 

39 

19 

19 

19 

to 

29 
29 

19 

14 

to  19 

14 

29 

to 

39 
39 

19 

14  to  19 


Average  price  of  bread,  flour,  mi  at,  cf/gs  and  vegetables  in  Bordeaux. 


Articles. 


Bread : 

First  quality per  pound. . 

Second  quality do 

Beans do 

Beef: 

First  quality do 

Second  quality do 

Butter : 

First  quality do 

Second  quality do. . . . 

Chickens per  pair.. 

Cabbage per  head.. 


Value. 


$0  04 
03 
10 

30 
24 

40 

35 

60tol  64 

15 


Articles. 


Coffee per  pound . 

E<it;s per  dozen . 

Floui-: 

First  (jnality per  pound. 

Sucuntl  quality   ...  per  pound. 

Milk pel- quart. 

Mutton per  pound. 

Peas (green) do     . 

Pork    do... 

Potatoes do . . . 

Sugar do . . . 

Veal do  . . 


Value. 


$0  39to$0  54 

24 

30 

06 

03 

04 

20  to  20 

10 

15 

14 

20 

06 

10 

11 

13 

26 

MARSEILLES. 

The  "working  people  of  Marseilles  and  Southern  France  are  described 
by  Consul  Mason  as  patient,  steady,  plodding  industrials,  as  a  rule 
saving  something  each  year  i'roui  their  earnings,  and  investing  it  in  a 
little  house  or  patch  of  ground.  They  are  a  blithe,  light-hearted  peo- 
ple, whose  i)leasures  are  sinj])le  and  inexpensive.  Among  these  South- 
ern French  laborers  drunkenness  is  almost  unknown,  alcoholic  liquors 
being  rarely  used  by  the  rural  po]>ulation. 

With  the  exception  of  the  building  trades,  labor  is  unorganized  in 
Southern  France;  neither  are  there  any  co-operative  societies  such  as 
fill  so  large  a  place  in  hibor  economy  in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

Many  mutual  life-insurance  and  protective  associations  exist,  which 
pay  a  pension  after  a  certain  number  of  years  of  membership,  or  after 
the  members  have  reached  a  certain  age. 

The  question  of  wages  and  strikes  is  largely  controlled  by  the  50,000 
Italians  who  live  in  Marseilles.  These  people,  who  do  not  join  the 
French  trades  unions,  work  for  far  less  wages  and  live  on  siini)ler  and 
cheaper  food  than  the  French  working  classes,  and  no  strike  can  be  suc- 
cessful while  these  Italians  stand  ready  to  accept  work  upon  wages 
which  the  native  workmen  refuse. 

Women  are  employed  in  mills,  factories  and  mines  in  large  numbers. 

92  A— LAB 8 


114  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

In  agricultural  labor  the  wives  and  daughters  take  au  active  part,  al- 
though they  are  not  compelled  to  plow  or  carry  heavy  burdens  as  women 
do  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  There  are  many  female  teachers,  telegraph 
operators,  musicians,  clerks  and  saleswomen.  All  laundry  work,  as  well 
as  most  of  the  huckstering,  is  done  by  women.  It  is  recorded  by  the 
consul  that  when  men  and  women  are  employed  in  the  same  establish- 
ment, the  latter  are  always  assigned  to  the  lighter  and  more  delicate 
kinds  of  labor.  The  women  of  Southern  France  are  less  educated  than 
the  men,  but  as  primary  education  is  now  compulsory  the  rising  genera- 
tion will  be  more  favorably  provided  for  in  this  regard. 

The  rates  of  wages  and  prices  of  provisions  prevailing  in  the  district 
of  Marseilles  will  be  found  in  the  recapitulatory  statements  for  ail 
France. 


EHEIMS. 

The  working  classes  of  the  district  of  Rheims  are  said  by  Consul  Fris- 
bie  in  his  very  interesting  report  to  be  steady,  trustworthy,  and  will- 
ing to  work  when  there  is  work  for  them  to  do.  Saving  is  general 
wherever  saving  is  possible,  economy  being  the  prevailing  idea  in  every 
French  household.  The  low  rates  of  wages  and  the  absence  of  poor- 
laws  render  it  necessary  for  all  the  members  of  a  laboring  man's  family 
to  earn  something,  no  matter  how  little.  Display  and  extravagance  are 
unknown  among  the  people. 

The  feeling  between  employ^  and  employer  seems  to  be  one  of  antag- 
onism held  in  abeyance.  The  employers  have  very  little  in  common  with 
their  employes,  and  the  latter  go  to  their  work  solely  from  necessity  and 
with  little  feeling  of  cordiality  tow^-rd  the  former. 

There  are  no  labor  organizations  in  Rheims,  and  strikes  are  unusual, 
only  one  having  taken  place  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

There  is  a  co-operative  society  having  thirty  stores  throughout  the 
city.  It  is  admirably  conducted,  and  enables  the  working  people  to  pur- 
chase their  provisions  at  a  saving  of  from  10  to  25  per  cent.  The  loss 
of  trade  occasioned  thereby  is  severely  felt  by  the  regular  dealers. 

The  condition  of  the  working  people  of  Eheims  is  one  of  hardship, 
and  nothing  but  their  ceaseless  industry  and  economy  enable  them  to 
make  ends  meet.  The  consul's  interview  with  a  representative  working- 
man  in  one  of  the  great  woolen  mills  of  the  district  will  give  a  fair 
illustration  of  how  employed  labor  lives  in  that  city : 

A  mechanic  in  a  woolen  mill ;  42  years  of  age ;  has  a  wife  and 
two  children ;  earns  77  cents  ]>er  day,  which  is  10  to  20  per  cent, 
more  than  is. earned  by  general  workmen  ;  works  12  hours  per  day; 
exercises  the  strictest  economy  in  order  to  get  along,  although  he 
is  better  fixed  than  most  workingmen ;  his  wife  works  in  the  mill 
also,  and  earns  48i  cents  i)er  day ;  works  every  day  in  the  year, 
Sundays  included," which  yields  a  wage  of  $251.78  ;  his  wife  works 
805  days  in  the  year,  which  yields  a  wage  of  $147.10,  a  united  wage 
earning  of  $428.94.  Family  expenses:  Eent,  $38.00;  clothing, 
$63.09;  food  and  fuel,  $315.75;  personal  tax,  48  cents;  society 
dues,  $4.83  ;  balance  for  incidentals,  $5.59 ;  total,  $428.94.  Meals : 
A  cup  of  coffee  and  a  piece  of  bread  for  breakfast ;  soup,  made  from 
salt  pork  or  horse  flesh,  or  cheap  beef,  and  vegetables  and  bread ; 
supper,  bread  and  potatoes,  and  what  is  left  of  the  dinner. 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE.  115 

This  is  a  better  dietary  thau  is  common  to  the  laborers,  many  of 
whom  have  only  dry  bread  and  an  apple,  with  perliaps  a  piece  of  cheese, 
while  many  others  have  only  bread  and  water. 

Most  laborers  live  in  this  manner : 

In  the  morning  (before  going  to  work)  a  piece  of  bread  and  2 
cents'  worth  of  brandy ;  at  breakfast,  bread  crumbed  into  a  basin 
of  coffee;  for  dinner,  a  piece  of  bread  and  cheese,  or  an  apple,  and 
a  gill  of  red  wine ;  for  supper,  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  little  sausage, 
or  oftener  only  a  herring  and  a  cup  of  coffee.  A  meat  and  vegeta- 
ble meal  is  indulged  in  only  on  Sunday. 

In  regard  to  female  labor  ^Consul  Frisbie  reports  that  mill-life  seen 
in  its  best  light  is  not  a  happy  one.  The  operatives  have  no  leisure 
time  and  very  little  personal  enjoyment,  for  when,  after  their  day's 
labor,  they  return  to  their  homes,  thej''  must  then  perform  their  house- 
hold duties.  Their  only  recreation  is  an  occasional  holiday,  when  the 
mills  are  closed.  The  family  circle  does  not  exist  in  the  sense  in  which 
it  is  known  and  appreciated  by  the  working  people  of  the  United  States. 

The  infant  children  of  the  mill  employes  are  put  out  to  be  taken  care 
of  at  small  compensation;  their  illegitimate  children,'  of  which  the 
consul  says  there  is  always  a  large  number,  are  generally  provided  for 
by  the  Government. 

It  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  that  the  tendency  to  immorality  among 
the  working  class  is  increasing,  as  is  shown  by  the  large  percentage  of 
illegitimate  births.  While  the  consul  attributes  this  partl}^  to  the  so- 
cial condition  of  the  operatives,  which  produces  similar  results  else- 
where, he  gives  as  its  chief  reason  the  fact  that  infidelity  is  taking 
possession  of  these  people. 


EOUBN. 

In  reporting  on  the  industries  of  his  district  Consul  Williams  says 
that  many  factories  had  to  close  on  account  of  the  competition  of  for- 
eign countries.  It  is  reported,  however,  that  under  the  protecting  hand 
of  the  Eepublic  these  works  are  being  reopened  with  more  favorable 
prospects. 

While  some  industrial  establishments  are  closed  in  Rouen,  others  are 
reported  as  in  a  flourishing  condition,  notably  those  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  machinery  for  printing,  bleaching  and  coloring  cottous 
for  home  demand. 

Cotton  spinning  and  weaving  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  Eouen 
district,  the  hand-loom  still  being  largely  used.  The  number  of  work- 
days in  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  is  estimated  at  300  per  year,  and 
daily  wages  as  follows  : 


Occupation. 

Spinning. 

Weaving. 

$1  16 
73 
48 
65 
97 
35 
32 
32 

$1  16 
58 

Senior  workmen 

Workmen  from  fifteen  to  twenty-one  years  of  age 

39 

Laborers  and  teamsters 

65 

Firemen 

97 

Women 

58 

Bo\s 

34 

Girls 

36 

Cotton  printing  is  another  important  industry,  employing  no  fewer 
than  3,000  work-people.  The  wages  in  these  print  works  range  from  a 
minimum  rate  of  58  cents  to  a  maximum  of  97  cents  per  day. 


116 


LABOR    IN    ETTROPE. 


The  manufacture  of  webbiug  for  belts,  an  industry  almost  peculiar  to 
Rouen,  employs  from  5,000  to  0,000  men,  women  and  children. 

In  this  consular  district  are  situated  the  well-known  woolon-nianufac- 
turing  centers,  Elbeuf  and  Louviers,  the  former  employing  24,000  work- 
people, and  the  latter  8,000.  Here  also  are  the  cities  of  Amiens,  which 
supplies  the  United  States  with  large  quantities  of  Utrecht  velvets,  used 
chiefly  in  upholstering  work;  Roubaix,  in  and  around  which  170,000 
work-people  are  engaged  in  the  cotton  and  woolen  manufactures;  and 
Calais,  with  its  vast  tulle  manufacture,  running  1,500  looms,  employ- 
ing in  the  factories  10,000  men  and  women,  and  producing  $12,000,000 
worth  of  lace  annually,  of  which  Consul  Williams  says  that  more  than 
one-tenth  is  exported  to  the  United  States.'  The  Calais  lace  factories 
run  night  and  day,  Sundays  and  holidays  excepted.  The  workmen 
divide  the  day  into  four  watches  of  six  hours  each. 

There  are  besides  these  factories  many  machine  shops,  planing 
mills,  &c.  The  English  have  large  interests  in  these  works,  both  as 
proprietors  and  furnishers  of  the  raw  material. 

Lille  and  Dieppe,  two  busy  manufacturing  centers,  are  also  within 
the  Rouen  consular  district,  the  former  employing  12,000  workmen,  and 
the  tobacco  manufactories  in  the  latter  giving  employment  to  over  1,200 
hands. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  consular  district  of  Rouen  may  be  said  to  be 
one  of  the  busiest  in  all  France,  representing,  as  it  does,  all  the  ad- 
vanced manufactures,  in  which  France  stands  pre-eminent. 

Consul  Williams  reports  that  the  workmen  of  his  district  are  indus- 
trious, frugal  and  sober,  the  industry  and  thrift  of  the  women  being 
proverbial,  although  the  high  prices  of  food  and  wine  have  caused  a 
greater  consumption  of  spirituous  drinks. 

Women  are  employed  in  almost  every  calling,  from  agriculture  to 
street  cleaning.  They  are  generally  the  cashiers  and  book-keepers  in 
shops,  cafes,  restaurants,  and  many  wholesale  establishments.  Female 
labor  and  female  control  exert  a  very  salutary  influence  upon  the  credit 
and  prosperity  of  the  district.  Many  of  the  most  successful  business 
establishments  in  France  are  under  the  direction  of  the  widows  of  the 
former  proprietors. 

Saving  is  one  of  the  leading  principles  of  the  work-people,  and  all — 
men,  women,  boys  and  girls— are  taught  the  economy  of  helping  to  swell 
the  general  family  fund. 

The  feeling  between  the  employers  and  the  employed  is  good,  and 
grievances  are  usually  settled  by  mutual  concession. 

I. — General  trades. 

Average  wages  paid  per  week  in  France. 


Occupations. 

Rouen. 

Mar- 
seilles. 
(60  to  84 
hours.) 

Bordeaux. 
(60  hours.) 

Rheims. 
(72  hours.) 

AU 
France. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$5  60 

3  07 

4  82 
3  47 
6  95 
3  47 

$6  95 
3  47 

5  79 
3  47 

6  95 
3  47 

$4  62 

3  10 

4  93 
3  10 

5  76 
8  10 

$5  79 
2  89 
5  79 
2  89 
5  79 
2  89 

$5  74 

3  13 

5  33 

3  23 

6  34 

Tenders 

3  28 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Average  wages  paid  per  week  in  France — Continued. 


117 


Occupations. 


Building  teadks — Continued. 

Slaters — only  tile  roofs 

Roofers    

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

OTHER  TKADE8. 

Bakers  (per  month,  ■with  food  and  lodging) . 
Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Book-binders 

Brick-makers 

Brewers : 

Men 

Women 

Butchers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet  makers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers  

Drivers : 

Cab 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab,  carriage,  &c 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Farriers 

Gardeners  

Hatters 

Horseshoers '. 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  poi-ters,  &c 

Lithographers 

Millwrights 

Nail-makers  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers  (public  schools) 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Sail-makers : 

Men 

Women 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators  

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Rouen. 


$«  94 
6  94 

3  47 

6  94 

4  05 

7  50 
7  50 


(toll  58 
6  00 

5  00 

6  18 
6  00 

6  00 


•2  65 
7  50 
7  90 


6  00 
6  94 
5  79 
5  79 

5  79 


4  72 
6  00 
8  75 
8  50 
6  00 

5  79 
5  79 

8  80 
5  00 

9  00 
9  80 


6  10 

7  50 
10  00 

7  25 

5  79' 

4  85 

6  94 
6  00 

8  00 
6  00 
2  03 


Mar- 
seilles. 
(60  to  84 
(hours.) 


$5  21 
3  47 
5  79 


5  79 

3  47 

4  63 

5  21 

4  05 
2  51 
2  70 

6  95 

5  79 


3  47 
6  95 
5  79 


5  40 

7  53 


4  82 
4  63 
8  10 


5  79 
5  21 
5  79 
5  79 
3  47 
8  10 


4  05 
6  37 

4  83 

5  79 

6  95 
2  90 

*5  79 
5  79 
4  63 


5  21 


Bordeaux.  I  Rheims. 
(60  horns.)  i  (72  hours.) 


$4  21 

4  21 

3  10 
6  44 
2  88 

5  10 

4  90 


5  66 
5  68 
5  22 
4  84 

3  02 


4  05 

5  06 
4  85 

4  54 

3  81 

4  44 
8  33 

3  20 

5  11 

4  82 
4  56 

4  64 

5  87 

6  44 
4  02 

4  52 
6  19 

5  16 

4  90 

5  39 

3  68 

4  84 
4  18 

6  05 
6  16 
4  75 


I  5  39^ 


9  52 

3  93 

4  81 

5  87 
4  83 
4  42 


$5  79 
5  79 

4  34 

5  79 

4  05 

6  38 

5  79 


5  79 


4  63 

5  21 


*4  63 


t2  32 
7  64 
5  79 

*1  45 


4  63 
4  63 


4  05 
*3  08 

3  76 

4  05 
6  66 
6  08 

4  63 

5  79 
5  79 
5  21 
2  32 
5  79 


All 
France. 


4  05 
4  63 


$5  65 

5  65 
3  64 

6  10 
3  61 
6  20 
6  07 


5  81 

4  72 

5  17 
5  32 

4  43 


6  54 

6  14 

4  85 

4  69 

5  58 
5  16 

7  06 

4  80 

5  57 
4  82 
4  47 

4  83 
7  35 
7  00 

5  11 
5  50 

5  89 

6  24 

3  93 

7  07 
6  74 

4  84 

4  78 

6  64 

7  00 

5  70 

6  04 

2  90 
6  72 
5  18 

5  02 

6  92 
5  46 

3  23 


'  Witli  board  and  lodging. 


t  With  board. 


118 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 


II. — Factories,  mills,  etc. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Marseilles. 


Desciiption  of  employment. 

Lowest  wages. 

Highest  wages. 

Average  wages. 

Men. 

Women. 

Boys. 

Men. 

Women. 

Boys. 

Men. 

Women. 

Boys. 

$4  05 
3  47 

3  50 
2  90 

4  03 
4  05 
2  00 
2  90 

4  63 

2  90 

3  47 
3  47 

3  47 

2  60 

5  21 

4  05 

4  05 

3  16 
3  47 

3  47 

5  21 

4  05 
4  83 
2  89 

$5  79 
5  79 
5  20 

4  05 

5  80 

5  80 
8  10 

6  94 

5  80 

6  94 

4  34 
6  94 

6  35 

5  21 
14  47 

8  10 

7  52 

6  36 
6  94 

5  80 

6  91 
5  21 

$5  00 
4  05 

4  05 

3  50 

5  20 

4  65 
4  65 

4  65 

5  20 
4  63 

3  86 

4  63 
4  05 

3  08 

6  94 

4  63 
4  63 
4  63 
4  63 

4  05 

5  80 

4  63 

5  79 
4  63 

$2  00 
2  00 

$2  90 
3  50 





$2  58 
2  58 

1  73 
1  73 
1  73 
1  15 
1  73 
1  15 

$1  15 

96 

1  15 

l"45 
1  73 

2  89 
2  90 

1  73 

2  90 
2  31 
1  98 

$1  15 
1  45 
3  47 

'i'45' 
1  73 

2  55 
2  31 
1  73 

1  73 

2  31 
1  54 

$1  15 

1  15 

Coal  miners* 

Gas  machiuery  (manufacture) 

1  63 
"i'45 

1  73 

1  73 
1  73 
1  15 
1  55 
1  40 
1  73 
1  15 
1  73 

1  73 

2  31 

1  45 

2  31 
1  73 

1  45 
1  15 

87 
1  15 

87 

"'87' 
1  45 

""sY 

4  05 
2  90 

1  62 

2  89 
2  89 
2  31 
2  89 
4  05 
2  31 
2  89 

1  73 

2  90 

3  47 

4  63 
1  35 

1  27 

2  31 
1  73 

'2'89' 
4  63 

'i'is' 

'341' 

2  31 
2  31 

1  45 

2  31 
1  73 

1  73 

2  55 
2  31 

1  73 

2  55 

1  73 

2  31 
2  31 

1  73 

1  15 

Pasteboard  (manufacturing) 

1  15 
1  73 

1  15 

1  15 

Sulphur 

1  73 

Playiug  cards    

1  15 

Tin-foil  mauufactorics 

1  9  26 

3  47  1  7  52 

3  47 

*  Seven  hours  per  day  inside,  10  hours  per  day  outside. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  72  hours  in  factories  and  mills  in  Eheims. 


Description  of  employment. 


WOOLEN  MILLS. 

Spinning : 

Overseers 

Section  hands 

Assistants  to  sections 

Wool  carriers 

Wool  sorters 

Spinners  (carded  wool) 

Spinners  (corniced  wool) 

Piecers  (carded  wool) 

Piecers  (combed  wool) 

Bobbin  setters  (carded  wool) 

Bobbin  setters  (combed  wool) 

Frame  winders,  &c 

Winders  (children  and  old  women)  .. 

Comb-minders  (men  and  women) 

Minders  in  prepariuy-room 

Weaving : 

Winders  (before  weaving) 

Weavers  (flannel  merinos) 

Weavers  (double  merinos  and  fancy 
cashmere) 

Warpers -  - 

Keelers 

Dressers,  &c 

Wool  sorting 


Average 
wages. 


$6  36 
5  22 

4  62 
2  70 

5  82 

5  82 

6  36 

2  88 

3  78 
1  15 

1  44 

2  00 

1  44 

2  40 
2  50 

2  20 

4  62 

4  62 

2  88 
2  88 
2  88 


Description  of  employment. 


Woolen  mills— Continued. 

Weaving— Continued : 

Overseers 

Second  hands 

Overlookers  and  sorters 

Carding  and  combing : 

Overseers 

Second  hands 

Preparers  (women) 

Wool  washers 

Combers  (women) 

(Jardors  (women ) 

Finishers  and  bailers  (men) 

Drawing: 

Overseers 

Second  hands  

Drawers  (women) 

A  ssistants 

Mechanics : 

Mechanics  in  factories 

]\Ie<hanics  in  machine-shops. . . 

Jjaborers,  greasers,  6cc 

Carpenters 

Pipers 

Engineers 

Firemen 


Average 
wages. 


5  82 
4  62 

8  10 

6  96 
2  40 
4  08 
2  40 
2  03 
4  08 

6  96 

4  62 
2  70 

2  03 

5  22 

3  78 
5  82 
5  22 
5  82 
5  82 

4  62 


Wages  paid  per  day  (week  of  66  hours)  in  factories  and  mills  in  Rouen. 


Description  of  employment. 


WKAVKUB. 


Laljorere,  porters,  or  rough  workers 

Laborers  in  regular  work 

Mechanics 

Masons,  stokers,  wood-turners 


$0  62 

72 

1  08 

64 


Description  of  employment. 


Wkavkks— Continued. 

Foremen  of  spinners  and  weavers 

Children 

Women 


Average 
Wages. 


.$1  15 
15 
39 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


119 


III.— Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  fo^mdries,  machine-sliops,  and  iron^ivorks  in  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Gironde,  Bouen,  and  Marseilles. 


Description  of  employment. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  GIKONDE. 

(Foundries,    machine-shops,    and   iron- 
works.) 

Boiler-makers 

Blacksmiths  

Foremen  (machine-shops) 

Foremen  in  foundries  and  iron- works. . . 

Molders 

Machinists 

Pattern-makers 

Smelters 

Strikers 

Tool-makers 

Laborers 

ROUEN. 

(Furnaces  and  foundries.) 


980  men 
35  boys  . 


Average 

wages. 

$5  40 

5  66 

16  21 

10  22 

5  11 

7  43 

6  41 

7  10 

6  95 

6  41 

3  46 

5  10 

2  34 

Description  of  employment. 


MARSEILLES. 

(Foundries,    machine-shops,  and  iron 

works.) 
Foundries : 

Smelters 

Molders 

Assistant  molders 

Finishers 

Laborers  and  tenders 

Boys 

Machine-shops : 

Blacksmiths 

Adjusters 

Boiler-makers 

Painters 

Carpenters 


Average 


$5  79 
7  52 
5  80 
4  63 

3  47 
96 

4  85 

5  07 
4  63 

4  82 

5  60 


The  only  iron-blast  furnace  company  in  the  Marseilles  district  absolutely  refuses  to  give  any  infor- 
mation concerning  wages. 

IV. — Glass-workers. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  72  hours  to  glass-workers  in  Marseilles. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

BOTTLE  MANUFACTURE. 

One  gang  of  workmen : 

Blower i    $12  00 

Bottle  manufacture— Continued. 

One  gang  of  workmen— Continued : 

Water-carriers  (two) 

$0  35 
1  25 

Helper,  first  class 

7  53 
2  90 
1  25 

Helper,  second  class  (boy) 

Carrier 

Foremen  (one  to  six  or  eight  gangs) . 
Smelter  (one  to  six  or  eight  gangs) . . 

7  53 
7  53 

"While  the  above  are  given  as  the  average  wages  earned,  the  "  gang  "  is  really  paid  by  the  piece,  as 
follows  :  Per  hundred  bottles  :  blower,  28  cents  ;  first  helper,  16  cents  ;  second  helper,  7  cents ;  carrier, 
3  cents  ;  water-carriers,  9  mills  ;  fixers,  ^  cents  ;  foremen  and  smelters,  2  cents. 

In  the  manufacture  of  glassware  the  wage  returns  are  given  as  follows:  Men,  $9.65;  boys,  $5.61, 
\>or  week- 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  (50  hours  to  glass-workers  in  Bheiim  and  departmetU  of  Gironde. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

rheims. 
Blowers 

$12  79 
7  96 
5  76 
5  30 
5  79 

3  84 
5  76 

4  08 
3  48 

department  of  GIRONDE. 

$12  12 
7  49 

Assistants 

Blowers  (white  bottles  and  jars) 

Clerks 

Stokers 

4  63 

Assistants 

5  79 

Ordinary  workmen 

5  11 

Packers  

3  96 

Melters 

Packers  

Soi-ters 

Testers 

5  11 

Assistants 

3  96 

Common  laborers 

3  96 

3  96 

120 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


V.^— Mines  and  mining. 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  66  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  mines  in  Rouen. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
■wages. 

Miner : 

Coal         

$3  90 
5  22 

4  02 

Wages  paid  periceek  o/66  houi's  in  and  iti  connection  with  quarries  in  the  department  of  Gironde. 


Descriiition  of  employment. 


Drillers 

Forenipn 

Hand-barrow  and  crow-bar  laborers 


Description  of  employment. 


[Average 


Mine  setters. , 
Stone  cutters  . 


$3  56 
3  72 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  42  and  60  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  coal  mines  in  the  district 

of  Marseilles, 


Description  of  employment. 


In  tlie  mines  (42  hours) : 

Miners 

Boys 


Average 
wages. 


$3  85 
3  47 


Description  of  employment. 


Outside  the  mines  (60  hours) ; 

"Women 

Boys 


Average 
wages. 


$1  73 
1  15 


VI. — Railway  employ:6s. 

Wages  yaid  per  month  to  railway  employes  in  liheims. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$24  13 
24  13 
24  13 

20  91  1 

24  13  1 

21  54  ; 
19  30  ' 
19  30 
16  10  '■> 
24  13  ' 
19  30  1 
21  71 
24  13 
28  95  ; 

$28  95 

21  54 

19  30 

Telegraph  operators 

21  54 

19  30 

21  54 

28  95 

19  30 

•28  95 

Chiefs  of  construction  gangs 

21  54 

28  95 

14  48 

5  80 

Chief's  of  engine  depots 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  railway  employes  (those  engaged  about  stations,  as  tvell  as  those  en- 
gaged on  tlie  engines  and  cars,  linetnen,  railroad  laborei's,  i^x.)in  department  of  Gironde, 


Description  of  employment. 


Baggagemen 

Br.ikenien 

Chiefs  of  biiggage 

Chief?(  of  bureaus 

Chief  clerks 

Chiefs  of  stations : 

In  cities  

In  towns 

Chiefs  of  workmen 

Chiefs  of  the  poitors 

Chiefs  of  the  freight  and  engine  depots 

Clerks 

Conductors 

Controllers 


Average 

wages. 

$27  20 

15  60 

29  84 

65  18 

43  66 

62  30 

25  26 

25  26 

25  26 

54  86 

24  39 

28  06 

28  34 

Description  of  employment. 


Engine  drivers  (engineers)  — 
Eniploy6s  at  telegraph  stations 

Greasers 

Lani]>ists 

Overseers  of  workmen 

Porters  and  servants 

Signalmen  

Stokers  (firemen) 

Switchmen 

Ticket  agents : 

Male 

Female 

"Watchmen  and  trackmen  

Workmen 


Average 
wages. 


$34  20 
23  21 
18  95 
18  95 

18  95 
23  23 
25  35 

19  90 
18  95 

34  01 
10  96 
23  23 
17  19 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


121 


paid  per  month  to  railwat/  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  4'C.)  in  Rouen. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Traffic  department. 

Station  masters per  month.. 

Station  clerks do 

Porters do 

Pointsmen do 

Gnards do 

Brakesmen ,. . . .  do  — 

Ways  and  works  department. 

District  superintendents per  mouth. 

Assistant  superintendents do 

Clerks do. . . 

Draftsmen do. .. 

Foreman  platelayer do... 

Platelayers do 

Locomotive,  carriage,  and  wagon  depart- 
ment. 

Foremen  of  running  (sheds) : 

Salary per  month. 

Premiums do . . . 

Engine  drivers : 

Salary do... 

Premiums do... 


$63  00 
35  00 
19  00 
27  00 
23  50 
25  GO 


75  00 
40  00 
37  00 
37  00 
37  00 
17  00 


62  50 
15  00 


39  50 
3  50 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Locomotive,  carriage,  and  wagon  depart- 
ment— Continued. 

Firemen: 

Wages per  month . . 

Piemiums do... 

Greasers , do. .. 

(Meaners perdav. 

Foremen  in  the  works per  month. 

Draftsmen.. do... 

Clerks  do... 

Smiths per  day. 

Strikers do . . . 

Fitters do 

Turners do . 

Machinemen do  .. 

Erecters     do 

Boiler-makers do . . 

Coppersmiths do. .. 

Joiners do. .. 

Trimmers do. . 

Painters  do.. 

Molders do. .. 

Pattern-makers do. . . 

Masons do . 

Laborers ' do . 


.   $25  00 

3  50 

27  00 

70 

57  50 

^57  50 

*62  50 

1  20 

65 

1  00 

1  00 

85 

1  15 

1  20 

1  10 

1  00 

95 

1  00 

1  00 

1  30 

1  00 

70 

VII. — Ship- YARDS  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  bettveen  iron  and  wood  ship- 
building— in  the  district  of  Marseilles  and  the  department  of  Gironde. 


Description  of  employment. 


MABSEILLES. 

Iron-ship  building : 

Lathe  bands  and  planers 

Coppersmiths 

Iron-plate  workers 

Riveters  and  beaters 

Bevelers 

Punching  hands 

Machine  punchers 

Blacksmiths  and  strikers 
Joiners  and  mold  makers 

Ship  carpenters 

Ordinary  carpenters 

"Wood  borers 

Calkers 

Whip-sawyers 

Painters 

Masons 

Riggers 

Tenders 


Average 
wages. 


$5  21 
5  21 
5  21 
4  63 
4  87 
4  55 
4  08 

4  28 

5  14 
5  21 
5  25 
5  79 
4  92 
4  68 

3  70 

4  89 
4  63 
3  30 


Description  of  employment. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  GIRONDE. 

Irou-ship  building: 

Blacksmiths 

Carpenters 

Drillers 

Foremen 

Joiners 

Laborers 

Riveters 

Strikers 

Wood-ship  building : 

Calkers 

Carpenters 

Foremen 

Laborers 

Painters 

Riggers 

Sail  makers 


Average 


$6  74 
6  95 

6  95 
10  22 

7  90 
3  46 

3  69 

4  63 

6  95 
6  95 
10  22 

3  46 

4  80 
6  95 

5  45 


Apprentices  in  aU  the  classes  in  Marseilles  receive  one-third  of  the  full  wages. 


122 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


VIII. — Seamen's  wages. 

fVaf/es  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  between  ocean,  cocut  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Rouen,  Marseilles,  and  the  department  of 
Gironde. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages, 


iitcamer,  1,500  tons,  foreign  trade. 

Chief  officer 

S(fcond  mate 

Third  mate 

Boatswain 

Carpenter 

Steward 

Assistant  steward 

Assistant  cook 

Lan  PS 

A.B 

Chief  engineer 

Second  engineer 

Tbii  d  engineer 

Fourth  engineer 

Storekeeper 

Firemen 

Sail,  1,300  tons,  foreign  trade. 

Chief  officer 

Boatswain 

Carpenter 

Coot  and  steward 

A.   B  : 

Sail,  500  tons,  foreign  trade. 

Chief  officer 

Second  mate 

Carpenter  and  seamen 

Boatswain 

A.  B 

Sail,  coasting  trade. 

A.  B 

MARSEILLES. 


Long  voyage. 


Captain 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

J'oatswain 

Able  seamen 

Ordinary  seamen  . 
Shijj-carTjeutera  . 

Cook 

Steward 

Boy 


Coasting  trade. 


(^Japtam 

Mate 

Able  seamen 

Ordinary  seamen. 
Boy 


$48  66 
34  06 
24  33 
24  33 
29  19 
29  19 
9  73 
9  73 
21  89 

19  46 
87  59 
58  39 
38  92 
34  06 
23  11 

20  67 


29  19 
38  92 
34  06 

14  59 


31  62 

21  89 
19  46 
17  02 
14  59 


17  02 


55  00 
29  00 
24  00 
17  37 
11  58 

7  00 
15  44 
15  44 
11  58 

4  82 


29  00 

17  37 

13  51 

7  72 

5  79 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


M  A  RSEILLEB —Continued. 

Steamship  service. 

Chief  engineer $77  20 

Assistant 40  00 

Firemen  : 

First  class 19  30 

Second  class 17  37 

Ordinary 15  40 

Coal-heavers 13  50 

Deckhands 13  50 

DEPARTMENT  OF    GIRONDE. 

Ocean  steamers. 

Captain 67  55 

Second  captain 38  60 

Lieutenant 28  95 

Purser 38  60 

Surgeon 38  60 

Chief  engineer 67  55 

Second  engineer 48  25 

Third  engineer 33  78 

Boatswain 21  23 

Carpenters 19  30 

Stewards 23  16 

Firstcook 23  16 

Second  cooks 11  58 

Firemen 21  23 

Coal-heavers 14  48 

Able  seamen 11  58 

Ordinary  seamen 6  80 

Cabin-boys 4  83 

Waiters 1158 

Chambermaids  or  stewardess 11  58 

Ocean  sailing  vessels. 

Captain 51  85 

Firstofficer 28  95 

Second  officer 17  37 

Seamen 11  58 

Ooastiiig  vessels. 

Captain 21  02 

Boatswain 14  48 

Seamen 11  58 

River  navigation,  steam,  and  sail. 

Captain 20  82 

Engineer 26  10 

Firemen I  14  48 

Seamen |  15  44 

I 


LABOR   m    EUROPE. 

IX.— Shop  wages. 


123 


Wages  paid  in  shops,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Bordeaux,  Bheims,  Rotun 

and  Marseilles. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

BORDEAUX. 

(Per  month  of  288  hours.) 
Males : 

$16  88 

16  88 

*15  44 

ROUEN. 

(Per  month,  with  board  and  lodging.) 

Ketail  grocers,  &c. : 

Head  assistant  (eight  years'  appren- 
ticeship), managing'ttie  staff 

Head  salesman  (five  years'  appren- 

15  44 

7  72 

7  72 

7  72 

16  88 

11  58 

12  95 
12  95 

3  60 

7  42 
5  93 
5  50 

2  96 
2  23 

9  65 

Salesman  (two  years'  apprenticeship) 

5  79 

Females: 

(  5  79 
<         to 

(       7  72 

tl3  51 

MARSEILLES. 

(Per  week  of  48  to  72  hours.) 

Sewing  girls 

KHEIM8. 

(Per  week  of  72  hours.) 

6  00 

Males : 

3  10 

Clerks,  flr.st  class 

7  42 

5  70 

Portera 

Book-keepers   

8  00 

Females : 

Cashiers 

11  13 

*  And  2  per  cent,  on  all  sales  they  make.  t  "Without  board  or  lodging. 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities. 

Wages  paid  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Marseilles,  th^  department  of  Gironde, 

and  Bheims, 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Bescription  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

MARSEILLES. 

(Per  month.) 

$24  12 

6  75 

5  79 

11  58 

Department  of  gironde— Continued. 
(Per  month.) 

Females : 

$3  30 
5  23 

Wet-nurses 

3  30 

Dry-Durses  (young  girls) 

4  24 

2  72 

Coachmen,  boarded 1      19  30 

Wet-nurses 

16  45 

Coachmen,  not  boarded 

24  12 
11  58 

rheims. 

(Per  month,  with  board  and  lodging.) 

Males : 

Men  servants  (butlers,  ifcc.) 

Valet  de  chambre 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GIRONDE. 

(Per  month.) 

14  87 

1 

14  87 

Males: 

Valet 

8  00 

Batlers 

Females : 

Cooks 

12  79 

6  42 

Waiters 

a  3/1 

8  00 

Coachmen 12  79 

Domestic  maids 

8  00 

Footmen j      12  79 

Nurses  for  children 

8  00 

124 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 


XI. — Agricitltueal  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  hoiischold  (country)  servants  in  Bheirns,  department 
of  Gironde,  Marseilles  and  Rouen. 


Description  of  emploj'ment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

BHEIMS. 

Males: 

Plowmen* per  mouth . . 

General  men* do 

Herdsmen* do 

Shepherdst do 

Females : 

Dairymaids  * do 

Farm  servants* do  — 

DEPAUTIIENT  OF  GIKONDE. 

Females: 

Chambermaids} per  month.. 

Cooks do  . . . 

$10  02 

7  23 

8  00 
19  07 

6  66 
4  42 

2  33 

3  29 
1  93 
6  25 

75  00 

0  30 
0  51 

DEPAETMENT  OF  GIRONDE— Con'd. 

Males— Continued. 

$164  10 
79  10 
75  00 
79  10 
79  10 

57 

17 

1  37 

$0  05  to  0  10 

Laborers* do 

Shepherds* do 

Vinedressers  * do 

Wine-makers do 

MAKSEILI,E8.  § 

Farm  hands,  males per  day. . 

Farm  hands,  women do 

For  man,  horse,  and  plow do 

Spading  II 

Stonemasons  (for building  walls).. 

80 
30 

Laborers do 

Laborers per  year. . 

Males : 

Laborers* per  day.. 

Laborers  t do 

ROUEN. 

Laborer,  harrower,  carter,  mannrer, 
digger,  sower  [ per  month . . 

2  89  to  5  78 

*  With  board.  t  Without  board.  t  With  board  and  lodging. 

§  FaiTuins  land  in  the  district  is  divided  into  very  small  tra/sts,  each  of  which  is  worked  oy  the 
fanner  and  his  family  so  that  outside  help  is  rarely  employed  except  for  short  periods,  and  is  then 
paid  by  the  day.   Laborers  at  the  above  prices  provide  their  own  board  and  lodging. 

II  By  the  job  per  square  meters,  according  to  wie  nature  of  ground. 

XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  to  printers  (compositors,  pressmen,  proof-read- 
ers, ^c.)  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  Rouen,  Marseilles  and  Eheims. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 


DKPAKTMENT  OF  GIRONDE. 

(Per  week  of  60  hours). 

Newsjiapers : 

Compositors $6  76 

Pressmen 6  76 

Printers 6  76 

Laborers 3  52 

,l<)b  offices:  | 

Compositors °  27 

Pressmen - "  26 

Printers ^  12 

Proofreaders ^  ^2 

Laborers --  3  52 

ROUEN. 

(Per  week  of  60  hours.) 

Foremen  and  proof-readers 5  40 

Compositors 6  60 

Printer,  or  machine-worker 7  80 

Layer-on |  4  80 

Paperer 4  80 


Description  of  employment. 


HARSEILLEB. 

(Per  week  of  70  hours.) 

Compositors 

Power-press  foremen 

Power-press  men 

Folders  (women) 

Proof-readers 

RHEIMS. 

(Per  week  of  66  hours.) 

Foremen  

Assistants 

Compositors,  newspaper  and  book  work 

Job  printers 

Pressmen 

Assistants 

Lithographers 

Engi-avers 

Book-binders 

Paper-rulers 

Press-feeders 

Folders 


Average 
wages. 


7  43 

8  10 
6  08 
2  03 

11  00 


11  58 
7  52 
9  84 

6  98 

7  52 
3  47 
5  79 

12  45 
7  24 

n  K7 

2  03 
2  89 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  125 


BELGIUin. 


Belgium  is  a  most  active,  industrial  natiou.  With  au  area  no  larger 
than  Maryland  and  a  population  of  some  6,000,000,  its  occupations  are 
diverse,  its  inhabitants  industrious  and  economical,  and  harmony  pre- 
vails between  the  employers  and  the  employed. 

As  illustrative  of  the  regard  which  Belgian  employers  entertain  for 
their  operatives  the  great  linen  factory  of  M.  Eey,  amS,  at  Euysbroeck, 
near  Brussels,  may  be  taken  as  a  signal  example. 

This  factory,  according  to  Consul  Wilson,  from  whose  report  these 
interesting  abstracts  are  taken,  employs  3,000  operatives.  Three  per 
cent,  of  the  wages  of  all  the  workers  is  retained  by  the  proprietor  for 
an  "  invalid  and  pension  fund."  This  entitles  every  employe  to  the  daily 
attendance  of  a  physician,  free  of  charge,  during  illness.  Invalids  also 
receive  one-half  their  wages,  and  when  convalescing  are  provided  with 
meat  and  wine,  as  the  physician  prescribes.  Women  giving  birth  to 
children  receive  gratuitous  attendance.  When  a  married  workman 
dies  his  widow  receives  a  pension  equal  to  one  third  of  his  earnings  for 
three  years,  if  he  has  been  less  than  ten  years  in  M.  Eey's  employ,  and 
one-half  his  rate  of  wages  if  he  has  been  employed  over  ten  years.  As 
a  general  thing,  however,  this  pension  is  continued  until  the  children 
are  able  to  earn  their  owii  living.  A  pension  of  $5.79  per  mouth  is 
l)aid,  for  life,  to  all  invalided  workmen  after  15  years'  continuous  serv- 
ice in  the  factory. 

M.  Eey  buys  all  food  supplies  at  wholesale  and  sells  the  same  to  his 
employes,  with  an  addition  of  3  to  5  per  cent,  to  cover  expenses.  If 
any  fund  should  accrue  from  this  transaction  it  is  held  in  reserve  and 
expended  for  the  benefit  ot'the  work-people. 

There  is  a  school  and  also  a  savings-bank  in  connection  with  the 
factory  for  the  boy  employes.  To  encourage  boys  in  economical  ways, 
M.  Eey  pays  10  per  cent,  interest  on  all  sums  up  to  300  francs,  and 
7^  per  cent!!  on  all  sums  above  that  amount.  At  the  age  of  20  the  boys 
come  under  the  rules  and  regulations  to  which  the  adult  work  people 
are  subject. 

"Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart"  are  employed  by  M.  Eey  to  teach  the 
children  of  his  employes.  For  this  purpose  two  buildings  are  set  apart, 
the  average  number  of  pupils  being  about  350. 

Every  workman  can  deposit  his  savings  in  the  "General  Workmen's 
Bank,"  and  receive  5  per  cent,  interest.  This  money  is  returned  on 
demand.  A  workman  having  in  this  bank,  say,  a  sum  of  $200,  can  obtain 
a  sufficient  loan  to  enable  him  to  build  his  own  house.  M.  Eey  has 
about  80  houses,  of  three  to  six  rooms,  with  gardens  attached,  which 
he  rents  at  about  half-price  to  meritorious  workmen. 

Consul  Wilson  describes  a  woolen  mill,  "  Societe  auonyme  de  Loth," 
in  his  district,  employing  1,500  working  people,  and  conducted  on  even 
more  paternal  principles  than  that  of  JM.  Eey;  and  indeed  all  the  fac- 
tories visited  by  the  consul  seem  to  be  conducted  on  similar  generous 
theories. 

There  is  little  antagonism,  adds  Consul  Williams,  between  employer 
and  employ^  in  Belgium.  The  employes  finding  the  employers  in- 
terested in  their  general  welfare  place  themselves  almost  entirely  in 
their  hands.  The  trust,  as  will  be  seen,  is  not  betrayed.  It  is  this 
mutual  feeling  which  gives  the  Belgian  manufacturers  the  principal 
advantage  which  enables  them  to  compete  in  cheapness  and  quality  of 


126  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

manufactures  with  other  European  nations  of  greater  power,  organiza- 
tion and  capitalized  wealth. 

The  following  is  an  interview  with  a  miller  in  Liege,  reported  by  Con- 
sul Tanuer: 

Has  a  wife  and  five  children;  earns  $5.30  a  week;  two  of  his 
daughters  earn  a  like  sum;  Hves  in  a  little  cottage;  can  save  no 
money;  if  he  should  get  sick  would  go  to  the  hos]ntal;  has  a  son 
who  will  also  be  a  miller,  as  his  fathers  before  him  have  all  been; 
don't  want  to  become  rich,  for  if  he  were  rich  he  would  still  labor; 
loves  labor;  never  has  any  trouble  save  on  holidays,  when  he  is 
forced  to  be  idle;  all  excesses  committed  by  workingmen  are  com- 
mitted on  holidays;  rich  people  seem  unhappy;  cares  nothing  for 
riches;  cares  for  nothing  but  health  and  work,  and  work  means 
health;  idleness  is  tbe  root  of  all  evil;  laughs  daily  at  his  master's 
son  taking  exercise  in  his  gymnasium  or  running  like  a  madman  in 
his  garden,  seeking  for  tliat  which  the  workingman  finds  in  bis 
work — health.  Eats  bread  and  butter  in  the  morning,  with  coflfee, 
before  going  to  work;  at  noon  goes  home  for  dinner  and  bas  soup, 
with  a  little  salad  sometimes,  and  potatoes,  and  then  snpper;  eats 
meat  on  family  f6te  days  only;  the  family  cares  very  little  for  meat 
and  does  not  feel  being  deprived  thereof;  all  are  content  with  their 
condition  and  do  not  bother  themselves  about  any  other. 

These  general  details  concerning  the  labor  conditions  of  Belgium 
have  been  here  repeated,  as  both  Consuls  Wilson  and  Tanner  seem  to 
have  been  struck  by  the  simplicity  and  content  of  tbe  working  classes. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  wages  paid  to  Belgian  labor  are  in  general 
higher  than  the  wages  paid  in  any  other  country  in  Europe,  outside  of 
England,  France  and  Denmark. 

Consul  Tanner's  report  gives  some  graphic  statistics  on  tbe  important 
subject  of  female  labor.  Official  figures  showed  that  in  1880  the  number 
of  work-people  in  Belgium  amounted  to  2,520,000,  of  which  1,824,000 
(65  per  cent.)  were  females.  Consul  Tanner  is  in  doubt  as  to  whether 
agricultnre  was  embraced  in  this  computation. 

Out  of  a  total  employment  of  23,509  persons  in  the  mines  in  his  con- 
sular district,  13,509  were  women,  girls  and  boys.  This  em])loyment  of 
women  and  young  girls  in  the  mines  has  an  injurious  effect  on  their  phys- 
ical and  moral  well-being.  In  the  celebrated  John  Cockrell  mines,  near 
Liege,  employing  11,000  persons,  where  men  and  women  do  the  same 
kind  of  and  as  much  work,  the  women  receive  on  an  average  one  franc 
per  day  less  than  the  men. 

Consul  Tanner  gives  the  following  as  a  fair  average  of  the  daily 
wages  paid  to  female  labor  tbi-onghout  Belgium  :  Coal,  iron,  and  other 
mines,  35  to  05  cents;  farm  laborers,  20  to  40  cents;  servants,  10  to  25 
cents,  and  found;  tailoresses,  seamstresses,  and  milliners,  25  cents  to  $1; 
operatives  in  mills,  factories,  «&c.,  10  to  05  cents;  street-sweepers,  10  to 
45  cents ;  clerks,  10  to  05  cents ;  bonnes^  25  to  75  cents ;  washwomen,  25 
to  35  cents ;  starcbers  and  ironers,  25  to  35  cents ;  general  laboring  wo- 
men, 35  to  05  cents. 

Shoptending  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  women  in  Belgium,  retail  trade 
being  princii>ally  carried  on  by  the  female  portion  of  the  families. 

The  consul  at  Antwerp  reports  that  "it  is  extremely  difficult  to  ob- 
tain nuich  information  in  Antwerp  upon  this  subject,  as  most  employers 
guard  their  business  very  closelj'^,  and  refuse  to  give  any  particulars 
regarding  its  details,  especially  for  use  in  the  United  States." 


LABOR    IN    FAJROPE.  127 

Cousul  Polachek,  of  Ghent,  iu  his  very  valuable  report,  makes  this 
acknowledgment:  "I  may  be  i)ermitted  to  mention  the  numerous  kind- 
nesses received  at  the  hands  of  the  manufacturers  and  merchants  of 
this  district.  Their  generous  nid  has  enabled  me  to  prepare  this  re])ort 
with  such  minute  detail." 

The  laborers  of  Ghent,  according  to  the  consul's  report,  work  gener- 
ally by  the  hour,  the  hours  of  labor  being  12  iu  summer  and  10  in  win- 
ter, and  the  daily  wages  range  all  the  way  from  20  cents  to  $1.50.  The 
average  wages  for  skilled  mechanics,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  tables  further 
on,  may  be  reckoned  at  about  $4  and  laborers  at  $3  ])er  week.  The 
general  rates  of  wages  have  increased  10  per  cent,  since  1878,  but  as  the 
expenditure  of  the  working-people  has  increased  in  like  proportions,  the 
savings  are  no  more  than  formerly. 

The  contentment  and  weU-being  of  the  workingmen  of  Ghent  are  I'uUy 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  there  is  hardly  any  emigration  from  the  dis- 
trict. The  laboring  classes,  writes  the  consul,  are  fond  of  their  homes; 
their  treatment  is  kind  and  humane;  they  enjoy  their  recreations,  and 
possess  great  love  for  their  birthplace. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  the  female  laborers  of  Ghent  is  given 
as  follows :  Manufacturing  and  mechanical,  4,675 ;  commerce  and  trans- 
portation, 2,210 ;  professional  and  personal,  including  government  clerks, 
teachers,  artists,  laundresses,  musicians,  &c.,  856 ;  agricultural,  750 ;  all 
other  pursuits,  446 ;  total,  8,937. 

The  wages  paid  to  female  laborers  average  from  15  cents  to  95  cents  per 
day,  the  average  wages  in  factories  being  38  cents.  The  hours  of  labor 
in  industrial  and  mechanical  employment  are  from  11  to  13  per  day;  iu 
all  other  employments  9  to  10. 

Men  and  women  work  on  an  equality  in  employments  except  as  to 
wages,  in  which  the  usual  disparity  prevails. 

The  following  interview  with  a  mechanic  in  a  paper-mill  in  Ghent  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  such  laborers  live  in  that  city: 

A  paper-maker;  forty-four  years  old,  has  a  wife  and  five  children, 
the  oldest  sixteen  and  the  youngest  six  years ;  earns  77  cents  per 
day,  although  the  average  earnings  in  the  mill  do  not  exceed  58 
cents  per  day ;  hours  of  labor  from  6  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  with  two  hours 
for  eating ;  his  wife  works  also,  and  two  of  his  children  earn  some- 
thing every  week,  without  which  he  could  not  get  along ;  his  own 
earnings  average  $120  per  year;  his  family  expenses  are  $172.50 
per  year,  viz,  rent,  $19.30;  clothing,  $28.05;  food  and  fuel,  $104.95; 
school  tax  and  other  incidentals,  $19.30;  thus  leaving  $52.50  to  be 
paid  for  out  of  the  earnings  of  his  wife  and  children ;  with  steady 
work  and  no  sickness  can  save  from  $30  to  $40  per  year. 

The  following  general  statements,  compiled  from  the  reports  of  the 
several  consuls,  will  show  the  rates  of  wages  paid  in  the  general  trades 
and  industries  in  Belgium. 


128 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

I.— General  trades. 

Average  wages  paid  per  iceek 


Occnpations. 

Antwerp. 

Brassels. 

Ghent. 

Liege. 

All  Bel- 
gium. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$4  40 
3  12 
6  00 

3  12 

4  40 
3  12 

5  00 

.$4  82 
2  89 
4  82 
2  89 

4  82 

2  89 

5  79 
5  79 

3  47 
5  79 

2  89 

4  82 

5  79 

5  21 
5  89 

3  86 
5  79 
5  79 
5  21 

5  21 

6  95 
5  79 

5  21 

6  75 
5  21 

$4  02 
2  88 
4  02 
2  88 
4  02 
2  88 
4  62 
4  62 
2  88 
4  62 

2  28 

3  38 

4  02 

3  43 

5  18 
2  88 

2  28 

4  02 

3  93 

3  93 

4  62 
4  87 
4  02 
4  87 

4  41 

5  20 
3  93 

$5  00 

4  00 

6  05 
3  50 

5  40 

3  50 

4  44 

4  50 
3  50 

7  05 
3  50 

3  55 

6  05 

5  80 

4  95 
4  00 

8  70 

4  00 

5  50 

5  20 

6  50 
6  00 

6  25 

7  00 
7  50 

6  00 

7  50 
3  95 
3  95 
3  95 

3  95 

6  00 

7  50 
6  90 

4  50 
6  00 

6  95 

7  00 

5  00 
7  00 
7  00 

$4  56 
3  22 

5  22 

3  09 

4  66 

3  02 

4  98 

4  97 

3  28 

4  40 

3  05 

4  65 

4  16 

2  70 

5  50 

2  45 
4  63 

3  20 
3  20 
2  90 

5  46 

2  93 

4  07 

5  00 

OTHER  TRADES. 

4  28 

5  38 

3  29 

5  35 

4  25 

4  46 

4  31 

6  02 

6  00 
4  65 
6  50 

3  47 

4  65 
3  37 

5  66 

5  03 

6  28 

5  17 

5  28 

Distillers 

5  21 

5  00 

3  95 

2  95 

3  00 

4  63 

4  82 

3  86 

4  63 
6  75 
6  95 

5  79 
3  86 

5  79 

6  95 
8  68 
3  47 
5  79 

3  38 

4  87 

3  17 

5  70 

4  82 

5  20 
2  88 

2  03 

3  93 
5  20 

3  17 

4  87 
3  00 

3  77 

3  92 

4  09 

6  15 

6  45 

7  53 
4  40 

6  35 

Gardeners 

3  91 

4  50 

4  05 
6  50 
3  47 

5  80 

5  62 

Jewelers 

6  84 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

3  77 

5  86 

5  00 

Potters 

5  79 

6  40 

7  42 
5  79 

3  93 

4  56 
7  10 

5  16 
3  32 

700' 

9  00 
6  10 

4  86 

5  80 
7  45 
5  00 
5  80 

5  94 

7  74 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

5  51 

4  56 

4  82 

4  82 

5  00 

3  72 
5  16 
5  64 
5  50 
3  72 
5  64 

e'so" 

7  00 
6  00 
5  60 
5  00 

4  36 

5  79 
5  21 
7  42 

4  82 

5  79 

5  81 

Tailors... ..        

4  50 
6  50 

3  47 

5  58 

6  35 

Tinsmiths 

4  40 

3  95 

LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 


129 


II. — Factoeies,  mills,  etc. 

Wages  paid  po-  week  of  72  hours  in  factories  and  mills  in  Verviers, 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

"Wool-sorting: 

$6  no 

2  75 

4  80 

3  60 

9  40 
9  40 

11  00 
6  00 

4  00 

3  60 

9  00 

5  50 

4  00 

Dressing: 

$4  75 

4  UO 

"Wool-picking: 

4  00 

"Weaving : 

10  50 

"Wool  or  cloth  dyers: 

6  00 

6  00 

Hand    

5  00 

"Wool-carding: 

Finishing: 

6  50 

3  00 

3  00 

4  00 

Spinning : 

4  00 

Giggers  and  teaseling 

3  00 

Pressers 

4  50 

3  60 

Wages  paid  per  toeek  of  60  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Brussels,  Belgium. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

LINEN  MILLS. 

$2  94 
2  34 
2  64 
1  14 

1  38 

2  94 
2  50 
4  08 
2  94 
1  38 

WOOLEN  inLLS. 

$3  60 
2  18 

8  10 

3  60 

2  13 

1  44 

AVarping-machine  tenders,  women 

4  62 

3  60 

3  60 

Carpenters,  machinists,  locksmiths,  firemen,  &c.,  attached  to  mills  and  factories  receive  an  average 
of  $4.62  per  week  of  60  hours. 

III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  Brussels 

district. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

BLAST  FURNACES. 

$3  77 
2  61 

1  16 

2  61 

5  79 

4  05 

7  72 

8  68 

3  47 
2  32 

MACHINE  AND  BOILER  SHOPS. 

$5  79 
3  47 

5  79 

4  05 

4  82 

ROLLING  MILLS. 

3  47 

5  79 

First  puddlers 

FOUNDRIES. 

5  79 

Molders          

4  63 

Boys 

3  47 

1 

92  A— LAB- 


130  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

IV. — Glass-workers. 

Wagee  paid  per  week  of  72  hours  to  glass-worl-ers  in  Val  St.  Lambert,  near  lAege. 


Laborers 

Artists  

Mechanics'  laborers  . . . 

Mechanics 

Glass  grinders 

"Women  (experienced)  . 

Polishers  (boys) 

Casting-hall  niixers 

Famace  and  table  men 

Pot  makers 

Women  (girls) 


Waroh  onse  packers 

Sandmen 

I'lH.sttT  turners 

Smoothers  and  overseers 

Polishers 

Blowers 

Assistants 

Stokers 

Flattenera 

Cutters 


$5  00 
C  00 
7  50 
9  75 
7  50 

15  50 
9  00 
5  50 
5  50 
5  40 


Wages  paid  per  month  of  260  hours  to  glass-workers  in  the  consular  district  of  Brussels. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$21  23 
48  25 
14  47 
96  50 
33  77 
46  32 
38  60 

$32  81 
33  77 

24  12 

17  37 

19  30 

Laborers per  day . . 

60 

*  Three  for  every  furnace. 

V. — Mines  and  mining. 

Wages  paid  per  day,  or  week  of  64  hours,  in  and  in  connection  unth  a  coal  mine  near  Liege. 


Description  of  employment. 


liliner .. 
Women 
Boss 


Average 
wages. 


.$3  60 
3  40 
8  00 


Wages  in  mines  in  the  Brussels  district. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


TINDKR  GROUND. 

Chief  overseers : per  month . 

Assistant  overseers do 

Weigliiiiasters do 

AVorkmcu  in  galleries perday  of  10  hours. 

Laborers  for  removing  debris .' do 

Girls: 

From  14  to  16  ye.ars do 

Over  16  years do 

Pit  wa^on  hands  for  hauling  coal  to  shaft : 
Males : 

From  12  to  16  years per  daj'. 

Over  10  years do 

Females : 

Fi'oiQ  12  to  16  years do 

Over  16  years do 

Miners  in  decji  veins  (12  hours) do 

Other  mintrs  (12  hoars) do 

I..aborers  in  pits  (12  hours) do 


$32  81 

27  02 

28  95 

60  to  $0  83 

21 

50 

23 

29 

31 

37 

19 

22 

48 

54 

21 

35 

33 

39 

73 

1  16 

73 

1  00 

66 

60 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Wages  in  minea  in  the  Brussels  district — Continued. 


131 


Description  of  employment. 


wages. 


ABOVE  GROUND. 

Watchmen per  day  of  10  iioara . 

Macliiiiists do 

Firemen do 

Laboi  ei  s : 

Men do 

Women do 

Boys  over  16  years do 

Girls  over  16  years do 


$0  35 

77 

58 

42 

58 

27 

35 

18 

37 

16 

29 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours,  in  and  in  connection  with  coal  mines  in  the  Antwerp 

district. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  98 
4  98  to  4  07 

4  07       1  98 
1  98      1  74 
1  74      1  38 
1  38       1  03 

1  03       1  92 

Boys  in  mines : 

$1  92  to  1  68 

Females: 

Boys  on  surface : 

From  ]  4  to  16  years 

1  68 

1  20 

Joiners 

Blackanaiths 

5  22 

5  22 

Boy.i  in  mines : 

5  22 

3  48 

VI.— Eailway  employ:6s. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  aioiil  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  cjc.)  in  Belgium.* 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 

wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$38  00 
33  00 
21  60 
21  60 

$21  00 

20  50 

22  50 

68  00 

*  Hallways  in  Belgium  operated  by  the  Government. 
Note. — All  employes  of  Government  are  pensioned  after  a  certain  number  of  years  of  service. 


VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  ship-yards  in  Antwerp. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$7  60 

7  60 

7  60 

6  55 

6  00 

132  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VIII.— Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  monlh  to  seamen  {officers  and  men)  in  Antwerp. 
Ocean  steamships. 


Deacription  of  employment. 


Captains 

First  mates 

Second  mates 

Chief  eneiupors . .. 
Second  engineers  . 
Third  engineers  .. 

Doctors 

Head  steward 

Assistant  steward 
Bead  cooks 


Average 
wages. 


$101  00 
50  00 
34  75 
SO  48 
53  07 
38  60 
49  21 
81  &5 
19  30 
27  80 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Assistant  cooks $21  61 

Bakers I  25  47 

Carpenters 1  28  95 

Boatswaius 25  00 

Second  boatswains |  21  23 

Lamp-trimmers 17  37 

Firemen I  18  75 

Seamen I  18  52 

Greasers 20  26 

Trimmers 14  48 


Ocean  sailing  vessels. 


Captains 

First  mates . . 
Second  mates 
Carpenters... 


$38  60 
29  95 
19  30 
17  37 


Boatswains 

Cooks 

Steward  . . . 
Seamen 


$17  37 
19  30 
24  00 
12  15 


IX. — Shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  in  shops,  wholesale  and  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Brussels. 


Description  of  employment. 


Book-keepers 

Foreign  correspondents 

Clerks 

Salesmen 

Traveling  salesmen 


Average 
wages. 


$482  50 
386  00 
347  40 
289  50 
386  00 


Description  of  employment. 


Assistant  clerks,  males 

Female  clerks 

"Warehousemen 

Boys 


Average 
wages. 


$115  80 

69  48 

231  60 

69  90 


Female  clerks  in  retail  stores  usually  receive  from  $3.86  to  $4.82  per  month,  when  boarded  and 
lodged.  Salesmen,  in  addition  to  their  salaries,  generally  receive  a  commission  of  1  per  cent,  on  sales. 
Traveling  .salesmen  receive  from  $1.93  to  $2.70  per  day  tor  traveling  expenses  besides  salaries. 


X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  household  servants  (toicns  and  cities)  in  Belgium. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

IN  AND  NEAU  LIEGK. 

$10  00 
4  80 
8  70 
4  80 
10  00 
8  00 

14  47 

$9  65 

13  51 

Servants,  men 

8  68 

Women  (household) 

19  30 

Cook,  female 

14  47 

Stable-boy 

9  65 

Coachman 

5  79 

Waiternian 

11  58 

5  79 

BR088KL8  DISTRICT. 

Mattres  d'hdtel 

LABOR  -  IN  '  EUROPE. 

Xl. — Agricultural,  wages. 


133 


Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  Provincs  of 
Liege,  Brabant  and  Hainault. 


Description  of  employment. 


LIEOE. 

Common  farm  hands* per  month  . . 

PROVINCE  OF  BUABANT. 

Ment per  day . . 

"Woment do 

Men{ do  — 

Woment do 


Average 
wages. 


$1  75-$3  00 


Description  of  employment. 


PROVINCE  OF  HAINAULT. 

Ment per  day . 

Womenl do. . . 

Ment do. .. 

Women  J do . . . 


AvcT-age 
watres. 


$0  27 
13 
47 
24 


*  With  board  and  lodging. 


t  With  board. 


{ Without  board. 


XIV. — Iron-works. 

Wages  paid  by  the  week  in  Aniioerp. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Iron-works : 

Puddlers 

$5  76 

4  62 

5  16 

6  48 
9  84 
6  48 

6  96 
5  76 

Workshops: 

$5  76 

Firemen 

Rollers 

5  16 

6  ^6 
5  16 

Steel  works: 

Boiler-makers : 

Firemen 

Naval  docks: 

Fitters 

Forge : 

fi  36 

Strikers 

4  44 

5  76 

Smiths 

XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  70  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen, 
proof-readers,  ^c),  in  Liege,  Brussels,  and  Antwerp. 


Description  of  employment. 


LIEGE. 

Compositors 

Press  hand 

Lithographers 

Sterotypers 

BRUSSELS. 

Compositors 

Pressmen  

Proof-readers 

Presswomen 

Apprentices 


Average 

wages. 

$7  00 

7  00 

7  00 

7  50 

6  95 

8  68 

8  10 

3  47 

2  32 

Description  of  employment. 


ANT^VERP 

Compositors 

Pressmen  ." . . 

Proof-readers 

Lithographers 

Folders 

Stitchers 

Bookbinders 

Engravers 

Designers 

Apprentices 


Average 
wages. 


$5  80 

5  80 
8  90 

6  m 
4  63 

4  63 

5  80 
11  58 
11  58 

29 


HOLiIiAlVD. 

In  Holland  few  official  statistics  as  to  agriculture  and  labor  can  be 
obtained. 

In  the  absence  of  official  labor  statistics,  Consul  Eckstein  found  it 
necessary  to  correspond  with  a  very  large  number  of  proprietors  and 
managers  of  representative  industrial  establishments  throughout  the 
country,  and  to  engage  the  services  of  an  assistant  to  collect  infor- 
mation in  Amsterdam.  -The  result  is  a  valuable  report  concerning  the 


134  LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 

trade  conditious  of  Holland,  which  will  not  only  enable  the  American 
people  to  make  comparisons  between  labor  in  Holland  and  in  the  United 
States,  but  may  also  be  found  of  value  to  Holland,  as  a  nucleus  for  a 
statistical  survey  of  the  Kingdom. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  from  the  indifference  which  i)revails  in  Hol- 
land in  regard  to  labor  statistics  that  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions 
of  the  working  classes  occupies  no  place  in  the  econoniy  of  either  gen- 
eral or  local  institutions;  on  the  contrary,  much  is  being  done  by  cor- 
porative bodies  and  individual  employers  for  their  physical  and  moral 
improvement.  An  illustrative  reference  maybe  made  to  the  "Associa- 
tion Salerno,"  of  Amsterdam,  whose  object  is  the  erection  of  new  and 
improved  homes  for  the  working  classes  combining  cheapness  with  true 
hygienic  conditions,  an  association  whose  example  could  be  followed 
even  in  our  own  large  cities  with  profit  to  our  working  classes. 

Regarding  the  homes  of  the  Dutch  artisans  in  the  provinces,  the  mill- 
owners  at  Euschedl  write  as  follows  to  Consul  Eckstein : 

The  houses  occupied  by  our  laborers  are  all  very  much  alike, 
consisting  of  two  rooms,  a  front  room  and  a  back  room,  the  first 
serviug  as  kitchen  and  sitting-room.  The  better  class  of  laborers 
have,  many  of  them,  their  own  houses,  and  these  have,  as  a  rule, 
three  and  some  of  them  four  rooms,  the  front  room  serving  invari- 
ably as  kitchen  and  sitting-room.  Rents  may  be  estimated  at  36 
cents  and  48  cents  per  week,  the  first  amount  for  the  two-room  and 
the  last  for  the  three-room  house. 

The  consul  reports  the  working  classes  of  Holland  as  trustworthy  and 
saving.  The  Dutch  still  are,  he  says,  a  commercial  and  seafaring  i)eo- 
ple,  and  in  everything  connected  with  these  pursuits  they  aim  at  the 
best  results. 

The  feeling  between  the  employer  and  the  employed  in  Holland  is  fairly 
satisfactory,  and  seems  to  be  continually  improving.  The  consul  adds 
that  the  prosperity  of  the  communities  may  be  measured  by  the  feeling 
between  the  employers  and  the  workers. 

The  Dutch  workingmen  are  well  represented  in  trade  organizations 
or  unions,  one  of  the  principal  of  these  being  the  Grand  Dutch  Trades- 
Union,  which  aims  at  the  amalgamation  of  all  trades,  and  advocates 
general  sufi^'rage,  comi)ulsory  education,  ten  hours  to  constitute  a  day's 
labor,  a  limitation  of  the  work  of  children,  and  general  advancement 
of  the  interest  of  labor  through  co-operation.  It  would  seem  to  be 
freely  understood  in  Holland  that  these  trades-unions  are  beneficial 
alike  both  to  labor  and  capital. 

The  food  of  the  Dutch  working  people  consists  mainly  of  potatoes, 
vegetables,  beans  and  peas.  With  the  exception  of  horse  flesh,  fresh 
meat  is  a  rarity.  Their  clothing  is  composed  of  the  cheapest  material. 
In  their  dwellings,  when  not  improved  by  the  eflbrts  of  the  co-operative 
societies  above  described,  little  attention  is  paid  to  hygienic  arrange- 
ments. 

As  illustrative  of  how  the  more  prosperous  class  of  laborers  lives  in 
Holland  the  following  experience  of  a  mason  in  Amsterdam  is  of  interest: 

Is  35  years  old ;  has  a  wife  and  two  children ;  works  by  the  hour; 
is  paid  8  cents  per  hour,  although  the  average  rate  is  7^  cents;  is 
paid  for  12  hours  per  day  in  summer  and  7^  hours  in  winter ;  con- 
siders himself  fortunate  if  he  earns  $236  per  year.  Lives  as  follows : 
Rent  of  two  rooms  in  third  story,  $57.50  ;  clothing  for  himself  and 
family,  $20 ;  food,  fuel,  &c.,  $150 ;   dues  to  sick  and  burial  funds, 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


135 


$8.32 ;  total  yearly  expenses, 
he  estimated  a  fair  year's  wages 


5.82 — or  20  cents  less  than  what 
Food :  Breakfast — cofiee,  bread, 


and  butter ;  dinner — potatoes  with  fat,  sometimes  vegetables.  On 
Sunday  beef  or  pork  for  dinner.  Supper  same  as  breakfast.  As  to 
saving  anything  for  old  age,  it  is  out  of  the  question.  His  father, 
who  is  60  years  of  age,  has  to  work  just  the  same  as  at  twenty. 

That  portion  of  Consul  Eckstein's  report  which  deals  with  the  "dia- 
mond cutters "  of  Amsterdam — their  number,  habits,  wages,  mode  of 
living,  &c. — is  worthy  of  special  mention.  Diamond  cutting  is  an  in- 
dustry peculiar  to  thatcity,  there  being  more  establishments  and  workers 
there  devoted  to  this  business  than  in  the  rest  of  the  world  combined. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Consul  Eckstein's  report  is  altogether  silent 
concerning  female  labor  in  Holland,  save  incidental  mention  in  the  tables 
of  wages. 

In  a  report  from  Consul  Winter,  of  Rotterdam,  incidental  mention  is 
made  of  female  labor  in  that  city.  In  an  East  Indian  coffee-hulling 
factory  500  girls  and  women  earn  from  80  cents  to  $1.80  per  week;  in 
tobacco  and  cigar  factories  they  earn  from  90  cents  to  $2.20  per  week; 
in  twine  factories  girls  earn  80  cents  per  week.  The  hours  of  labor  are 
the  same  as  for  males. 

Consul  Winter's  report  deals  at  length  with  the  trade  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  Rotterdam,  but  as  these  are  similar  to  those  recited  by  Con- 
sul Eckstein  for  Amsterdam,  there  is  no  necessity  for  dwelling  further 
thereon  in  this  review. 

I. — General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  60  hours  in  Amsterdam. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Bricklayers.  ... 
Hod-carriers... 
Masons 

Tenders  ... 
Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters 

Plumbers 

Assistants . 

Carpenters 

Gastitters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Blacksmiths'  strikers . 

Bookbinders 

Brickmakers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Cabinetmakers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Distillers 


Average 

wages. 

$4  80 

3  60 

4  80 

4  00 

4  00 

4  00 

4  00 

4  80 

2  80 

4  80 

5  60 

4  80 

4  80 

3  60 

4  00 

3  20 

6  00 

3  60 

4  00 

4  80 

4  40 

4  00  ; 

4  80 

6  00 

Occupations. 


A  verage 


Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab,  carriage,  and  street  railways . 
Conductors 
Dyers. 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseshoers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithographers 

Millwrights 

Printers 

Teachers,  public  schools 

SaUmakers 

Shoemakers 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) . . . 

Workman,  Ist  class 

Workman,  2d  class 

Firemen  attending  to  boilers 
Engine  men ". . . 


$4  40 

2  50 
4  40 

3  60 
8  00 

4  00 

3  60 

4  00 
4  40 

3  20 

4  80 
4  80 
6  00 
6  40 
4  80 
4  00 

4  00 

5  00 
5  60 
4  00 

3  60 

4  20 

3  20 

4  40 
4  40 


Note. — The  working  hours  per  week  (60)  as  stated  in  the  heading  of  this  schedule  .^pply  to  most  of 
the  trades  and  occupations  therein  mentioned,  but  in  soaie  ca.'^es  thfy  are  more,  say  72  in  the  case  of 
bakers,  distillers,  &c.,  and  66  hours  in  the  case  of  employ6.s  in  sugar  rtiineries.  Conductors  and  drivers 
on  street  railways  are  employed  72  to  84  hours  weekly.  The  low  wages  of  cabmeu  are  augmented  by 
the  "fees"  they  goneraUy  receive,  sometimes  amounting  to  more  than  the  wages  they  get. 


136 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


II. — Factories,  mills,  etc. 

TVaijes  paid  in  cotton  and  woolen  milh  in  Holland. 


Description  of  employment. 


COTTOX  MILLS  AT  EXljHKDL. 

(Per  week  of  68  hours.) 

Stokers 

Eugineers 

Scutching-room  band.'i 

Caid-griudeia  aud  strippers 

Forenieu-carders 

Frame-teuders,  women 

Half-timers,  assi.stants  to  tenders 

Self-actor  spiiiuei s 

Piecern.  men 

Thro.stle  apiunera,  giils  

Winders,  women  aud  girls 

Warpers 

Sizera 

Makers-up  and  packers 

Dyers 


Average 
wages. 


$3  84 

5  20 
3  84 
3  84 

1(1  80 
3  24 

1  02 

6  00 

2  88 
2  40 
2  40 

2  88 
6  60 

3  84 
3  24 


Description  of  employment. 


Finishers 

Weavers : 

4-lonm . 

3-l<'oni 

2  loom 

Weavers' assistants,  hoys  and  girls 

Oveilookers 

Laborers  and  odd  men 

WOOLEN  MILLS,  FILBURG. 

(Per  week  of  70  to  75  hours.) 

Weavers 

Spinners 

Shearers  and  workmen 

Girls  

lioys 


Average 
wages. 


$3  90 

3  90 
3  24 

2  52 
1  50 
5  10 

3  00 


4  00 
4  00 
3  26 
2  00 
1  60 


III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

IFages  j^aid  in  Amsterdam  ptr  tveek  of  66  hours. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  68 
4  80 
4  92 
4  56 

1 

$5  50 

5  45 

3  60 

IV. — EAILWAY  EMPLOYjfiS. 

Wages  paid  to  railway  employds  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  icell  as  those  engaged  ou 
the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <fc.)  in  the  Netherlands. 


Description  of  employment. 


Station-masters,  large  stations,  .per  year 
Station  masters,  country  stations  do  .. 

InspecloTs'  platform  clerks do 

Bookins  clerks  do..-. 

Enirine-dnvers per  day. 

Firemen  do 

Guards  do  — 

Signiilmen do  — 

Switchmen do 

Plate-layers do 


Average 


$960  00 
360  00 

280  00 
280  00 
1  24 
76 
64 
60 
72 
43 


Description  of  employment. 


Booking  clerk  (chief  of  invoicing  of- 
fice)  per  year. 

Clerks  do  .. 

Assistant  clerks  do  .. 

[  Drivers    . .  per  day . 

,  Goods  deliverers do  . . 

;  Foienieu  of  laborers do 

I  Laborers do 

Assistant  laborers do 


Average 
wages. 


$,520  00 
300  CO 
120  00 
52 
54 
64 
52 
36 


v.— Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  in  ship-i/ards — distinguishing  be>n-een  iron  and  wood  ship-huilding — in   Am- 
sterdam. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


IKON  SHIPS. 

(Per  week  of  60  hours.) 

Carpenters    

Ti on  workers    

Joiners 

Laborers  


$6  40 
7  20 
6  (10 
I  00 


Description  of  employment. 


COMPOSITE  SHIPS. 

(Per  week  of  GO  hours;  fixed  wages.) 

Foremen 

Carpenters 


Average 
wages. 


■loineis 

ila.st  and  block  makers. 

IJIaeksmiths 

Laboreis 


$G  00 
5  28 
5  28 
5  28 
5  00 
4  08 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE.  137 

VI. — Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  in  steamships  in  ocean  naviyaHon  in  the  Netherlands. 


Description  of  employment. 


STEAMSHIPS. 

Captaina 

Fir^ t  officera 

Secouit  oflBcers 

Third  officers 

Boatswains 

Carpenters 

Cooks  

First  stewards 

Second  stewards 

A  ble  seamen 

Wiucbmeii 

Ordinary  seamen 

Cliief  engineers 

Second  engineers 

Thiid  engineers 

Donkeymen 

Firemen 

Trimmers 

SAILING-VESSELS,  OCEAN  TRADE 

Captains 

First  officers 

Second  officers 


Average 
•wages. 


$50  00 
31  00 

22  00 
17  00 
17  00 
17  00 
15  20 

13  00 
8  00 

12  00 

14  00 
8  00 

42  00 

23  00 
17  00 
14  00 
12  00 
10  00 


32  00  to  40  00 
28  00  32  00 
18  00       24  00 


Description  of  employment. 


Ocean  vessels,  etc.— Continued. 


Third  officers 

Boatswains 

Carpenters 

Cooks  anil  stewards 

Able  seamen  

Ordinary  seamen  ... 
Boys 


BALTIC  TRADE. 


Captains 

First  officers 

Second  officers 

Ca  penters 

Cooks  and  stewards. 

Able  seamen 

Ordinary  seamen 

Boys 


Average 
wages. 


RIVER  NAVIGATION. 


$12  00  to  $16  00 

16  00 

18  00 

20  00 

26  00 

18  00 

20  00 

10  80 

12  80 

6  40 

9  60 

3  70 

4  80 

16  00 

20  00 

20  00 

24  00 

15  20 

18  00 

18  00 

20  00 

16  00 

18  00 

12  80 

15  20 

6  40 

9  60 

3  70 

4  80 

Shippers 16  00        20  00 

Men 640  8  00 


Notes. — Captains  receive,  in  addition  to  their  wages,  1  per  cent,  of  the  gross  freights. 

Chief  officers  get,  in  addition  to  their  wages,  $12  for  every  Levant  voyage;  $8  for  every  Mediterra- 
nean voyage;  $4  for  every  Baltic  voyage;  $1.60  for  every  Hamburg  voyage. 

Second  officers  get,  in  addition,  $9.60  for  every  Levant  voyage ;  $6.40  for  every  Mediterranean  voyage ; 
$3  20  for  every  Baltic  voyaize;  $1.20  for  every  Hamburg  voyage. 

Third  officers  get,  in  addition,  $7.20  for  every  Levant  voyage;  $4.80  for  every  Mediterranean  voyage; 
$2.40  fur  every  Baltic  voyage. 

Captains  in  the  ocean  trade  receive,  in  addition  to  their  wages,  5  per  cent,  of  the  net  freights,  or  IJ 
per  cent,  of  the  gross  freights,  and  in  the  Baltic  trade  5  per  cent,  of  the  gross  freights. 


VII. — Shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  in  shops,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Amsterdam. 


Description  of  employment. 


WHOLESALE. 

Procurator per  year 

Bookkeepers do. . 

Bookkeepers'  assistants do.. 

Correspondents do. . 

Shipping-cleiks do. . 

Salesmen do. . 

Clerks do  . 

Porters do . . 

retail. 
Clerks: 

Grocery  stores* per  year 

Grocery  storest per  week 

Drapers'  stores* per  year 

Drapers'  storest per  week 


Average 
wages. 


$1, 000  00 
1,  000  00 
400  00 
600  00 
480  00 
600  00 
400  00 
200  00 


160  00 

3  20 
120  00 

4  00 


Description  of  employment. 


Retail — C  ontinued . 

Clerks — Continued : 

Clothing  stores* per  year. 

Clothing  stores! do... 

Millinery  stores* do. . . 

Millinery  storest per  week. 

Sewing-machines do . . . 

Stationery  stores do . . . 

Tea  stores  do. . . 

Chemists'  stores do... 

Drug  stores do. . . 

Fancy  goods  stores do.. . 

Jewelry  stores do. . . 

Toy  stores do. .. 

Glass  and  earthenware do  . . 


Average 
wages. 


$200  00 
300  00 
120  00 
4  80 
7  20 
4  80 
3  60 
6  00 

3  20 

4  00 
6  00 
4  00 
4  00 


•With  board. 


t  Without  board. 


138  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Vin. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  the  Netherlands. 


Description  of  employment. 


Housekeepers  

Cooks 

Servants'  scullerv  work 

Servants'  general  housework 

Servants'  care  of  white  and  linen  goods, 
&o 


Description  of  employment. 


Nurses 

Coachmen  . . 
Governesses 
Footmen 


Average 
wages. 


$40  00 
350  00 
200  00 
105  00 


IX. — Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Holland. 


Description  of  employment. 


NORTH  HOLLAND. 

Laborers  general  farm  work: 

"With  Doard  and  lodging,  .per  year. . 

■Without  bed  and  board  do 

Boys,  without  bed  and  board do 

Laborers  in  harvest  time  able  to  handle 

machines     per  day.. 

Laborers  in  harvest  time. .   do 

Boy  help do 

When  mowing  grass  per  hectare,  e-iual 

to  about  2J  acres.    "- per  day.. 

Laborers,   grain-farming,   &c.,  without 

bed  or  board per  day.. 

Dairy  maids per  week.. 

Female  servants,  household  work,  per 

year 

SOUTH  HOLLAND. 

Laborers : 

Plowing  and    care    of  cattle,  per 
week 


Average 
wages. 


$60  00 
187  00 
40  00 


1  00 
90 
40 

3  20 

60 
1  20 

5G  00 

3  24 

Description  of  employment. 


South  Holland— Continued. 

Laborers — Continued : 

Doing  all  hard  work,  loading  ma- 
nure, digging  ditches.,  per  day. . 

In  harvest  time do 

Straw  thrashing do 

Mowing  grass  and  cutting  grain, 

per  hectare per  day . . 

Men  for  hoeing do 

Women do 

Boys do 

Laborers : 

For  ordinary  work  in  winter. do 

For  sprui sand  fall do 

Male  servants  living  in  the  farmer's 

household    - per  year. . 

Dairy  maid:,  milking  cattle,  making 
cheeae,and  doing  household  work,  per 
year 


Average 
wages. 


$0  60 
70 

81 

2  95 
40 
32 
28 

40 

48 

85  00 


70  00 


X. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  toages  paid  per  week  of  (50  hours  to  printers  (compositors, pressmen, 
proof-readers,  4'c.)  in  Amsterdam. 


Description  of  employment. 


Printers,  first  class  illustrated  and  .job  work 
Printers,  second  class  plain  and  book  work . 

Assistants  

Compositors,  Job  work 

Comjwsitors,  book  work 

Proof-readers 


Average 
wages. 


$8  00 
4  80 

2  40 
4  80 

3  60 
7  00 


Retail  prices  per  pound  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  Holland  on  August  1,  1884, 


Articles. 


Bread ]  $0  3|  to  $0  5i 

Flour 4 

Roastbeef I      24  29 

Sonpbeef !      15  22 


Articles. 


Value. 


Fresh  pork $0  14  to  $0  22 

Bacon 16             18 

Ham  16             26 

Horseflesh i  9             19 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE.  139 


S1VITZERL,A]¥D, 

The  interesting  reports  upon  Switzerland,  from  the  consular  districts  of 
Berne,  Basle,  St.  Gall  and  Zurich,  together  with  the  general  averages 
prepared  therefrom,  in  accordance  with  the  Department  circular,  render 
the  review  of  the  trade  conditions  of  this  country  a  matter  of  simple  ab- 
stractive arrangement. 

The  rates  of  wages  in  the  several  districts,  and  for  all  Switzerland, 
will  be  given  at  the  close  of  this  review,  as  compiled  by  the  consul-gen- 
eral, from  the  several  reports  above  mentioned,  while  a  brief  summary  of 
the  conditions  which  prevail  in  each  district  is  herewith  given  in  order. 


BEENE. 

The  consul-general  reports  the  rates  of  wages  as  almost  unchanged 
since  1878,  some  industries  showing  slight  increase  and  others  slight 
decrease  ;  but  the  average  now  is  about  the  same  as  in  that  year,  when 
the  last  labor  reports  of  the  Department  of  State  were  compiled. 

The  workingmen  of  Berne  are  reported  as  generally  steady  and 
trustworthy,  many  of  them  saving  where  it  is  possible. 

The  factory  law  of  Switzerland  makes  the  hours  of  labor  eleven  per 
day,  and  prohibits  the  employment  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of 
age. 

The  feeling  between  the  employers  and  those  permanently  employed 
is  pleasant,  and  the  effect  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  community  is  good. 

The  organization  of  labor  is  generally  based  upon  the  idea  of  per- 
manency, and  workmen  are  usually  engaged  by  the  year.  This  per- 
manency makes  the  employes  satisfied  even  with  very  small  wages,  and 
enables  the  manufacturers  to  calculate  with  safety  on  "futures." 
Strikes  are  unknown  in  th^  district. 

The  condition  of  the  working  classes  is  described  by  the  consul-gen- 
eral as  "  a  little  below  what  may  be  termed  moderately  comfortable." 

The  following  case  of  a  shoemaker  furnishes  an  illustration  of  the 
general  condition  of  representative  workmen  in  the  district  of  Berne: 

A  shoemaker ;  37  years  old ;  has  a  wife  and  two  children ;  by 
working  long  hours  can  earn  78  cents  per  day ;  usual  hours,  10  to 
12;  earns  58  cents  per  day ;  his  wife  works  at  washing  and  sewing, 
and  earns  29  cents  per  daj^  when  she  can  get  work ;  could  not  sup- 
port his  family  otherwise ;  total  annual  income,  from  $193  to  $242. 

"Expenses:  Eent  of  one  room  in  second  story,  $34.74;  clothing, 
$28.95 ;  food  and  fuel  (35  cents  per  day),  $123.28 ;  income  and  resi- 
dence tax,  $1.10 ;  dues  to  aid  societies,  $2.32 ;  school  books,  doctor 
bills,  and  incidentals,  $9.05 ;  total  expenses,  $200.10.  Breakfast — 
coflee,  bread,  and  potatoes;  dinner — soup,  sometimes  meat,  but 
mostly  food  prepared  of  flour ;  afternoon — bread  and  beer ;  supper — 
bread,  potatoes,  and  coffee.     Can  save  nothing. 

Swiss  working  people  enjoy  full  political  rights  and  share  political 
responsibOities  with  all  other  citizens.  They  are  taxed,  like  others, 
according  to  income. 

In  regard  to  female  labor  in  the  district  of  Berne,  the  consul-general 
estimates  the  number  engaged  in  all  employments,  outside  of  household 
duties  and  domestic  service,  as  ranging  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  of  the 


140  LABOR   IN    EUROPE. 

whole  uuuiber  of  employes.  In  factories,  mercantile  houses,  dressmak- 
ing shops,  jj^overumont  offices,  &c.,  the  hours  of  labor  are  the  same  for 
females  and  males,  but  the  wages  of  the  former  are  from  10  to  33  per 
cent,  less  than  the  wages  of  the  latter.  Tne  effect  of  the  employment 
of  women  has  been  to  reduce  the  wages  of  men,  as  well  as  to  cause  a 
scarcity  of  labor  for  the  latter,  resulting  in  greater  emigration  of  able- 
bodied,  educated  men  in  the  prime  of  life.  This  emigration  is  princi- 
pally to  the  United  States. 

The  aduiirably  organized  public-school  system  of  Switzerland  dis- 
seminates education  among  workwomen  and  their  children. 


BASLE. 

The  consul  at  this  industrial  center  notes  a  singular  change  which  is 
taking  place  in  the  personnel  of  the  artisan  class  in  his  district,  viz : 
While  the  Swiss  citizens  are  largely  emigrating,  their  places  are  being 
filled  by  a  steady  stream  of  German  immigrants,  who  are  able  to  live 
upon  lower  wages  than  the  native  artisans. 

The  working  people  of  Basle  are  characterized  by  the  consul  as  trust- 
worthy and  saving. 

Strikes  may  be  said  to  be  unknown  in  the  district. 

Co-operative  societies  do  not  seem  to  flourish  in  Switzerland  as  a  rule, 
but  the  consul  at  Basle  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  successful 
working  of  the  AUgemein  Consumverein  of  that  place,  the  primary  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  supply  goods  at  the  lowest  possible  price. 

As  the  silk-ribbon  industry  is  the  most  important  industry  of  Basle, 
and  as  a  very  large  portion  of  this  product  finds  a  market  in  the  United 
States,  the  following  testimony  of  a  silk-ribbon  weaver  will  be  both 
instructive  and  interesting: 

Is  sixty  years  old ;  is  married,  and,  for  which  he  thanks  heaven, 
has  only  one  child,  who  is  a  milliner,  and  lives  at  home;  their  united 
earnings  go  to  the  support  of  the  family  of  three  persons ;  earns 
48  cents  per  day,  and  the  silk  weaver  who  can  do  that  the  year 
round  is  fortunate ;  his  daughter  earns  58  cents  at  her  trade,  mak- 
ing a  total  income  of  $1.00  ])er  day,  or  $328  per  year;  upon  this 
they  live  comfortably,  and  can  afford  some  luxuries  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  general  run  of  laborers ;  if  the  daughter  ceases  to  con- 
tribute, living  then  becomes  an  enigma. 

A  silk  dyer  responded  to  the  consul's  inquiries  as  follows: 

Is  forty  years  old  ;  has  a  wife  and  five  children,  aged  one,  two, 
four,  seven,  and  ten  years,  respectively;  his  wife  does  all  she  can  at 
her  sewing-machine,  and  earns  about  96  cents  a  week;  he  himself 
earns  77  cents  per  day  when  he  has  work,  which  sometimes  fails  him  5 
pays  $48  per  year  for  three  rooms  in  the  third  story ;  was  unwilling 
to  give  the  manner  of  spending  hi«  wages;  impossible  to  save  any- 
thing. 

Another  weaver  hesitated  about  givnig  the  consul  a  statement  of  how 
his  family  lived,  but  at  length  stated  that  coffee  and  bread  three  times 
a  day  constituted  their  fare ;  on  occasions  when  money  was  plenty  a  little 
meat  was  indulged  in. 

The  number  of  women  engaged  in  manufacturing  industries  in  the 
consular  district  of  Basle — viz,  Uasle,  Soleur,  Neuchatel,  and  Aigovia — 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 


141 


is  estimated  at  15,780,  and  of  girls  at  2,035.  The  wives  aud  daiigbters 
of  the  farmers  work  at  field  labor  with  the  raeu. 

Females  occupy  a  promiiieut  position  among  the  workers  of  Switzer- 
land in  the  fields,  the  factories,  the  mills,  the  counting-house,  the  school- 
house,  &c. 

The  following  rates  of  female  wages  as  reported  by  Consul  Gifford 
may  prove  interesting  here: 

Average  wages  per  week  of  65  hours  paid  to  female  laborers  iti  Basle. 


niBBON-FACTOKIES. 

Weavers 

Warpers 

Winders 

Spoolers 

Blockers  and  measurers 

Weavers  outside  of  factories  . 

COTTON-8PINNEKIE8 

Winders  

Blowing-room 


i 

$3  86  t 

2  89 

2  89 

1  93 

2  40 

3  47 

2  88 

1  74 

CoTTON-spiNNKRiES — Continued. 
Drawing,  slubbing,  roving  hands 

WATCH-MAKING. 

Hands  on  rough  work 

Hands  on  jewels 

Hands  on  hands 

Hands  on  dials,  decoration 

Hands  on  finishing,  gilding  

Hands  on  springs 


$2  00 


2  58 
4  92 

3  48 
6  06 
2  58 

4  63 


SAINT  GALL. 


Owing  to  emigration  to  the  United  States,  and  the  disposition  of  the 
able-bodied  of  both  sexes  to  seek  employment  in  cities,  the  farmers  of 
the  district  of  Saint  Gall,  which  embraces  the  cantons  of  Saint  Gall,  Ap- 
penzell,  aud  Thurgau,  are  often  inconvenienced  for  lack  of  agricultural 
laborers. 

In  this  district  the  farmers  pay  male  laborers  at  the  rate  of  $1.74 
per  week,  and  female  laborers  96  cents  per  week,  with  board  and  lodg- 
ing, which  are  considered  highly  advantageous  terms.  For  these  rates 
farm-laborers  work  from  daylight  to  dark,  aud  often  late  into  the  night, 
and  during  certain  hours  of  Sundays  and  holidays.  The  work,  says 
Consul  Beauchamp,  in  the  cantons  of  Appenzell  and  Saint  Gall,  where 
the  meadows  are  on  the  steep  hillsides,  whence  the  hay  must  be  carried 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  men  to  the  barns,  is  very  hard  and  fatiguing. 
The  men  must  be  fed  six  or  seven  times  a  day,  and  be  given  plenty  of 
wine  to  sustain  nature.  Here  the  work  begins  at  3  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing and  continues  until  9  at  night — 18  hours  per  diem.  This  mountain 
hay  sells  for  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  more  than  valley  and  lowland  hay. 

Those  employed  in  the  building  trades  are  principally  foreigners,  the 
bricklayers  and  plasterers  being  Italians  and  Austrians,  and  the  car- 
penters, plumbers  aud  ceiling  decorators  Germans.  These  migratory 
artisans  only  remain  during  the  building  season,  returning  to  their 
homes  in  the  winter.  Building  in  this  consular  district  is  largely 
carried  on  at  present,  and  wages  are  consequently  high,  running  from 
$4.50  to  $5  per  week.  Working  hours  are  from  6  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  with 
an  hour  for  dinner,  which  makes  12  working  hours. 

The  habits  of  the  working  class  of  the  district  of  Saint  Gall  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  German  working  classes.  Each  able-bodied  man  must 
devote  certain  days  in  the  year  to  i)erfecting  himself  in  military  disci- 
pline. 

The  feeling  between  capital  and  labor  is  worthy  of  commendation, 
the  employers  contributing  in  many  ways  to  the  physical  and  moral 
well-being  of  their  work-people. 


142 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


The  district  of  Saint  Gall  possesses  a  number  of  trades  unions  and 
co-operative  societies,  of  which  Consul  Beauchamp  gives  interesting- 
statistics.     Strikes  are  unknown  there. 

The  consul  gives  the  result  of  several  interviews  with  representative 
workingmen,  showing  their  home-life,  wages,  food  and  food-prices,  &c., 
of  which  the  following  is  a  fair  example: 

A  carpenter,  42  years  old,  has  a  wife  and  5  children,  the  eldest 
11  years  and  the  youngest  0  months  old;  earns  $4.63  per  week  of  72 
hours,  although  the  average  wages  i)aid  to  carpenters  do  not  ex- 
ceed S4.08  per  week;  is  compelled  to  support  his  family  on  his  own 
earnings,  his  family  not  being  able  to  earn  any  tiling;  works  at 
home  nights,  after  his  day's  work,  at  odd  jobs,  say  until  mulnight; 
estimates  his  total  earning  at  $25G.()9  yev  year.  Expenses  per  year: 
Eent,  two  rooms,  third  floor,  partly  occui)ied  by  another  family, 
$33.00;  clothing  for  iamily,  $23.10;  food,  fuel,  &c.,  $185.28;  poor 
tax,  38  cents;  school  tax,  38  cents;  personal  tax,  34  cents;  doctor's 
bill  and  medicine,  $13.55.  Food:  Breakfast — coflee  and  bread; 
dinner — soup  and  potatoes,  meat  very  seldom;  supper — coffee  and 
potatoes,  or  oatmeal;  saving,  an  utter  impossibility;  satisfied  and 
almost  happy  in  being  able  to  make  ends  meet;  turns  from  the 
thought  of  sickness  or  old  age  as  something  terrible;  would  like  to 
emigrate  to  the  United  States,  but  could  not  save  enough  to  make 
the  journey;  so  must  work  on  here  until  death. 

As  to  female  labor  and  the  distribution  of  employment  Saint  Gall  ranks 
about  on  an  equality  with  Berne  and  Basle. 


ZURICH. 

The  working  people  of  Zurich  are  described  by  Consul  Byers  as  being 
generally  orderly,  steady,  persevering,  attentive  and  thrifty;  the  best 
order  is  maintained  in  the  factories,  and  strikes  very  rarely  occur. 

The  iron  and  silk  trades  being  the  principal  industries  of  Zurich,  the 
consul  deals  at  length  and  in  an  interesting  manner  therewith.  The 
industries  of  the  canton  of  Zurich,  and  the  number  of  employes  engaged 
in  each,  are  given  as  follows : 


Indnstriea. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Silk  industry 

Cotton  industry , 

Machine  factories 

Otlier  mechanical  industries 

Total , 

Trade  and  commerce 

Agriculture 

Science,  art,  schools,  &c 

Gfand  total 


3,079 

4,448 

7,753 

28,  860 


25, 256 

5,248 

43 

10,540 


101,  249 


61, 684 


28,335 
9,690 
7.796 

39, 406 


44,146 

41,  087 

85,  233 

14,  970 

6,837 

21,  807 

38,  564 

12,813 

51,  377 

3,569 

947 

4,516 

162,  933 


The  predominance  of  female  labor  in  the  silk  industry  of  Zurich,  as 
above  noted,  is  remarkable,  and  as  a  large  part  of  the  products  of  the 
Zurich  silk-looms  finds  a  market  in  the  United  States,  and  thus  comes 
in  direct  competition  with  our  growing  silk  industry,  a  short  review  of 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


143 


the  conditions  affecting  the  Swiss  manufacture  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
instructive. 

The  silk  manufacture  of  Zurich,  and,  indeed,  of  all  Switzerland,  is 
especially  a  "house  industry."  There  are  villages  and  farm  districts, 
writes  Consul  Byers,  in  which  there  is  hardly  a  house  without  a  silk 
loom — this  applies  also  to  the  mountain  houses,  even  up  to  the  region 
of  alpine  snow,  where  all  communication  with  the  weavers  may  be  cut 
off  during  the  winter.  The  peasant  weavers  are  also,  generally  speak- 
ing, small  farmers ;  hence  their  ability  to  work  for  such  very  low  wages 
as  they  earn  at  their  looms. 

Silk  winders,  principally  women,  earn  at  their  homes  from  10  cents 
to  48  cents  per  day.  Warpers,  working  at  the  factory,  earn  from  29 
cents  to  97  cents  per  day.  Those  who  work  at  home  have  to  furnish 
their  own  reels,  which  cost  from  $20  to  $22.  The  weavers  must  own 
their  looms,  which  cost  from  $15  to  $18.  These  weavers — loom-owners — 
earn  from  15  cents  to  48  cents  per  day.  The  greater  percentage  of 
silk  weaving  is  done  by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  farmers,  the 
latter  tending  to  their  farms,  &c. 

Here  is  a  system  of  labor,  a  combination  of  power  and  hand  looms, 
says  Consul  Byers,  which,  with  the  great  diversity  in  qualities  and 
styles,  makes  it  possible  for  Switzerland  to  defy  much  of  the  world's 
competition  in  silk  manufacture. 

Swiss  machinery  is  another  industry  which  enters  into  competition 
with  American  products  both  in  the  United  States  and  abroad.  The 
following  are  the  wages  paid  in  one  of  the  most  celebrated  machine 
shops  of  Zurich,  whose  machines,  according  to  Mr.  Byers,  are  shipped 
to  all  parts  of  the  world : 

Average  wages  paid  per  week  o/63  hours  in  a  leading  Zurich  machine  factory. 


Description  of  employment. 


Fonndera 

Apprentices 

Cast-iron  cleaners 

( "ore  makers 

Sand  painters 

Under  ■workmen 

Metal  founders 

Locksmiths 

Apprentices 

Turners 

Apprentices 

Planers,  molders,  stampers 


1 
Wages. 

$5  82 

1  74 

3  48 

3  48  , 

2  76 

3  24 

4  62  : 

5  82  1 

2  10 

5  82  i 

2  28 

4  62 

Description  of  employment. 


Cutlers 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Boilermakers  .. 

Assistants . . 
Coppersmiths. .. 

Apprentices 

Joiners 

Carpenters 

Masons 

Tinners 


$4  08 
5  82 

4  08 

5  22 

4  68 

5  82 
2  34 
5  22 

4  62 

5  22 
4  62 


The  following  extract  from  the  consul's  reports  shows  how  a  Zurich 
workman  lives: 

A  carpenter  has  a  wife  and  5  children,  earns  $5.34  per  week, 
although  the  average  trade  wages  do  not  exceed  $4.50  per  week; 
works  from  6  to  7 ;  earns  about  $347  per  year.  Breakfast — bread 
and  coffee;  at  9,  cider  and  bread;  dinner — soup,  meat,  and  vege- 
tables; 4  o'clock,  cider  and  bread;  supper — coffee,  soup,  and  pota- 
toes. Can  save  nothing  from  his  own  earnings;  his  wife  goes  out 
scrubbing  and  earns  something,  which  they  save.  The  fuel  and 
food  for  this  family  are  estimated  at  $107.02,  or  at  the  rate  of  about 
46  cents  per  day  for  7  persons. 


144 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE. 


STATEMENT  PREPARED  BY  M.  J.  CRAMER,  UNITED  STATES  CONSUL- 
GENERAL  AT  BERNE,  SHOWING  THE  AVERAGE  WAGES  PAID  IN  THE 
CONSULAR  DISTRICTS  IN  SWITZERLAND  AND  FOB  ALL  SWITZERLAND 
DURING  THE  YEAR  1884. 

I. — General  trades. 

(Per  week.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Consnlar  districts. 


Basle. 


Berae.       St.  Gall.      Zurich, 


All 
Switzer- 
land. 


BUTLDINO  TRADES. 


Bricklayers 

Hou-caiTiers . 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Slaters 

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants  ... 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brick-makers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectiou^rs 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers,  draymen,  and  teamsters;  cab,  carriage, 

and  street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers J 

Gardeners 

Hatters 


Horsi'sboers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &C 

Litliogiaphors 

Millwrights 

Nail  makers  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers  public  schools 

Saddle  ana  harness  makers. 

Sail-makero 

f5lcv(Mlores 

Tan  HITS 

Tiiilors 

Ti-legraph  operators 

Tiiisiniths  

Weavers  (outside  of  mills)  . 


$4  50 
2  90 
4  50 
2  90 
4  90 
2  70 


5  05 
5  40 


3  45 
b  40 


4  63 


5  32 


5  20 

6  32 


4  68 


5  21 

'4"66' 


3  00 
6  96 


$7  50 

2  22 
6  06 

3  90 
6  36 
3  90 
3  78 
3  78 

3  18 

4  92 
3  36 

5  22 
3  78 


4  32 

5  40 
4  62 
4  80 
4  92 

3  78 

4  32 
4  92 
4  62 

6  36 
3  30 

3  78 

4  32 
4  02 

3  06 

4  62 

5  76 
5  22 

3  66 

4  62 
3  60 

5  76 
3  78 
3  78 

6  30 

2  64 

3  78 
6  06 


4  32 


4  92 
6  36 


3  66 
2  64 


$4  80 
3  60 
6  00 
3  72 
5  40 


3  48 


4  08 

5  16 


4  56 


$4  05 

3  24 

4  50 


3  47 

3  00 

4  92 
4  68 


5  22 


4  62 

5  82 


4  80 
4  25 
4  63 
4  00 


4  33 

e'os' 


5  79 
5  79 


6  95 
4  05 


3  06 

5  70 

6  95 

4  05 

5  79 


6  08 


$5  21 

2  99 
5  27 

3  50 
5  03 
3  20 


5  04 


3  88 
5  20 

4  43 
4  68 
4  43 

3  78 

4  66 

4  92 

5  59 

5  84 

3  30 

4  78 
4  93 
4  02 

3  84 

4  91 

6  35 
4  63 
3  83 

3  84 

4  65 
6  35 

3  61 

5  51 

6  30 
2  64 

4  17 

5  93 


5  20 


4  92 
6  36 


4  41 
3  05 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

II. — Factories,  mills,  etc. 

[Per  week.] 


145 


Description  of  emplojinent. 

Consular  districts. 

All 
Switzer- 
land. 

Basle. 

Bei-ne. 

St.  Gall. 

Zurich. 

Macliinists 

$4  82 

5  Oi 
3  86 
3  86 

6  75 

3  47 
1  Of 

4  63 
1  9:{ 
4  25 

$4  82 

5  02 
3  86 
3  86 

6  11 
3  47 

1  93 

3  55 

2  55 

4  ''5 

Repairers 

Stokers 

Oilers,  watchmen 

Oveiseers 

$3  00 

$6  GO 

(/"ai  il-sliarpeners 

Card-cloauers      

Spiuuei's 

3  60 

3  65 
3  18 

$2  31 

Helpers    

Tackers 

In  sniallor  factories : 

First  class  of  operatives 

4  98 
2  19 
2  18 

4  98 

Siconil  rlas.**  of  operatives  (men  and  women). 

2  19 

'i'hird  class  of  opcrativis ;  roving  Lauds 

2  18 

III.— Foundries,  MAcniNE-snops  and  iron-works. 

[Per  week.] 


Description  of  employment. 

Consular  districts. 

All 
Switzer- 
land. 

Basle. 

Berne. 

St.  Gall. 

Zurich. 

MACIIIXE-SHOPS  AND  lUOX-WOKKS. 

$3  96 

$6  27 

4  25 

5  69 
5  69 
5  69 

4  54 

5  50 
4  05 

6  27 
6  56 
4  25 

$5  12 

4  25 

5  15 
5  15 
5  69 
4  58 

Siriki-rs 

Tui  nei  s          

4  62 
4  62 



Cutters,  planers,  stampers,  borers 

4  62 

$5  00 

5  25 

3  84 

6  27 
5  09 

4  76 

7  29 

5  56 

3  63 

3  63 
5  28 
5  28 

5  80 
5  00 

$3  50 
5  41 

FOUNDRY. 

Iron  foniiders 

6  27 
6  56 
3  76 
3  76 
3  47 

6  56 

5  00 

4  62 
3  63 

4  46 

Tenders 

3  69 

Cast-iron  cleaners 

3  47 

Ensineer 

5  80 

5  80 

92  A — LAB- 


-10 


146 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VII. — Railway  employes. 

[Per  month.] 


Consular  districts. 


Description  of  employment. 


Basle.        Berne.       St.  Gall.    I  Zurich. 


Railroad-master — 

Eailway  guards  and  pointsmen $20  00 

Laborers 

Station-masters    I 

Collectors,  luggage  forwarder 22  00 

Station-master's  assistants — 

Carriage  controller  and  telegraph  clerks 

Porters,  night  watchmen I 

FYeight  receiver I 

Wagon -shifters,  station  overseers 

Wagon-masters,  wagon  inspectors,  greaser 

Day  laborer,  goods  loader • 

Locomotive  and  car  cleaners ' 

Chief  conductor \        36  00 

Brakemen I        18  50 

Locomotive  engineers 29  00 

Stoker 23  40 


$23  74 


19  40 


WOBK-8HOP. 


Foremen  . . 
Workmen  . 


21  23 
16  40 
31  65 

22  10 


30  00 
18  00 


$44  15 
12  83 


36  62 
16  83 


19  50 


19  25 
19  25 
56  30 
35  83 


AU 
Switzer- 
land. 


$35  12 
20  07 

15  08 

25  10 

26  64 
26  64 

26  64 
22  .58 
22  58 
22  00 

27  40 

16  38 
18  98 
38  79 
30  69 
59  90 
35  35 


16  90 
16  9J 


23  45 
17  45 


VIII. — Seamen's  wages. 

[Per  year.l 


Description  of  employment. 


Consular  districts. 


Berne.       St  Gall. 


AU 
Switzer- 
land. 


Captain  of  lake  steamers 

Pilot 

Chief  engineer 

A  Bsistant  engineer 

Stoker 

Sailors 

Clerk 

Ship-carpenter 

Ship  smith 


$608  00 
292  00 
770  50 
292  00 
243  50 
243  50 
415  00 
219  00 
219  00 


$439  00 
342  00 
429  00 


348  00 
294  00 
354  00 

$548  50 
317  00 
599  75 
292  OO 
295  75 
268  75 
384  50 
219  00 
219  00 


VII. — Shop  wages  in  Switzerland. 

[Per  week.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Consular  districts. 


Berne.      St.  Gall.       Zurich 


All 
Switzer- 
land. 


IN  DBT  GOODS  STORES. 

Males : 

Commercial  travelers 

Ordinary  clerk,  salesman,  book-keeper  . 
Females: 

First-class  cutters  and  dressmakers  . . . 

Ordinary  s.ileswoman  and  seamstress. . 


IN  GUOCKRY   STOKES. 

Retail: 

Book-keeper  and  salesman 

Package  carrier 

Wholesale : 

Commercial  traveler 

Book-keeper  and  salesman 


$9  36 
6  75 


7  72 
3  86 


4  09 
2  89 


$7  42 
7  42 


$7  24 


7  24 
3  62 


9  65 


$0  36 
7  13 


7  4& 
3  74 


4  8S 
2  88 


8  6g 
8  15 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  147 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities  in  Switzerland. 

[Per  month,  incladiiig  board  and  lodging.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Chief  male  servant  (or  honse-master) 

Ordinary  male  servant 

Chamber-maid 

Cook: 

Male 

Female 

Nnrsey-maid 

Lady's  dressing-maid 


Consular  dititricts. 


Berne.      St  GalL     Zarich, 


$20  26 
n  58 

4  82 

9  17 
5  31 
2  41 
4  82 

$24  15 

$3  47 

3  40 
13  50 

4  65 



All 
Switzer- 
land. 

$22  18 
U  58 

3  90 

n  34 

4  98 
2  41 
4  82 

VIII. — Agricultural  wages  in  Switzerland. 

[Per  year,  inclnding  boai^  and  lodging.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Qordeners 


FABM  HAia>e. 


Adults,  male 

Adults,  female 

Yoong  men  from  16  to  22. 
Hoose'bold  servants 


Consular  districts. 


Basle.       Berne.      Zarich 


$70  54 


$82  00 


56  25 
20  50 
22  00 
22  50 


80  00 


All 
Switzer- 
land. 


$82  00 


68  93 
20  50 
22  00 
22  50 


IX.— Corporation  EMPLOYts  in  Switzerland. 

[Per  year.] 


Description  of  employment. 


Consnlar  districts. 


Berne. 


StGaJl. 


Zarich. 


AU 
Switzer- 
land. 


Mayor  of  the  city 

City  clerk  and  his  assistants 

City  sergeant  and  assistants 

City  architect  and  assistant 

City  engineer  and  assistant  

Secretary  and  cashier  in  architect's  office 

Bookkeeper,  clerks,  copyists,  &c 

City  gardener,  street-master  and  other  sabordinate  em 
ploy6s. 


$193  00 
501  80 
260  55 
772  00 
772  00 
772  00 
308  80 
658  13 


$772  00 
579  00 
386  00 
965  00 
579  00 
865  50 
295  00 
482  50 


$1,  061  50 
733  40 
328  20 
1,1.58  00 
1, 158  00 
772  00 
328  00 


$675  50 
604  45 
324  91 
965  00 
836  33 
803  15 
310  60 
380  21 


148  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

X. — Government  departments  and  offices. 


[Per  anDTun.] 


Description  of  employment. 


All  Switzerland. 


President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  . 

Ffdeial  CDunccllor,  each 

Fedeiiil  oliamellor 

Vici'-cliiinctllor    

PresUli-ut  of  the  anpreme  coqrt 

Justices  of  the  supreme  court,  each... 

Clerks  of  tin-  supreme  court 

Chief  posi  (liiceror 

Administrative  inspector  of  railways  . 
Technic  inspector  of  railways 


IN  THE  MILITAUY  DEPARTMENT. 


Chief  of  Staff  in  bureau    

Chief  of  artillery • 

Chief  of  infantry     

Chief  of  bureau  of  commerce 

Fedeial  treasiiier 

Suhoidiiiale  officials  and  employes  in  the  federal  departments,  such  as  chiefs  of 
bureaus,  clerks,  copyists,  translators,  messengers,  &c.,  range  between 


$2,  605  50 

2,310  00 

2,  123  00 

1,  351  00 

2.  123  00 
1,  930  00 

$1, 158  00  to  1,  544  00 

1,  544  00 

1,544  00 

1,  544  00 


1,447  .50 
1,447  50 
1,447  50 
1,  .'(51  00 
1,351  00 

289  50  to  1,  351  00 


POSTAL  SERVICE. 

PostoflSce  clerks  from — 

1  to  3  years  of  service  

3  to  6  years  of  service 

6  to  9  years  of  service 

9  to  12  years  of  service c. 

12  to  15  years  of  service 

over  15  years  of  service 

Chief  of  post  bureau 

Lettei'  carriers        

Postage  carrier 

Money -order  carriers 

Packer  and  servants •• 

Mail  agents 


289  50 

347  40 

416  88 

486  36 

555  84 

6.  6  90 

636 

90  to  772  00 

213 

60  to  308  80 

347 

40  to  3S6  00 

347 

40  to  386  00 

213 

CO  to  347  40 

405 

30  to  636  90 

TELEGRAPH  SERVHCE. 


Telegraphists  in  cities  from  — 

1  to  3  years  of  service 

3  to  6  years  of  service 

6  to  9  years  of  service 

9  to  12'  years  of  service 

12  to  15  years  of  service 

over  15  years  of  service  ... 


289  50 
335  82 
393  72 
463  20 
532  68 
617  60 


XI. — Cantonal,  governbeent  employ. 


[Per  annum.] 


Consular  district 


Description  of  employment. 


President  of  the  Cantonal  government $1,  351  00 

Eight  councillors,  eacli '  1,  254  50 

Enii)lov6s  in  tlio  State  chancery 868  50 

Ot her  employ68 509  50 

Prefects  9U5  00  i 

Employ §s  in  pi-efeotures 473  10 

Officials  in  the  j  udiciary 675  75 


POLICE  OFFICE. 


Chief  of  police 

Clerks 

Commandant  of  police 

First  lieiirenant   

Second  lieuteuant 

Suli-officers 

Policemen,  each 


810  60 
530  75 
636  90 
570  00 
540  40 
352  20 
211  34 


$1,  003  60 
065  00 
772  00 
453  55 
905  00 
482  50 
579  00 

*! 

151  55 
108  75 
820  25 
4K1  50 
065  00 
477  80 
627  35 

810  60 

5:10  "5 

675  50 

( ;.->(-,  20 

57'.!  00 
540  40 

35i  20 

211  34 

LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 

XII.— PKINTINa  AND  PRINTING  OFFICES. 

[Per  week.! 


149 


Description  of  employment. 


PreRsm.ister 

Pi-Hss-r-cdcr 

Macliiiiisi  and  fireman  , 

Coiiipositor 

BouK  biii<l(;r : 

Fori'iUiiu 

Joiinieyiiian 

Folder' 


Consular  district. 


Basle.        Berne.      St.  Gall.      Zurich 


$6  37 
2  89 


5  80 
8  68 


$7  24 

3  >;6 

4  34 
7  24 

6  27 
4  63 


$6  85 
3  47 


2  70 


$H  75 
7  24 


4  05 
4  05 


All 
Switzer- 
land. 


$6  82 

3  40 

5  54 

6  78 

6  33 

4  34 
2  70 


ITALY. 

Reports  from  only  three  out  of  the  twelve  consulates  in  Italy  were 
received  up  to  the  latest  monieut  when  they  could  be  made  available  in 
the  pre])aration  of  tbis  letter;  these  are  Catania,  Florence  and  Turin, 
which  may  be  taken  as  reinesenting:  the  labor  conditions  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Piedmont,  Tuscany,  and  the  west  coast  of  Sicily.  This,  how- 
ever, leaves  some  of  the  principal  labor  centers  of  the  country  unrepre- 
sented. 

The  reports  which  have  been  received  from  Italy  indicate  that  the 
working:  classes  are  patient,  economical,  sober,  industrious,  tractable 
and  truhtworthy.  Their  wa{»e-rates  are  tbe  lowest  in  Europe,  and  that 
they  are  able  to  economize  and  are  happy  and  contented  is  probably 
larjiely  due  to  a  favoring'  climate. 

As  was  remarked  in  the  letter  which  accompanied  the  reports  con- 
cerning the  state  of  labor  in  Europe  in  1878,  an  idea  seems  to  exist 
in  the  United  States,  and  even  throughout  a  large  portion  of  Europe, 
that  the  Latin  races,  the  Italians  and  Spaniards,  resort  to  agricultural 
labor  only  when  forced  by  ])ressing  want.  Nothing  can  be  farther  from 
the  real  labor  conditions  which  i)revail  in  both  Italy  and  Spain. 

The  waves  of  Italian  emigration  have  largely  flowed  i)ast  our  shores 
toward  South  America.  The  Italian  colonies  in  many  of  those  States — 
the  Argentine  Kei)ublic  and  Brazil  in  particular — have  done  much  and 
are  still  doing  much  for  the  industrial  an<I  agricultural  development  of 
those  countries.  During  the  past  few  years,  however,  there  Las  been 
an  increase  of  emigration  towards  the  United  States,  not  less  than  18,(500 
Italians  having  landed  in  ports  of  North  America  during  the  year  1882, 
principally  in  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  During  the  same  year, 
however,  over  41,0U()  went  to  Central  and  South  America. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  some  of  the  recent  immigration  from  Italy  has 
been  under  the  contract-labor  system. 

This  subject  is  one  of  growing  importance  and  has  already  attracted 
the  attention  of  Congress,  as  well  as  legislative  consideration  in  other 
countries  where  it  has  gained  a  foothold. 

Consul  Catlin,  of  Stuttgart,  calls  attention  to  the  workings  of  this  con- 
tract system  in  Southern  Germany,  as  follows  : 

The  importation  of  large  gangs  of  laborers  from  Northern  Italy 
into  Germany  and  Austria,  Irom  time  to  time,  as  occasion  requires, 
is  now  a  recognized  phase  of  the  labor  question  in  this  section  of 
Europe.    These  imported  hands  are  available  only  for  the  rougher 


150 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


kinds  of  work,  ore  digging  and  blasting,  and  railroad  building;  but 
for  those  kinds  of  work  none  are  superior  to  them  in  organization 
and  efiQciency.  They  do  not  settle  down  when  they  come — they  are 
simply  hired  for  a  specified  time  to  do  certain  work.  Kailroad  travel 
is  cheap,  and  when  their  work  is  done  they  return  home  to  their 
families  with  their  foreign  wages  in  their  pockets.  The  system  is 
now  so  well  organized  that  5,000  or  10,000  Italian  workmen,  trained 
and  equipped,  can  be  thrown  into  any  given  working  point  in  South 
Germanj'  at  a  week's  or  ten  days'  notice,  and  from  all  accounts  too 
much  cannot  be  said  of  the  promptitude  and  thoroughness  with 
which  they  do  their  work. 

In  his  Marseilles  report,  Consul  Mason  mentions  the  Italian  laborers 
of  that  city  in  the  following  terms: 

The  question  of  labor  and  strikes  is  largely  controlled  by  the  50,000 
Italians  who  live  in  Marseilles.  These  people  work  for  less  wages 
and  live  on  simpler  and  cheaper  food  than  even  the  French  work- 
ing classes,  and  no  strike  can  be  successful  while  these  Italians 
stand  ready  to  accept  work  and  wages  which  the  native  workmen 
mav  refuse. 


PIEDMONT. 

Italy  presents  few  extremes  as  to  rates  of  wages  Sicily  in  the  south 
and  Piedmont  in  the  north  are  almost  equal  in  this  resi)ect.  The  fol- 
lowing statement,  showing  the  weekly  wages  paid  in  Turin,  may  there- 
fore be  taken  as  an  approximation  to  the  average  wages  prevailing  in 
like  trades  and  callings  throughout  the  principal  cities  of  the  Kingdom: 

I.— General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  tceek  of  CO  hours  in  Turin. 


Occapationa. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 

Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters 

Roofers   

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

Other  trades. 

Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Book-binders 

Brickuiakers 

Brewers 

Brass  founders . 

Cabinet-makers 

Conlcctioncrs 

Ci;;ar-aiakers 


Average 
wages. 


$4  20 
1  70 

3  GO 
1  70 
5  04 
1  70 

4  20 
4  20 
1  70 

3  00 
1  70 

4  00 
3  40 


Occupations. 


OTHER  TRADES — Continued 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers  : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railway 

Dyers'. 

Engravers 

Fuiriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters  .    

Horsesboers 

Jewelers .    

Laborers,  porters,  iS:c 

Nailniakers  (hand) 

Pot  tei  8 

Printers '  ■ 

Teacbers  (public  schools) 

Siilmakers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailors      

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavei's  (outside  of  mills) 


Average 
wages. 


$2  60 

3  80 

4  20 

1  50 

2  50 

3  60 

3  00 

6  eo 

4  60 

4  00 

5  20 
5  20 
3  80 
3  60 

3  20 
5  20 

4  60 

5  00 
2  80 
2  00 
2  20 

4  00 

5  20 

6  60 
5  20 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  151 

It  IS  hardly  practicable  to  institute  intelligent  comparisons  between 
the  food  i)rices  of  Italy  and  the  United  States,  as  there  is  little  in  com- 
mon between  the  working  classes  of  the  two  countries  as  to  their  food. 

The  diet  of  the  laborers  in  Piedmont,  according  to  Vice  Consul  De 
Zeyk,  of  Turin,  is  as  follows:  Morning  meal — vegetable  soup,  the  fami- 
lies of  the  higher  class  of  workingmen  having  cofiee  and  milk ;  dinner — 
soup,  bread,  and  cheese,  or  potatoes  or  codfish;  supj^er,  which  is  the 
principal  meal — bread,  wine,  macaroni,  or  vegetable  stew.  Meat  is  a 
rarity  and  a  luxury. 

The  Piedmontese  are  temperate,  industrious  and  punctual.  Married 
Women  very  seldom  work  in  factories  or  at  any  outdoor  employment, 
finding  enough  of  remunerative  employment  in  their  houses.  The  chil- 
dren are  regular  attendants  at  the  elementary  schools,  school  attendance 
being  obligatory. 

Wages  have  increased  in  Piedmont  since  1878,  owing  to  the  efforts  of 
labor  organizations,  about  15  i^er  cent.,  while  food  and  rents  have  re- 
mained about  the  same. 

The  feeling  between  the  employers  and  the  employed  is  yood,  but  the 
rules  and  regulations  governing  mill  and  factory  emj^loymeut  are  as 
strict  and  severe  as  those  which  govern  an  army.  Continuity  in  em- 
ployment from  generation  to  generation  is  common. 

The  wages  of  female  workers  in  mills,  factories,  &c.,  are  generally 
about  one-half  those  of  the  male  employes. 


SICILY. 


According  to  the  returns  from  Consul  Woodcock,  the  average  wages 
paid  to  the  general  trades  in  Catania  run  from  $2.70  to  bricklayers  and 
masons  to  $3.48  to  gas-fitters  per  week  of  60  hours.  The  general  rate 
lies  between  these  two  extremes,  with  the  exception  of  the  wages  paid  to 
printers,  lithographers  and  jewelers,  which  are  put  down  as  $3.75,  $6.96, 
and  $6.12,  respectively,  per  week. 

The  wages  which  prevail  in  all  other  industries,  mills,  factories, 
foundries,  &c.,  are  rather  under  than  over  the  lowest  rates  paid  to  the 
individual  artisans  in  the  independent  trades.  Consul  Woodcock  esti- 
mates the  average  wages  earned  throughout  that  portion  of  Sicily  at 
40  cents  per  day  of  ten  hours.  An  examination  of  the  statistics  fur- 
nished would  seem  to  point  to  30  cents  as  nearer  the  true  average. 

The  food  of  the  working  classes  is  given  as  consisting  of  the  following 
articles  :  During  the  six  months  ending  with  March,  bread,  cheese,  rice, 
dried  beans,  and  greens;  during  April  and  May,  bread,  green  beans, 
and  macaroni ;  and  during  the  remaining  four  mouths,  bread  and  fruits. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  are  generally  good.  They  are 
laborious,  religious,  economical,  and  respectful  toward  their  employ- 
ers. They  are  very  industrious,  uncomplaining  and  temperate.  In 
Catania,  a  city  of  over  100,000  inhabitants,  the  consul  had  not  seen  over 
half  a  doze*  intoxicated  persons  in  eight  months,  and  these  were  mostly 
foreign  sailors.  The  consul  attributes  this  sobriety  to  the  fact  that  the 
people  drink  only  native  wines,  and  these  moderately,  at  their  meals. 

It  is  very  rarely  that  a  workiugman  in  the  Catania  district  owns  his 
home,  which  generally  consists  of  one  or  two  rooms  on  the  ground  floor. 


162  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Usually  the  rooms  are  overcrowded,  but  clean.  Their  clothinfi:  is  coarse, 
but  surticieut,  and  for  holidays  they  have  suits  which  are  both  neat 
and  jdeasiuj;  to  the  eye. 

Of  the  peasantry  of  tlie  countiy,  says  the  consul,  not  more  than  10 
per  cent,  of  all  over  40  years  of  ajie  can  read  and  write;  of  the  working 
class  in  towns  and  cities  not  more  than  40  per  cent,  can  read  and  write. 
Physically,  they  are  hardy  and  robust;  morally,  they  are  honest  and 
trustworthy. 


TUSCANY. 

According:  to  a  report  from  Consul  Welsli,  the  Government,  on  failure 
to  receive  satisfactory  rc])lies  fiom  the  i)iefects  of  the  Kinjidoin,  in 
answer  to  a  circular,  snbn)iitcd  to  the  dilfcrcnt  cliambeis  of  commerce 
tLe  question  of  conti oiling  by  law  the  cmi)loyment  of  women  and  chil- 
dren and  the  houis  of  labor,  under  the  following  interrogatory  heads: 

1.  Whether  the  em]»loyment  of  children  should  not  be  entirely 
forbidden  until  the  age  of  nine  years  has  been  reached. 

2.  That  they  then  should  only  work  a  half  day,  five  or  six  hours 
per  day,  until  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen  years. 

3.  Whether,  after  that  age,  it  would  not  be  beneticial  to  prohibit 
their  employment  on  Sundays  and  at  night-time  until  the  age  of 
sixteen. 

The  recommendations  of  the  different  chambers  of  commerce 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  To  jirohibit  entirely  the  employment  of  children  at  manual 
labor  uniil  they  may  have  arrived  at  the  age  of  ten  years;  and  to 
iorbid  theiremidoyment  on  Sundays  or  at  night-time  until  they  may 
have  arrived  at  the  age  of  fifteen  years. 

2.  To  organize  committees  in  the  provinces  to  superintend  the 
execution  of  the  law. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  action  Avill  be  taken  that  the  employ- 
ment of  children  may  be  controlled,  and  then  mauy  at  present 
unavoidable  abuses  done  away  with. 

The  report  of  consul  Welsh  gives  sn(;h  graphic  accounts  of  the  habits 
and  geui-ral  conditions  of  the  working  class  of  Italy  as  to  entitle  it  to 
almost  literal  transference  to  this  review. 

In  regard  to  employment  throughout  Italy  at  present,  Couvsul  Welsh 
says  that — 

Women  work  at  spinning  and  weaving  (silk,  cotton,  and  wool), 
in  hemp  and  paper  mills,  and  in  this  district  jnincipally  in  making 
straw  i)laits  and  braids.  They  are  also  largely  employed  in  the 
fields  and  vegetable  ganlens  or  truck  patches. 

One  finds  children  working  at  all  trades,  but  few  are  under  ten 
years  of  age. 

The  aveiage  hours  of  work  are:  Fifteen  hours  from  the  twenty- 
fonr  in  the  summer,  with  two  hours  for  nu'als  allowed  4'vova  the  fif- 
teen; twelve  hours  from  the  twenty  four  in  the  wiuter,  with  one  hour 
and  a  half  for  meals  allowed  iVom  the  twelve. 

Except  in  foundries,  where  the  necessity  exists  ami  night  and 
day  hands  are  employed,  night  work  after  0  o'clock  is  the  exception. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  153 

Sundays  are  universally  used  by  the  working  classes  as  days  of 
recreation;  and  the  more  important  holidays,  with  what  are  called 
name  days,  or  the  days  of  the  saints  the  children  take  their  names 
from,  are  strictly  observed,  ]>articida]ly  in  the  south  of  Italy. 

In  and  in  the  neij^hborhood  of  Floience,  women  are  paid  from  10 
to  22  cents  per  day,  children  from  10  to  40  cents  per  week,  or  for 
odd  jobs  10  to  1 7  cents  i)er  day ;  the  ordinary  labor  of  men  is  valued 
at  from  30  to  GO  cents  ])er  day. 

In  woolen  mills  the  hands  employed  are  males  to  females  as  GO  to 
40.  In  cotton  mills  women  predominate  in  the  same  ratio.  In  the 
straw  trade  80  women  are  employed  to  every  20  men. 

In  regard  to  the  general  health  of  the  working  classes  in  Tuscany 
it  can  be  said  to  be  good.  However,  certain  trades  i)roduce  certain 
diseases,  just  as  in  the  United  States  or  elsewhere,  and  here  in  the 
cities  and  towns  a  lack  of  proper  nourishment  may  add  to  the  ten- 
dency to  disease. 

Drunkenness  prevails  but  to  a  slight  extent  among  the  working 
classes.  The  prevailing  vice  is  gambling.  Gambling  is  nourished 
by  the  Italian  Government  in  its  weekly  lotteries,  which  are  always 
attractive  to  the  poor. 

The  food  of  the  workmen  is  simple  in  the  extreme,  and  its  staple 
throughout  Italy  is  the  ])olenta,  which  corresi)onds  to  our  Indian 
meal.  A  cup  of  bad  coifee  in  the  early  morning  serves  till  noon, 
when  a  meal  of  bread,  beans  cooked  in  olive  oil  or  hog's  grease,  or 
polenta  boiled  or  fried,  with  a  small  allowance  of  wine,  is  eaten, 
and  the  pranzo,  or  dinner,  is  taken  in  the  evening  when  work  is 
finished,  and  is  of  very  much  the  same  nature  as  the  noonday 
meal,  with  the  exception  that  some  salted  fish  or  jiork  is  added, 
with  cabbage  or  other  greens. 

The  consul  corrects  an  erroneous  opinion  which  prevails  in  the  United 
States  in  regard  to  macaroni  being  the  staple  food  of  the  working 
class  of  Italy ;  it  is  in  reality  only  ijurchasable  by  the  comparatively 
well  to  do. 

Fresh  meat  is  but  seldom  eaten,  even  by  the  skilled  mechanic.  Vege- 
tables and  fruit,  however,  are  at  times  so  plentiful  as  to  be  accessible 
to  the  poorest. 

The  farmers  and  farm-laborers  in  Tuscany,  in  many  cases,  arrive  at  a 
great  age,  and  are  generally  very  healthy.  In  the  cities  the  average 
duration  of  life  is  lower. 

The  laboring  classes  are  generally  well  and  neatly  clad,  taking  usually 
the  thrown-ofl"  clothes  of  their  superiors  and  arranging  them  to  tit  them- 
selves. The  local  costumes,  which  were  very  picturesque,  are  things 
of  the  past,  except  in  some  few  localities  in  the  south. 

The  working  classes  are  not  well  housed.  In  the  country  they 
usually  live  in  damp,  badly  ventilated  cottages,  and  in  the  cities  they 
are  crowded  together  in  large  but  badly  ventilated  and  drained  houses 
in  the  ])Oorer  quarters.  With  all  these  drawbacks  they  are  cleanly,  and, 
as  a  rule,  healthy. 

More  attention  is  given  each  year  to  the  education  of  the  masses. 


154  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

Wages  paid  to  skilled  workmen  and  others  employed  in  the  arsenal  at  Spezzia. 


Employ68. 


Aaphalt-layer. 


Boatman 

Boiler-maker 

Blacksmith  and  tinker. 
Carpenter 

Calker  . 


Per  day. 


Lire.    Dollars. 


Per  week. 


4.00 
3.00 
5.00 
3.80 
4.50 

4.50 

Cabinet  maker  and  sawyer 3.50 

Coi)persmith 3.80 

Common  laborer 2  00 

Diver,  usiuji  bis  own  machine,  for  every  hour's  work I      2.  50 

Diver  u.siu"  Goveinnicnt  machine,  for  every  hour's  work I      1.00 

Glazier  3.50 

Heart  sauger    i      5.00 

Male  or  female  day-laborer 1. 30 

Masons 3.50 

Miner ;      3.50 

Mechanic,  .skilled      \      6  00 

Painter  and  vamisher 3.50 

Stoker }      3.00 

Stonecutter 4.  00 

Whitewasber i      3.  40 


0  80 : 

0  60  I 

1  00  I 
0  70 
0  90  I 
0  90  I 
0  70  . 
0  76 
0  40 
0  50 
0  20 


0  70  , 

1  00 

0  26 

0  70 

0  70 

1  20 

0  70 

0  60 

0  80 

0  68 

$4  80 

3  60 
6  00 
420 
5  40 

5  40 

4  20 
4  56 

2  40 

3  00 
1  20 

4  20 

6  00 
1  56 
4  20 
4  20 
1  20 
4  20 

3  60 

4  80 
4  08 


Consul  Welsh  has  estimated  the  average  consumption  of  food  by  an 
Italian  woikingman  to  amount  to  17  cents  per  day,  viz: 


Articles. 


Cost. 


•Coffee  or  liquor 

Breail 

Salted  pork  or  flsh 

Cheese  or  fruit 

Flour  paste 

Ke<l  beans,  cabbage,  or  other  greens 
Wiue  (one  pint) 

Total 


$0  01 
05 
02 
02 
03 
01 
03 


17 


The  total  population  of  the  Kingdom  is  subdivided  into  the  following 
classes : 


Mechanical  spinning . 

Man u tact u re  of  ropes 

Weaving 

Cotton: 

Spinning 

Weaving 

Woolen 

Silk: 

stretching 

Spinning 

Carding 

In  paper  mills 

In  mechanical  industries  (sundry) 

In  porcelain  manufactures 

In  glass  manufactures 


41, 000 


54, 

80, 

550, 

70, 
75, 
6, 
H, 
10, 

6, 


000 
000 
500 

000 
000 
500 
000 
000 
000 
000 


In  the  extraction  of  sulphur  . 
Total 


934,  000 

~8,  266,  000 

1,  .545, 000 

400,  000 

3,  070,  000 

80,  000 

705,  000 

1,  740,  000 
11,700,000 


Total  population 28,  500,  000 


Agricultural  class 

Soldiers,  reserve  and  active 

Em))Ioy6s 

Students 

Prisoners 

Projjrietors 

Arti.Haiia  and  laborers   (not    before 

described) 

Without  profession 


AUSTRIA-nUIVCJARY. 

AUSTRIA. 

The  comi)rehensive  report  from  Coiisul-General  Weaver,  of  Vienna, 
leaves  very  little  to  be  desired  as  far  as  a  complete  showing  of  the 
labor  conditions  of  Austria  is  concerned.  The  fact,  however,  that 
the  order  of  arrangement  as  defined  in  tlie  circular  was  not  adliered  to 
renders  it  diflicult  to  give  therefrom  abstracts  for  comparative  purposes 
without  overloading  this  review  with  details.     It  is  believed,  however, 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  155 

that  the  followiiip^  statements  are  fair  averages ;  but  as  the  consul-gen- 
eral's report  will  fully  repay  a  careful  perusal,  it  is  referred  to  for  such 
details  as  may  not  be  found  herein. 

The  population  of  Austria  is  given  as  22,144,244,  of  which  10,819,737 
are  mak's  and  11,324,507  females.  The  total  population  is  divided  into 
four  classes,  as  follows:  Independent  persons,  3,808,010;  employes, 
6,030,231 ;  families,  10,740,187  ;  servants,  890,207. 

The  total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  agriculture  is  given  as 
11,730,839 — being  1,110,870  more  than  one-half  of  the  whole  population — 
classified  as  follows  :  Proprietors,  2,275,511;  employes,  3,008,249 ;  mem- 
bers of  families,  5,474,315;  servants,  319,158 ;  farmers,  90,030 ;  emi)loy6s 
of  farmers,  123,203;  members  of  farmers'  families,  222,781;  serv^ants  in 
farmers'  families,  10,079.  The  division  of  employment  showing  the 
highest  number  of  persons  engaged  therein,  after  agriculture,  is  set 
down  under  the  head  of  "trade,"  viz,  4,710,047,  followed  bj'  "day  laborers," 
given  as  numbering  1,050,902.  No  mention  is  made  of  the  manufac- 
turing industries,  but  it  is  more  than  likely  that  they  are  embraced  by 
"  trade,"  as  the  number  engaged  in  "  commerce"  is  set  down,  independ- 
ent of  trade,  as  839,028.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  mines 
is  given  as  310,187.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  agriculture  is  the  great 
industry  of  Austria. 

An  average  of  the  various  categories  of  workmen  embraced  iti  the 
miscellaneous  table  compiled  by  Consul-General  Weaver  shows  that  the 
weekly  earnings  of  the  Austrian  workman  amount  to  $4.05.  "These 
rates,  however,"  writes  the  consul-general,  "must  be  understood  as  ap- 
plying to  the  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Salzburg  and 
the  Tyrol,  and  in  a  less  degree  to  Styria,  Carinthia  and  Caruiola,  for 
where  the  wages  of  Silesia,  Morana,  Bohemia  (which  is  treated  of 
further  on)  and  Galicia  are  considered,  this  average  should  be  further 
reduced  from  20  to  41)  per  cent. 

The  hours  of  labor  among  the  trades  in  Austria  may  be  estimated  at 
6'>  per  week,  although  in  the  textile  trades  o.nd  in  the  mines  the  hours 
often  reach  72  per  week;  and  even  a  working  time  of  90  and  90  hours 
per  week  in  the  former  is  not  unusual.  The  new  labor  bill  now  before 
the  Keichsrath  fixes  the  hours  of  labor  as  not  to  exceed  11  per  day.  This 
reduction  is  opposed  by  the  textile  manufacturers,  who  say  that,  should 
it  become  a  law,  they  will  not  be  able  to  compete  in  trade  with  other 
nations.  The  bill  was  i)rei)aied  by  the  Government,  and  has  already 
passed  the  i)opular  branch  of  the  Reichsrath. 

"The  working  classes  of  Austria,"  writes  the  consul-general,  "are 
steady  and  trustworthy,  industrious  and  sober."  Even  with  such  ad- 
mirable characteristics  they  are  unable  to  save  anything. 

The  relations  which  exist  in  Austria  between  employers  and  employes 
are  said  by  the  consul-general  to  be  excellent,  and  the  destruction  of 
property  even  in  the  most  exciting  times  of  disagreement  and  strikes 
never  occurs. 

Consul-General  Weaver's  report  deals  very  fully  and  ably  with  the 
<5uostion  of  female  labor  in  Austria.  The  total  female  population  of 
Austria,  according  to  the  census  of  1880,  is  11,324,507,  engaged  as  fol- 
lows :  Industries  and  manufactures,  2,'J37,849 ;  commerce,  839,028 ;  ag- 
riculture and  forestry,  0,335,133  ;  mines  and  furnaces,  142,203;  trans- 
portation, 171,820;  teachers,  82,085;  artists,  21,330;  hospitals,  49,335; 
asylums  and  institutions,  72,704;  day  laborers,  890,973 ;  all  other  em- 
I)loyments,  475,321.  It  should  be  remembered  that  this  distribution 
shows  not  only  the  persons  employetl  in  the  several  callings,  but  it  also 
shows  the  total  female  population  de])endent  upon  the  various  indus- 
tries and  professions  for  sustenance,  as  the  following  subdivision  will 


156  l.AUOK    IN    KUKOrK. 

show:  Solf  »lo|UMi»]tMits  (••  bosses "\  1>40,Jik");  oinployos  in  indiistrios  aiul 
in;nini;U"lun's,  H,ill.'4,0(»4 ;  im-mlu'is  ot'  lamilios,  (»,Tt>;^;M(i;  st'ivauts  in 
tainilit's,  r»44,7L'L'. 

A  rompnralivc  roviow  «>('  tlio  munbors  oi  both  soxos  onuai^nl  in  hibor 
prv>jH*r  in  Anslria  jjivos  tho  folK»vvinuivsnU  :  Kniiaiinl  in  \\\v  indnsnios, 
niannfaoinix^s,  aunv'nltnio,  tra«U\  ronunon-o,  sfionio,  art,  «S:»' ,  r>.(>l.*7,(K>4 
loniaUs  aiul  .'vtJIlM'L'T  nialts:  honsohohl  sonants,  ('•44,7.  2  ttMuaU's  and 
L'4r>,4S."»  niaU's;  in»U>|uMuloni  i>ors*nis  (iti-\»iuMtv  i>\vnors,  t;uti>rs,  ihnri'h- 
nu'M.  j»rt»i»rioti>rs,  vS:r  ),  '.Ut>,L'(M  tV'niaUsand  L'/.»l'.>,;v>4  niah's;  nuMubnsof 
families,  li.7(K>,.'>U»  lomah'S  aj^ainst  4,lUL\t»71  niah's.  It  thns  apprara 
that  in  Anstria  tVajaU' hibtuvts  nnnibor, Mm  1,7lMI  against  ;?,sr>7,Srj  nialo 
labours,  an  exocss  ol  the  lattrr  of  only  1S(»,(>Sm,  so  that  iho  wonu-n  of 
Anstria  abont  ovenly  »liviilo  tho  hanlships  and  tho  bnrtlcns  of  h»bor 
witli  tho  nion. 

Tho  honi^  of  foniah*  labor  in  Anstria — tho  j;toator  nuinbor  o\  lonuihv^ 
WiiiiT  onirajiotl  in  aiirioultniv — aro  lonjjor  than  tho  honrs  of  nialo  labor, 
whilo  tho  wa.uos  aiv  1n>ni  o(»  to  L'o  ihm'  ootit.  Uvss.  Tho  j:n>ati>r  portion 
of  tioUl  labor,  and  nuuh  o(  tho  hibor  of  faetohos,  mills  ami  niinos,  fall 
to  tho  sharo  o(  woman  in  Anstria. 


BOHEMIA. 

Ki>hoinia  titrinins;  a  distinot  industrial  portion  oi'  tho  Anstria  11  nnjra- 
rian  Kmpiro,  and  its  oon«iitions,  \vai;os.  habits,  trados  and  industries 
boiuj;  iHvnliar,  tho  roport  oi'  C'onsul  Pholps,  oi  Prajiuo,  will  bo  1t>nnd 
both  intorosiinjx  and  valnablo,  ospooiallv  ihoso  portions  rolatini;  to  the 
eolobratod  lil.iss  and  poroolain  industrios.  Indioniia  is  ospooiallv  an 
aijiionlturai  oountry,  "Jo  per  oont.  of  its  population  boinj:'  onjia^'od  in  the 
onltivati*>n  o(  tho  land,  17  por  ooni.  in  iutlustrios  and  tradis,  aiul  only 
1.3  por  <  out.  in  ot>njnu'roo. 

Tho  liohoniian  workinjrmon,  aooordins;-  to  Consul  Tholps,  aro,  l\>r  the 
most  i>art.  onlorly.  (.\)njpnlsory  oilnoation  has  had  a  .i:i»o<l  otloot  oil 
thoir  moral  woll  boiui;.  Thoy  art*  nttaohoil  to  thoir  familiovS,  stoady  in 
their  workujj;  habits,  and  savinu'  wlioix*  saviiij;-  is  possible. 

A  fai't  woithy  of  mention  is  reoorded  by  (.'onsnl  Phelps,  viz,  that  as 
tho  oonsumption  of  boor  inoreases  druidii'nnoss  «looroasos.  In  Prajiue, 
a  oit\  o\'  L'lUMUm  inhal>itants,  where  boor  is  tho  universal  drink,  the  siy;ht 
of  a  dninken  person  is  a  rarity. 

The  loelin;;  hotween  the  employers  and  tho  employed  is  that  of  mutual 
iiulopi'n.loneo  an«l  respeot. 

Strikes,  tomonted  l>y  stran^iTs.  it  is  though  ,  have  rofontly  boon  more 
oi>mmon  in  Uohi'mia  than  lormorly,  but  have  proiluood  no  approoiable 
etleot  on  tho  impn>voment  of  tho  lalnnvr's  oomlition,  while  eau>in<j 
mueh  loss  to  both  the  employers  and  tho  laborers. 

Cooperative  si>oieties,  lor  the  eheap  sni»ply  of  lood  to  the  workinjj 
class  in  liohouna,  aiv  only  suooessfnl  amoni;  tho  ooal  minoi-s.  For 
various  reasons,  many  of  the  soeiotios  slatted  amotii;  other  trades  and 
industries  oeasoil  to  exist  after  shiut  aind  ntisatisfaotiuy  exporienoos. 

The  i>rinfipd  porti«m  of  Uohemian  emii;ration  iseompOvSt  d  of  ajirieiil- 
tural  laboix'rs;  laek  of  otnploymont  and  the  hope itf  bet terinu  their  oondi- 
tion  are  the  oaiises  whioh  load  tlnreto. 

The  wajios  i»aid  in  spinniuir  and  weaviuii'  mills  near  rrajrue  run  fioni 
$1.'(>  to  windtrs  and  $LSO  ti»  spinners  up  to  i?o.SS  to  moihanies,  ]^eT 
week  of  71  hours.  Laborers  in  tiieso  mdls  earn  v>idy  $l."»(»  j»or  week. 
Even  tliese  rates  :u^  lixun  lb  Xo  L*l»  per  oont.  hij;her  than  in  other  portions 


LABOR    IN    EUEOPE.  V)7 

of  Bobemia.  An  infreqnerit  circumstance  in  the  osoal  relation  of  male 
labor  ami  wajres  to  tljo.se  of  females  in  Eurojie  is  bere  ob?>ervable,  for 
■vroiijcn  ill  tliese  mills  are  jiaid  tbe  same  as  men.  The  wa^i-s  paid  in 
calico  priiitinj^  establishments  are  hi^rbertliau  those  earned  in  the  spin- 
nin<;  and  weaving  mills,  lunniug  from  $2.»0  U£)  to  $G  per  week,  for  male 
operatives. 

Glassware  beinj:  importer]  from  Bohemia  into  the  United  States  to 
the  value  of  about  $I,;30U.0i»0  j»er  year,  our  glass  operatives  and  mana- 
facturers  will  lie  interested  in  the  following  table  of  wages: 

fVage9  paid  per  week  of  71  houn  in  Bohemian  glam-trorl?. 


Description  of  employment.               ir^»*             Description  of  emplojment. 

^.-rZ" 

Blowers $3  fS9     Ensrravers 

llelterx j         2  40      Painters 

Riokers 1  20      Gilil-ra 

$6  30 
300 
500 

PniiiKlera 1  SO     Grimiers 

350 
2  50 

Workers  in  fancy  articles  generally  work  by  the  piece,  and  earn  ac- 
cordinir  to  their  abilities.  It  is  estimated  that  IS.OOO  persons  are  em- 
ployed in  tbe  manufacture  of  Bohemian  glassware.  Many  operatives 
work  at  the  glass  traile  during  the  wint+-r  only,  seeking  more  profitable 
employnu-nt  in  field  labor  in  summer.  Women  and  children  are  em- 
ploy ed  in  jiolisliiug  and  other  light  work,  earuiug  GO  per  cent,  less  than 
the  male  workers. 

Tbe  number  of  operatives  employed  in  Bohemian  mines  was  estimated 
in  1.SS2  at  4:"».(;09,  of  whom  about  L'.<jn()  were  wonieu.  and  I.S-jG  were 
cbildren.  Tbe  wages  per  day  of  12  hours  average  for  children  1-3  cents, 
for  women  20  cents,  and  for  men  25  to  50  cents. 

The  wages  in  dry  goods  shops  and  groceries  in  Prague  avenge  from 
$10  i)aid  to  clerks  and  salesmen  to  $20  paid  to  book-keepers  per  month. 
Household  wages  in  Prague  average  from  $2.80  to  feuuile  servants  and 
$3.0!)  to  female  cooks,  up  lo  $S  to  coachmen,  per  month,  with  board 
and  lod;;ing. 

Duiing  the  year  1882  there  were  30.193  male  laborers  employed  in 
the  beet-root  culture  in  Bohemia, at  a  daily  compensation  without  board 
or  lodging,  of  14  to  GO  cents.  au<l  12,270  females  at  8  to  4G  cents.  Gen- 
eral agricultural  wagesin  Bohemiaare  given  asfoUows:  Plowmen,  thrash- 
ers, reapers,  &c.,  males,  30  cents  per  day.  and  female  thrashers,  mowers, 
&c.,  20  cents  i)er  day,  without  board  and  lodging.  Females  are  em- 
ployed in  dress-making,  in  millinery,  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  mills, 
in  the  glass  and  {)orcelain  works,  as  saleswomen  in  shops  and  cigar 
Stores,  in  beer  and  liquor  saloons,  as  telegiaph  operators,  as  school- 
teachers an<l  as  hod-carriers,  throughout  Bohemia.  They  do  the  most 
of  the  field  labor,  as  before  noted. 

COST   OF  LIYEN'G  I>'   AUSTRIA  A>D   IX   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

In  answer  to  this  question  Consul-General  Weaver  writes  as  follows : 

The  difteronce  in  the  cost  of  the  necessaries  of  life — food,  for  ex- 
ample— in  Austria  when  compared  with  that  in  the  United  States, 
is  not  very  great,  but  when  the  mode  of  living  is  taken  into  acjount 
the  (iiflerence  becomes  very  striking.  Fliur,  meat  and  vegetables 
generally  cost  more  in  Austria  than  in  the  United  States,  particu- 
larly the  fiour  and  meat,  as  these  articles  can  almost  be  imported 
from  the  United  States  to  this  country  with  profit.  House  rent  is 
ai)proximately  as  high  as  iu  the  United  States;  but  iu  the  article  of 


158 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


clothing  the  difiference  is  largely  in  favor  of  this  country,  being 
about  the  only  article  of  prime  necessity  to  the  laboring  man  which 
can  be  purchased  at  less  cost  in  Austria  than  in  the  United  States. 
But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  mode  of  life  practiced  here  by 
the  laboring  man  the  contrast  is  very  great.  Food  and  clothing 
are  limited  to  a  minimum,  both  in  quantity  and  quality,  the  former 
consisting  generally  of  rye  bread  with  figs,  coffee  and  soup,  or  meat 
with  vegetables  not  more  than  once  a  day,  in  many  cases  only  once 
a  week,  while  the  clothing  is  coarse  and  durable.  Were  it  other- 
wise the  small  pittance  earned  would  not  suffice,  even  with  the 
greatest  economy. 

I. — General,  trades. 

Statement  showing  the  average  weekly  uages  paid  in  the  several  consular  districts  in  Austria- 
Hungary. 


OccnpatioDB. 


Bricklayers 

Hod-caxriers . 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters ' 

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants  . .. 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

Painters 


BUILDIKO  TOACBS. 


OTBBB  TBADB8. 

Bakers    

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brickruakers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass  fonnders 

Cabinet-makers 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers: 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab"  and  carriage 

street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters: 

Males 

Females 

Horscshocrs 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithofjrapbers 

Millwiightfl 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers  (public  schools) 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Sail-makers 

Stevedores 

Farmers 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmitns 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Vienna 
(60  hours). 


Trieste 
(72  hoars). 


$4  50 

2  60 

3  40 


3  63 


5  50 

4' 55' 

*3  70 


4  20 

3  40 

4  20 
*3  80 


3  00 

4  20 


4  00 


5  20 


5  60 


3  20 

5  80 

6  00 

4  50 


4  40 
7  50 
4  20 
3  30 


$3  14 
1  72 
4  20 
1  92 
3  60 
1  72 


3  22 
2  32 
6  79 
5  18 


4  72 
3  35 

3  50 

4  50 


9  44 
4  70 

3  20 

4  80 

2  93 

2  40 
4  56 
4  20 

3  60 

4  70 
3  20 


Prague 
(72  hours). 


3  40 


Average 
wages  for 
Austria. 


$3  00 
1  92 

3  60 
1  92 

4  80 

1  92 
4  00 

4  20 

2  80 

5  00 

2  50 

3  00 
7  00 


n  50 
3  00 

2  80 

3  60 
2  80 

4  00 

2  00 
4  00 

4  00 

3  00 
3  00 
3  00 
2  00 

2  00 
2  85 

2  80 

3  00 

5  00 

3  20 
t2  30 

4  00 
1  20 


5  40 

3  80 

3  20 

2  80 

5  20 

6  00 

3  10 

3  10 

3  30 

.3  00 

5  14 

3  60 

11  40 

8  00 

3  30 

3  60 

3  80 

3  80 

7  40 

7  40 

3  30 

5  00 

4  70 

3  00 

6  00 
3  50 
3  00 


$3  55 

2  08 

3  73 
1  92 

4  01 

1  82 
4  00 
4  20 

2  8a 

4  11 
2  41 

5  10 

6  Od 
4  56^ 


4  72 
3  18 

3  15 

4  10 
6  20- 

5  8T 
3  50 

3  ea 

4  40 
3  00 
3  04 
3  00 

3  00. 

2  20 

4  00 

3  68 

3  80 

4  77 
3  67 


3  85 
1  2(V 
3  48 
3  80 
3  00 

5  93 
3  10 

3  17 

4  85 
8  47 
3  80 

3  80 
7  40 

4  IS 
4  03 

6  75 
3  70 
3  15 


♦  With  board  and  lodging. 


f  With  lodging. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

II. — Factories,  mills,  etc. 

Weekly  wages. 


159 


Description  of  employment. 


OotUm-spinning  miU  in  Lower  Austria 
{per  week  of  78  hours). 

Foremen 

Mechanics 

Spinners : 

Male 

Female 

Reelers 

Day  laboiers: 

Male 

Female 

Boys  and  girls 

Machinists  and  engineers 

Spinners  of  yam  and  thread  in  Austria 
{per  week  0/66  hours). 

"Worsted  yams :     ' 

Sorters    

Washers 

Spinners 

Dyers 

Experts 

Helpers 

Shoddy: 

Spinners  


Average 
wages. 


$5  20 

4  40 

3  90 
2  40 
2  75 

2  88 

1  20 

84 

5  00 


3  20 

3  00 

4  00 
2  60 
6  00 
2  75 

4  80 


Description  of  employment. 


Spinners  of  yam,  <£e. — Continned. 

Spoolers    

Reelers 

Cotton : 

Spinners 

Twisters 

Mechanics 

Jnte-yarn  spinners 

Spinning  and  weaving  mills  in  Bohe- 
mia* {per  week  of  11  hours). 

Spinners 

Mnle-spinners 

Winders  (girls) 

Overlookers 

Piecers 

Engine-drivers 

Stokers 

Spoolers  (children) 

Warpers 

Weavers 

Tenders  (girls) 

Joiners 

Mechanics 

Laborers 


Average 
wages. 


$1  45 
1  50 

3  50 
1  85 

4  75 
1  90 


1  80 


2  00 
1  50 

3  2a 

1  80 

4  50 

2  50 

1  00 

2  20 
2  00 

1  98 

2  60 

3  88 
1  50 


*In  Bohemia  women  are  mostly  employed  in  cotton-weaving  establishments,  receiving  the  same 
rates  of  wages  as  the  male  employ68. 

Wages  paid  in  leather  factories  in  Vienna  per  week  of  60  hours. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  20 

3  60 

4  80 
6  40 

Assistant  workmen — Continned. 

$8  00 

Assistant  workmen  (piece-work) : 

3  80 

5  20 

Wages  of  weavers  and  manufacturers  of  textiles  in  Lower  Austria. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Silk -weavers  • 

$3  30 
2  50 
2  00 

1  00 

2  95 

2  35 

3  12 

Jute--Continned. 

$2  70 

1  34 

3  60 

Helpers,  apprentices 

4  10 

4  40 

Cotton : 

Jnte: 

a  10 

3  00> 

160  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  66  hovra  in  blast  furnaces  in  Austria. 


Description  of  enijiloyment. 


fitrikers,  by  the  piece 

He;i(l  lolliTS,  by  the  piece 

liollerw,  by  tlur  piece 

Ku^iiu  eis,  by  tlie  shift . .. 
Boiler  iiii-ii,  by  I  lie  shift  .. 

Tunierti,  b.\  the  aliift 

LocksiiiithB,  by  the  shift  . 


$6  00 
5  -^0 

3  00 

4  50 
2  .00 

5  40 
a  50 


Description  of  employment. 


Hend  smiths. 

Smith.s  

Masdus 

(■iirp(u:era  .. 
Day  laborers 

Males  ... 

Females 


Average 
wages. 


$3  30 

2  00 

3  10 
2  00 

1  60 
1  50 


liOlUng  mills  and  machine-shops,  per  week  of  60  hours. 


De.'^criptioii  of  employment. 


In  smelting -houses. 

■Ore  washpi'8  and  furnace  men    . . 

Raw  ir'^n  weii^lier.s  and  dross  drawers 

M:isrin.-<  and  carpenters 

Other  laborers 

In  the  refining  works. 

First  pnddlers 

Assistant     

Reliiiiujt  m:i8ter 

Welders  and  siiueezers 

For;rers,  stretchers  and  stokers 

Luoip  rollers 

In  the  rolling-mills. 

Head  rollers 


Average 

wages. 

$2  34 

1  C7 

2  U9 

1  04 

5  85 

3  43 

4  87 

3  78 

3  (15 

2  87 

Description  of  employment. 


In  the  rolling  mills,  <£c.— Continued. 

Second  and  third  ndlers 

Cateheis  and  ruuuers  '. 

Biineh  binders    

Buueli  binders'  assistants 

File  for};ers  

File  Rriuilers 

File  cutters   

■Nail  smiths 


4  02 


In  the  machine-shops. 

Model  joiners 

To(d  smit  hs   

Mfdders  and  founders 

Mdders  ami  founders'  assistants 

Maclunists 

»-mi(li.s  and  turners 

Other  workmen 


Average 
wages. 


$3  13 
1  72 
3  04 

1  52 

2  37 
2  78 
2  83 
1   64 


2  62 

2  80 

3  01 
1  62 
5  33 
3  13 
1  80 


Wages  paid  in  foundries  and  iron-works  in  Trieste  j^er  iveek  of  60  hours. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$3  80 

5  80 

3  70 

IV. — Glass  workers. 


JFagcs  paid  per  iceek  to  glass  tvorkers  in  Austria. 


Description  of  employment. 

\ 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

IN   LOWEB  AUSTRIA.* 

Blowers 

Snielteis 

$3  55 
2  45 
2  40 
4  00 
4  80 
2  50 
2  80 
4  50 
1  40 
1  63 

IN  UOHKinA.t 
Glass-blowers,  masters 

$0  24 
2  31 

Moth'l-iuakers 

Grinder^  :uid  jiolishers 

4  60 

Gildi-r.s 

1  85 

Enj;inee7'8 

6  00 

Masons  and  carpenters 

3  24 

Cla^s-cutteis 

4  60 

Kniri'.iveis,  helpers 

2  00 

Day  la  b:)i  ers 

3  10 

House  eei-vauts 

Crushers,  masters 

3  75 

*  Per  week  of  CR  hours. 

t  As  given  by  the  consul-general  in  Vienna  (per  week  of  CO  hours). 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 
Wages  paid  per  week  to  glass  workers  in  Austria — Continued. 


161 


Description  of  employment. 


In  BOHEMIA — Continued. 

Crushers'  helpers,  masters 

Carriers,  boys    

Fragnjcut  collectors,  females  .... 

Wrappers,  females 

Packers 

Pot  makers 

Day  laborers  

m  BOHEMIA.* 

Blowers 


Average 
wages. 


$2  90 
60 
1  25 
1  25 
3  00 
3  75 
1  80 


8  30 


Description  of  employment. 


In  BOHEMIA — Continued. 

Melters- 

Stokers 

Pounflcrs 

Molders 

Engravers 

P.'uuters 

Gilders 

Grinders 

Polishers,  mostly  females 


Average 
wages. 


$2  40 
1  20 

1  50 

4  00 
6  00 

5  00 
5  00 
3  50 

2  50 


*  As  given  by  the  consul-general  at  Prague,  Bohemia  (per  week  of  71  hours) . 

V. — Mines  and  mining. 

Wages  paid  per  day  or  week  of  60  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  iron  mines,  kaolin  mines 

and  lead  mines  in  Austria. 


Description  of  employment. 


IRON  MINES. 

Job  miners  and  first  diggers 

Miners,  tool-makers,  diggers,  and  car 

penters 

Barrowmon  

Other  day  laborers 

WOODS  ANB  COLLIEKIES. 

"Wood-cutters  and  coal-miners 

Coal  heavers  and  measurers 

KAOLIN  MINES. 

Miners,  diggers 

Miners,  baiTowmen  

Ore-washers 

Pressors 

Carpenters 

Smiths 


Average 
wages. 


$2  21 


1 

75 

1 

61 

1 

61 

1 

95 

1 

57 

2  18 

1 

56 

1 

68 

1 

80 

2  40 

2  40 

Description  of  employment. 


Kaolin  mines — Continued 

"Women  in  drying-house 

Foremen  

LEAD  mines. 

Surveyor  of  mine 

Assistant  surveyor  of  mine 

Foremen  carpenters  and  masons 

Carpenters  and  masons 

Hewers,  reelers,  and  heavers . . . 

Engine  men 

Barrow  men 

Cutters 

Strikers 

Sifters  and  refiners,  female 

Foremen 

Ore  pounders  and  washers 

Sifters,  female 

Melters 


Average 

wages. 

$1  08 

5  00 

3  50 

2  50 

2  05 

1  72 

1  47 

1  75 

1  12 

66 

84 

70 

1  75 

1  73 

2  74 


Wages  paid  per  shift  of  12  hours  hy  the  Witkoivitzer  Iron  Mining  Company  in  Witkotcitz, 

Moravia. 


Description  of  employment. 


I. — Furnaces. 


Smelters 

Smelters'  helpers 

Dressers 

Ponrers 

Iron  carriers,  weighers,  unloaders  . 

Machine  attendants 

Apparatus  and  boiler  men 


Average 


n. — Copper  smelting. 


Ore-carriers 

Oie-roasters 

Pourers 

Millers  

Ore  drawers  and  ore-carters . 

Help'M-s   

Machine  attendants 

Boiler  men 


n I.— Goal-washing  and  coke-oven. 

"Washers 

92  A— LAB 11 


$1  24 
1  02 
74 
93 
71 
62 
50 


Description  of  employment. 


m. — Coal-washing  and  coke-oven — Con 
tinned. 

Dredgers  and  carters 

Principal  coke-makers 

Helpers 

Boys  attending  oven-doors 

Engine  attendants 

Boiler  men  .  

Day  laborers 

rV. — Steel-works. 

Smelters  and  welders 

Pokers 

"Workmen  at  retorts 

Helpers 

Ensrino  attendants 

Boiler  men 

Molders 

Hammersmiths 

First  rollers 

Helpers 

Turners 


Average 
wages. 


$0  50 
60 
39 
36 
52 
44 
32 


1  55 


62 

1  05 

72 

90 

1  32 

1  20 

80 

80 


162 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


Wages  paid  per  shift  of  12  hours  by  the  Witkowitzer  Iron  Mining  Co.,  ^~c. — Coiitiuiied. 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
■wages. 


IV.— Steel-works — Continaed 

Day  laborers 

Apprentices 

"V. — Puddling  woris. 

Head  pnddlers 

Helpers 

Head  roUers 

Helpers 

Hookers 

Hammer-smitbs 

Forge  attendants  

VT. — Moiling  works. 

"Welders 

Pokers 

Coal  carriers 

Head  rol  lers    

Head  slretchers 

Ai-sistauts 

Hookers 

Engine  men 

vn. — Machine  shop. 

Smiths 

Turners 

Planers 

Model-makers 

File-cutters 

Tool-smiths 

Helpers 

Engine  attendants 

Boiler  men 

YJII.— Foundry. 

Founders 

Cart-cleaners 

Day  laborers 

Apprentices 

TK.— Bridge-building  works. 
Skilled  workmen 


$0  32 
22 


1  64 

1  02 

54 

1  98 

1  52 

1  25 

90 

78 


90 
90 
64 
84 
1  00 
1  12 
62 
48 
38 


Description  of  employment. 


X. — Boiler  shop. 

Smiths 

Boilrr-smiths 

Helpers 

Engine  and  boiler  men 

Day  laborers 

Apprentices 

XT. — PfiUery  works. 

Men  for  pattern  pieces 

Brickmakers,  male 

Brickmaker.*!,  female 

Quarrymon  and  workers  in  clay  mill  . 
Quan-ywomen  workers  in  clay,  female 

Day  laborers,  male 

Day  laborers,  female 

Engine  attendants 

Boiler  men 

XII. — Oas  works. 

Fitters,  per  week 

Smiths,  ])er  shift 

Firemen  at  retorts 

Lamp-lighters 

Day  laborers 

XIII. — Building  departments. 

Masons    ; 

Hod-carriers,  female 

Day  laborers 

Carpenters 

Joiners,  glaziers,  painters 

Apprentices 

XIV.— Railway  connected  with  works. 

Engine-drivers,  per  week 

Stokers  and  shifters,  per  shift 

Day  laboreis 

Average  daily  wages  of  79  categories 
of  workmen  


Average 
wages. 


$0  76 
82 
48 
.54 
46 
24 


54 
39 
33 
47 
22 
1  32 
20 
56 
46 


6  50 
43 
28 


VI. — Eailway  employes. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  railway  employes,  those  engaaed  about  stations  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c.,  in  Austria. 


Description  of  employment. 


Tea 

riy  sal- 

commuta- 

ary. 

tion. 

$240  to  $400 

$100  to  $140 

240 

340 

100        120 

240 

340 

100        IjO 

280 

340 

120 

2(10 

340 

80        120 

200 

2C0 

80        loO 

200 

260 

80        100 

200 

260 

80        100 

160 

220 

60          80 

120 

220 

48          80 

120 

180 

48          60 

Engine-bouse  inspectors 

Station  masters  

Train  din))atchers  

Interpret  CIS 

Locomotive!  engineers 

Station  men,  bell  ringers,  gas  and  station  inspectors 

Conductors 

Signal  men 

Freight-station  foremen,  car-inspectors,  lamp  men,  engine  and  reservoir  at- 
tendants          

Station  porters,  storehouse  and  freight  depot  attendants 

Freight-car  loaders,  car-cleaners,  station  servants 


Vienna  Street  Railway  Company. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

1           Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Starters  

$3  12 
2  32 
2  32 
2  08 

Smiths         ...          ..                   

$2  88 

Condnclors 

2  84 

Drivers   

3  36 

Relay  rider 

1  84 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  sMp-yards  in  Austria. 
GENERAL  AUSTRIAN"  SKEP-BTTILDING  COMPANY  IN  LINZ. 


163 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
•wages. 


Smiths 

Locksmiths 

Joiners 

Carpeuters. 
Helpers 


$3  60 
3  24 
3  36 
2  88 
2  16 


SHIP -BUILDING  IN  TRIESTE. 


Iron-ship  bnilders  . . 
"Wood-skip  buUders 


$8  40 
6  90 


VIII.— Seamen's  wages. 


Wages  paid  to  employes  of  First  Imperial  Royal  Danube  Steamship  Company  of  Vienna. 


Description  of  employment. 


Captains per  year 

Pirst  officers do 

Chief  engineers  do 

Assistant  enj;ineers do 

Inspectors do 

Assistant  inspectors do 

Pursers do 

Pilots do 

Quartermasters : 

First  class  do 

Second  class do 

Assistants do 


Average 

wages. 

$520  00 

240 

00    |! 

424 

00  1 

192 

00  ! 

320  00  i: 

192 

00  1 

344  00  1 

264 

00   t 

252 

00 

180 

00 

168 

00 

Description  of  employment. 


Cockswains per  month . 

Firemen do 

Ordinary  seamen do 

Apprentices do 

Helmsmen  on  tow-boats do 

Pilots do 

Seamen do 

Cooks do 

Stevedores do 


Average 
wages. 


$14  00 
12  60 
12  60 

7  20 
IG  00 
14  00 
12  60 
12  00 

6  00 


Seamen's  wages  in  Trieste. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average  i 
wages.   ' 

Description  of  employment. . 

Average 
wages. 

OCEAN. 

First  mates per  month.. 

Second  mates do 

Cooks  and  stewards do 

Seamen do 

1 
! 

$18  00  . 
14  00 
17  00 
8  75 

C0A6TIKG. 

First  mates per  month. . 

Second  mates do 

Cooks  and  stewards do 

Seamen do 

$12  50 
7  00 
9  00 
4  80 

IX. — Shop  wages. 


Wages  pai'^.  in  the  offices,  stores,  and  shops  of  Vienna  and  Trieste,  to  clerks  and  other 

employes. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average  i 
wages.    : 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

VTEfTNA.  * 

Bny ors  and  salesmen .  .* 

$10  00 

viENN  A— continued. 

$2  00 
3  75 

Correspondents 

Book-keepers 

8  00 

8  00 

9  00 

7  50 
4  50 

Office  servants  

TRIESTE,  t 

Women  in  retail  stores 

Men  in  retail  stores 

Clerks: 

First  cl:^=--       

10  00 

Second  ciass 

16  40 

Messengers  and  packers 4  75 

27  00 

[ 

'  Per  week  of  66  hours. 


tPer  month  of  360  hours. 


164  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities. 

Wages  paid  per  movth  to  household  servants  in  Vienna,  tcith  board  and  lodging. 


Description  of  emplojTnent . 


VTEXNA. 

Coots : 

Male  professional . . . 

Female  professional 

Assistant 

Ordinary 

Seamstresses 

Chamber-maids 

Mai<ls  of  all  work 

Coachmen 

Butlers  and  footmen 

Girdenors 

Childreus'  nurses 


Average 

wages. 

$25  00 

18  00 

9  00 

6  00 

6  50 

5  00 

7  00 

17  50 

15  00 

10  00 

6  00 

Description  of  employment. 


VIENNA — Continned. 

Governesses 

Teachers 

Day  laborers 

TRIESTK. 

Governesses 

Chamber-maids  

Women  cooks 

Servant  maids 

Cooks,  men 

General  servants,  men 


Average 
wages. 


$20  00 

20  00 

9  00 


7  60 

4  80 

5  2« 
1  92 

17  80 
12  53 


XI. — Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  {country)  servaiits  in  Austria, 
with  or  without  board  and  lodging  {per  week  of  78  hours). 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

$2  10 
1  40 
1  00 

3  60 

2  60 

Children   without  board 

1  92 

XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  60  and  72  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  ^c.)  in  Austria. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average  wages. 

In  Prague. 

In  Vienna. 

In  Ghent. 

$8  00 

1           5  00 

3  60 

7  20 

$10  00 

C           9  60 

\           5  60 

4  80 

7  20 

90 

3  20 

1  60 

2  80 

4  20 

Compositors: 

$4  56 

4  56 

4  62 

3  00 
1  60 

BEIVHARK. 

In  his  comprehensive  report  on  the  labor  conditions  of  Denmark  Con- 
sul Ryder,  of  Coi)enliagen,  draws  attention  to  the  facts  that  that  country 
has  no  mininj;^  population  whatever;  that  its  factories  are  compara- 
tively of  little  importance,  and  that  while  one-half  the  population  lives 
exclusively  by  agricultnre,  less  than  one-fourth  lives  by  the  various 
branches  of  general  trade  and  commerce. 

Consul  Ryder  estimates  the  average  annual  earnings  of  ordinary  day 
laborers  in  towns  and  cities  at  from  $188  to  $214,  and  of  general  me- 


LABOR.   IN    EUROPE. 


165 


chanics  at  from  |240  to  $268.  The  higher  class  of  artisans,  whose  rates 
of  wages  are  difficult  to  ascertain,  earns  more  than  these  amounts.  The 
hours  of  labor  vary  in  the  different  trades  and  according  to  the  season 
from  7^  to  10  in  winter  and  summer,  respectively,  for  masons  and  car- 
penters; and  14  to  16  for  agricultural  laborers  per  day.  Considerable 
work  is  done  by  the  individual  trades  on  Sundays,  although  it  can  be 
said  that  Sunday  work  is  not  the  rule  in  Denmark. 

Consul  Ryder  estimates  the  daily  expense  of  food  for  an  ordinary 
laborer's  family  of  four — himself,  wife,  and  two  children — as  follows: 
Breakfast  and  supper:  Bread,  4 pounds;  lard,  i  pound;  cheese,  ^  pound; 
sugar,  ^  pound;  coffee,  -^  pound,  and  milk;  the  whole  costing  19  cents. 
Dinner,  which  consists  of  milk  porridge,  fish  and  potatoes,  or  pea  soup, 
with  pork,  about  15  cents;  making  the  total  daily  expenses  34  cents, 
or  about  $124  per  year.  The  better  class  of  mechanics  with  families 
lives  at  the  rate  of  about  40  cents  per  day,  or  $145  per  annum.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  as  the  country  produces  little  coal,  and  that  of 
inferior  quality,  kerosene  is  largely  in  use  among  the  Danish  artisans 
for  cooking  and  heating  as  well  as  for  illuminating  purjjoses. 

While  agricultural  wages  have  not  varied  to  any  appreciable  extent 
since  1878,  those  of  mechanics  and  artisans  have  increased  from  10  to 
15  per  cent.  The  increase  in  the  cost  of  living,  however,  has  kept  pace 
with  that  of  wages,  and  so  the  condition  of  the  workmen  has  not  been 
materially  bettered.  The  general  condition  of  the  best-paid  laborers 
in  Denmark  is  fairly  comfortable,  while  that  of  the  agricultural  laborers 
and  the  lower  paid  artisans  is  one  of  economy  and  self-denial. 

Considering  the  fact  that  labor  organizations  were  only  inaugurated 
in  1870,  and  that  there  are  at  present  over  forty  trades  unions  in  Coi^en- 
hagen  alone,  it  is  evident  that  the  Danish  artisans  are  alive  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  cooperation, for  the  aim  of  these  societies  is  beneficiary  as 
well  as  protective.  Both  workingmen  and  employers  are  beginning  to 
resort  to  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  trade  disputes. 

Co-operative  societies  have  no  existence  in  Denmark,  unless  benefi- 
ciary trades  unions  are  held  to  come  under  this  head. 

Mr.  Ryder  gives  the  following  estimate  of  the  yearly  incomes  and 
expenses  of  four  representative  Danish  laborers'  families,  which  may 
be  taken  as  a  fair  average  for  the  workingmen  of  Denmark: 


Items  of  expense. 

First 
family. 

Second 
family. 

Third 
family. 

Fourth 
family. 

$30  80 

123  30 

10  70 

12  10 

6  70 

$42  90 

134  00 

13  40 

13  40 

6  70 

$49  60 
134  00 

16  10 

17  40 
10  70 

$56  30 

Food 

144  70 

ClotbiDg 

21  40 

Fnel  and  light 

18  80 

13  40 

Total  expenses 

183  60 
188  00 

210  40 
214  00 

227  80 
240  00 

254  60 

268  00 

Balance 

4  40 

3  60 

12  20 

13  40 

It  will  be  noted  that  nothing  is  entered  for  incidental  expenses,  such 
as  sickness  or  accidents,  while  the  incomes  are  based  upon  steady  labor 
and  wages.  The  female  head  of  the  family  very  rarely  contributes  any- 
thing to  its  support,  and  thus,  while  more  free  to  attend  to  her  household 
duties,  leaves  the  family  wholly  dependent  on  the  father's  earnings. 


166 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 
WAGES  IN  DENMARK. 

I. — General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  Copenhagen. 


Nature  of  employment. 


BUILPIXG  TRADES. 

Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Rooters 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

G<as-litters 

OTHBR  TKADE8. 

Bakers  

Blacksmiths 

Stiikers 

Bookbinders 

Brickmakers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Cabinetmakers 

Cigamiakers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Drivers 

Draymen  and  teamsters 


Average 
wages. 


$7  00 

4  30 

5  36 
4  29 

6  97 

3  80 
8  00 

6  90 

4  29 

7  00 

5  90 


*2  25 
4  82 
4  82 

4  82 

5  90 

3  75 

4  37 
4  82 

4  58 

5  09 
4  82 

6  70 
3  22 
3  22 


Nature  of  employment. 


Other  thauks— Continued. 

Drivers  of  cabs,  carriages,  &.C  . . . 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Horsvshoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Litho<irapher3 

2Hillwri.iilits , 

Nailiuakers  (hand)  , 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers  (public  schools) 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Saihuakers 

Stevedores 

Tiinners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

"Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 

House-painters 

Glove-makers 

Joiners 

Shoemakers 

Watchmakers 


.a-verage 
wages. 

84  80 

4  29 

4  29 

8  00 

5  36 

4  00 

4  82 

5  36 

4  29 

5  50 

5  87 

4  82 

4  03 

5  36 

taOO  00 

4  82 

4  82 

5  00 

5  09 

t275  00 

t322  00 

6  70 

3  50 

5  GO 

4  82 

4  30 

3  50 

5  36 

*  Including  board. 


t  Per  annum. 


Female  labor  employed  in  agricultural,  indusfrial,  conmiercial,  and  other  pursuits  through- 
out the  kingdom. 


Classification. 


State  civil  service 

PB0FES8I0NAL, 

Teacliers 

Artists 

Mid  wives 

INDUSTRIAL. 

Bakers  and  confectioners. 

Bookbinders 

Book-printera 

Furriers 

Oold.smiths 

Glovemakers 

Cloth  fabrics 

Flour  and  prist  mills 

Hairdres.sers 

Maeliinery  fabrics 

Paper  fabrics 

Shoeniakera 

Tailors 

Seamstresses 


Numbers. 


119 


3,859 
272 
765 


399 
26 
08 
36 
39 

114 

183 
90 
89  ! 

150  i 
C8  I 
99 

2;!4 
21,363  I 


Classification. 


Industrial— Continued. 

Weavers 

Tobacco  and  cigar  fabrics 

Divers  and  others  not  specified 

commercial. 

Retail  stores,  de.ilors  and  assistants. . . 

CofTeo  and  e.ating  houses 

Fish  dealeis 

Fruit  and  game  dealers 

Iluckstci-s 

Furnituie  dealers 

Milliners 

Booksel'ers 

.State  lottery  agents 

Divers  other  trades 

Daily  emph)ynient  not  included  in  fac- 

toiies,  trades,  cfcc 

Messengers 

Cofiks  on  daily  hire  as  extra  help 

Domestic  servants 


Numbers. 


2,710 
313 
819 


2,557 
941 
180 

83 
258 

94 
709 

33 

72 
390 

8,210 

138 

2,203 

121, 181 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


167 


II. — Factories,  mills,  etc.,  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  60  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Copenhagen. 


Nature  of  manufactures, 
employment,  &c. 


Cement 

Chocolate 

Chicory 

Cinder  .    

Crockery,  earthenware. 

Dyoins;   

Tanneries 

Chemical  preparations  . 

Cloth 

Conserve 

Envei()i)e  

Corli  ware 

Carding  (wool) 

Machine 

Mineral  water 

Flour-mills 

Oil 

Piano 


Average 

wages  of 

men. 


$6  42 


4  16 
4  08 
4  02 
4  50 
4  02 
4  02 
3  75 

3  22 

4  02 
4  69 
3  75 
3  75 


3  75 

4  02 

5  63 


Average 
wages  of 
women. 


^2  14 

2  io 


2  68 
'2'28 


2  14 
2  4C 
1  68 


Nature  of  manufactures, 
employment,  &c. 


Porcelain 

Salt-refinery 

Playing-cards 

CaniRo 

Tiling 

Straw  hat 

Hosiery 

Stucco  

Sugar-refinery  ... 
nog-slaughtering  , 
Paper  hangings  . . 

Terra  cotla , 

Wadding 

Wauon 

Oil-cloth 

Tool 

Match 


Average 
■wages  of 


$3  70 
3  22 


4  02 
4  02 


3  48 

3  86 

4  29 
4  29 
4  32 
4  62 


5  30 

3  75 

6  70 

4  29 


Average 
wages  of 
women. 


$1  88 


2  01 


3  48 
2  01 


2  95 
2  14 


III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  GO  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works  in  Copenhagen. 


Description  of  employment. 


Tinsmiths  .. 

Formei's 

Blacksmiths 
Boilersmiths 


Average 
wages. 


$4  74 
5  58 
4  20 
3  90 


Description  of  employment. 


Coppersmiths 
Machinists  . . 
Metal  turners 
Joiners 


Average 
wages. 


$4  74 
4  56 
4  92 
4  92 


IV.— Glass- WORKERS  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  week  o/60  hours  to  glass-workers  in  Copenhagen. 

Description  of  employment. 

Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

Average 
wages. 

$4  80 

$6  40 

$5  50 

YI. — Railway  employi^s  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  railway  employes  (those  engaged  about  stations  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^e.)  in  Copenhagen. 


Description  of  employment. 


OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 

Chiefs  Of  each  department 

Chief  clerks 

Assistant  clerks  (besides  free  house)  — 

Api)i('ntices 

Claief  superintendent 

Civil  engineers 

Draiiuhtsnien  and  building  inspectors  . 
Line  inspectors  (besides  free  house)  ... 
Assistants  (besides  free  house) 

ENGINE  UEPAKTMENT. 

Superintendent's  engineer  (besides  free 

house  and  fuel) 

Chief  engineers 

Engineers  (besides  house  and  fuel) 


Average 


$1,  081  00 

670  00 

348  40 

187  60 

1,  608  00 

911  20 

536  00 

402  00 

165  80 

1, 474  00 

804  00 

536  00 

Description  of  emplojTnent. 


Englne  department — Continued. 

Foreman  

Assistants 

"W.itchraan  (besides  house  and  fuel). 

Locomotive  driver* 

Firemen  * 

GENERAL  DEPARTMENT. 

Chief  superintendent 

Superintendents 

Station-master 

Station-master  at  Copenhagen 

Chief  conductor* 

Assistant  condtictor* 

Kailroad  laborers 


Average 
wages. 


$536  00 
536  00 
348  40 
482  40 
289  84 


1, 608  00 
1,  072  00 
670  00 
948  00 
482  40 
289  44 
240  00 


*  Locomotive  drivers  leceive,  besides  wages,  $2.01;  firemen,  46.90  cents;  chief  conductor,  $1.40;  ^nd 
sasistant  conductor,  30.50  cents  for  every  100  Danish  miles  tr.'iveled,  as  n  premium. 


168 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


VII. — Ship- YARDS  and  ship-building  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  day  of  10  hours  in  alup-jjards — distinguishing  hetween  iron  and  wood  ship- 
building— in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Bescription  of  enaployment. 


Lowest 
w.iges. 


Highest 
wages. 


Average 
wages. 


IRON-SHIP  BUILDING  YARDS. 

Shipsmiths per  day. . 

Woiknicn do. . . ; 

Shipsmiths per  week. . 

Workmen do  — 

WOODKN-BHIP  BUILDING  YARDS. 

Ship  carpenters,  work  in  one  year:  30  weeks,  11  hours  daily;  4  weeks, 
10  honrs  daily;  4  weeks,  9  hours  daily;  14  weeks,  fe  horns  daily;  and 
receive  wages  per  day  for  a  working-day  of — 

11  liours per  day . . 

10  hours do 

9  hoars do 

8  hours do  — 


$0  59 

54 

3  54 

3  24 


$0  87 

62 

5  22 

3  72 


$0  67 

56 

4  02 

3  36 


1  03 
99 
94 
8» 


VIII. — Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  v}en) — distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast  and 
river  navigation,  and  hetween  sail  and  steam — in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Doecription  of  employment. 


First  mates  in  steamers.. 
Second  niati's  in  steamers 

First  engineers 

Seconil  enjiineers 

Third  en  jjineers 

Stewards* 

Cooks  in  steamers 

Carpenters 

Boatswains — 

Sailors 

Ordinary  seamen 

Boys 


Average 

wages. 

$25  00 

20  00 

40  00 

25  00 

15  00 

20  00 

18  00 

14  00 

14  00 

10  00 

9  00 

7  00 

Description  of  employment. 


Donkeymen 

Storekeepers 

Firemen 

Captains  in  sailing  veasolat 

Fir.st  mates  in  sailiiifi  vessels 

Second  mates  in  sailing  vessels 

Carpenters 

Sailiiiakers 

Cook  and  steward  in  sailing  vessels 

AMe-bodied  seamen 

Ordinary  seamen 

Boys 


Average 

wages. 

$15  00 

15  00 

13  00 

45  00 

18  00 

14  00 

16  00 

14  00 

13  00 

11  00 

9  00 

5  00 

*  Stewards  in  steamers  are  generally  paid  $12  to  $14,  but  are  allowed  to  sell  refreshments  on  whicli  a 
profit  is  made ;  otherwise,  $20. 
tFive  per  cent,  allowance  on  gross  freight;  otherwise,  $45. 

IX. — Shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  of  10  h^onrs  per  day,  in  shops,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and 
females,  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Description  of  employment. 


Clerks  in  wholesa,!©  and  retnil  stores 

Female  clerks 

Clerks  in  retail  grocery  stores* 

Apprentices,  per  year  * 


Average 
wages. 


$50  00 

12  to  25 

10  70 

14  50 


*  Including  boHrd. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


169 


X. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  cities  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  household  servants  (toivns  and  cities)  in  city  of  Copenhagen  and 

other  towns  in  Denmark. 


In  *Jie  city. 

Coachmen 

Meu  servants 

Men  helpers 

Female  cooks 

Honaemaids 

"Wet-nurses 

Nurses 


Average 

wages. 

$8  04 

6  70 

5  36 

5  36  ^ 

3  00 

6  70 

2  70 

In  the  tovmt. 

Coachmen 

Men  servants 

Helpers 

Female  cook^ 

Housemaids 

"Wet  nurses 

Nurses 


$5  36 
4  23 
3  22 
3  75 

2  70 

3  75 
2  14 


XI.— Agricultural  wages  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  half  year,  as  the  case  may   be,  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household 
{country}  servants  in  Denmark,  with  board  and  lodging. 


Description  of  employment 


Steward 

Men  servants 

Helpers 

Boys 


Average 


$48  24 
32  50 
16  08 
8  04 


Description  of  employment. 


Females : 

Housekeepers 

Butter  and  cheese  makers 
Ordinary  servants 


Average 
wages. 


$25  73 
32  50 
16  03 


XII.— Corporation  employ:6s  in  Denmark. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  GO  hours  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Copenhagen,  Den- 
mark. 


Description  of  employment. 

Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

Average 
wages. 

"Workmen  at  gas-houses  belongins  to  the  city  of  Copenhagen 

Workmen  at  the  water-works  belonging  to  the  city  of  Copenhagen 

$4  00 
4  00 

$7  50 
7  50 

$5  00 
5  90 

The  city  of  Copenhagen  has  no  other  laborers  than  the  above-mentioned,  but  lets  out  its  work  to  con- 
tractors, who  employ  the  workmen  at  the  rates  given  in  this  report. 

The  wages  paid  to  all  other  othcials  employed  by  the  coi-poration  of  Copenhagen  are  analogous  with 
those  of  the  Government  departments  and  offices. 


XIII. — Government  departments  and  offices. 

paid  per  year  to  employes  in  Government  departments  and  offices  {exclusive  of  trades- 
men and  laborers)  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 
wages. 


Highest 
wages. 


CIVIL  OFFICEES. 

Chief  of  department  * 

Chief  of  office* 

Bead  clerk  t 

Clerks 

[The  salaries  of  the  above-mentioned  officials  vary  for  the  lower  grades  of 
clerks  between  $215  and  $485;  for  the  higher  grades,  snch  .is  chief  of  office,  be- 
tween $540  and  $1,'J90  per  year.  The  established  rule  is  that  the  salary  is  increased 
from  $25  to  $125  every  five  years.] 

COURTS. 

Supreme  court  judges  * 

Other  judges  iu  Copenhagen  * 

Judges  and  justices  in  other  towns  and  cities  in  Denmark  J 


$1,  400  00 
858  00 
429  00 
215  00 


1,  608  00 
8(iO  00 
750  00 


$1,  825  00 

1,  290  00 

750  00 

325  00 


2,150  00 
1,  290  00 
1,  825  00 


*  Increase  for  every  five  years'  service,  $125. 

t  Increase  for  every  five  years'  service,  $55. 

J  Increase  for  every  five  "years'  service,  $80  to  $125. 


170  LABOR  IN  EUROPE. 

Xiy. — Trades  and  labor  in  government  employ. 

Wages  paid  by  the  day  of  10  hours  to  the  trades  and  lahorers  in  Government  employ  (navy- 
yard*)  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest 

Highe.st 

wages. 

wages. 

$0  55 

$0  71 

55 

71 

55 

71 

55 

1  00 

55 

70 

55 

71 

55 

71 

55 

58 

Carpenters . . 

Jointers 

Black.iiuiths 
Miiiliiuista. . 
LocUsniiths. 
Sailiiiiikors. . 
"Woiknieu... 
Laborers 


•Workmen  at  the  navy-yarrt  have  permanent  employment,  and  receive,  besides  the  above  wages,  tools 
and  cheap  house  rent,  say  $:J7.50  per  annum;  also  a  pension  and  discharge  when  sick  and  too  old  to 
work.    Tneir  appointment  ia  lor  life. 

XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  60  honrs  to  printers  (^compositors,  pressmen, 
proof-readers,  <^"c.)  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark. 


Description  of  employment. 

Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

Average 
wages. 

MALES. 

$5  30 
5  40 
4  80 
7  00 

2  14 

$5  40 
6  70 
8  00 
8  00 

2  40 

$5  40 

6  05 

6  40 

7  50 

^irls 

FEMALES. 

2  40 

PORTUGAL,. 

The  report  from  Consul-General  Francis  recites  the  general  conditions 
and  rates  of  wages.  Wages  in  Portugal  are  very  low  compared  with 
those  in  the  United  States,  and  even  witli  those  in  England  and  Franco. 
The  hours  of  labor  may  be  stated  as  running  from  sunrise  to  sunset, 
with  two  hours  for  meals  and  rest.  The  Portuguese  working  chisses, 
as  a  rule,  are  tem})erate,  industrious  and  economical.  Women  in 
Portugal,  as  in  most  other  European  countries,  do  their  share  of  active 
labor,  working  as  stevedores  and  at  other  out(k)or  work  as  well  as  in 
the  fields.  Out  of  a  population  of  4,500,000,  only  185,000  are  mechanics 
and  artisans,  the  great  bulk  of  the  working  classes  being  employed  in 
primitive  labor. 

The  wages  earned  in  and  around  Lisbon  are  given  as  follows:  General 
trades,  CO  to  80  cents  per  day,  some  lunning  up  to  $1.25  in  exceptional 
cases,  and  others  being  as  low  as  50  cents. 

Women  coal-carrier.s  at  the  docks  earn  30  cents  per  day,  while  male 
coal-heavers  receive  80  cents;  male  laborers,  30  to  40  cents  per  day. 

Agricultural  laborers,  per  day,  without  board:  Males,  IG  to  35  cents  j 
females,  10  to  20  cents. 

Cotton  mills,  11  hours  per  day:  Male  operatives,  first  class  60  cents, 
ordinary  32  cents  i)er  day;  women  operatives,  by  the  piece,  40  to  50 
cents ;  children  under  14  years,  14  cents. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  171 

Woolen  mills,  11  lioursper  day  :  First-class  operatives,  66  cents,  and 
ordinary  opei-atives,  45  cents  ;  women,  27  cents;  and  children,  12  cents. 

These  wages,  being  for  Lisbon  and  vicinity,  are  higher  than  the  wages 
paid  elsewhere  in  Portugal. 

As  a  whole,  says  Mr.  Francis,  the  laboring  people  of  Portugal  are 
in  humble  circumstances,  but  seem  content  with  the  compensation  they 
get.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that,  owing  to  the  climate 
of  Portugal,  the  working  classes  do  not  require  clothing,  fuel,  and  animal 
food  in  the  quantities  which  are  necessary  for  similar  classes  in  the 
colder  and  damper  climates  of  England  and  Germany. 

The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  recapitula- 
tory statements  for  all  countries,  are  about  the  same  as  in  Germany  and 
Belgium. 

In  connection  with  Portugal,  an  interesting  report  will  be  found  on 
the  state  of  labor  in  the  Azores,  and  although  not  of  consequence  as 
affecting  general  results,  it  is  necessary  to  the  completion  of  this  work, 
and  Consul  Dabney,  for  the  care  taken  in  the  preparation  of  his  sta- 
tistics, is  entitled  to  much  credit. 


E^ROPEA]\   TURKEY. 

Turkey  is  not  usually  considered  in  a  comparison  of  the  labor  condi- 
tions of  the  great  commercial  and  manufacturing  nations,  but  the  trades 
and  industries  of  the  country  are  of  consequence  in  a  review  of  the  gen- 
eral labor  conditions  of  Europe. 

For  many  reasons — the  want  of  otficial  statistics  heretofore,  and  the 
consequent  freshness  of  the  subject  being  the  princi]>al — the  report  by 
Consul  General  Heap,  of  Constantinople,  is  of  much  interest. 

The  great  cost  of  internal  communication  in  Turkey  and  the  lack  of 
highways,  railways  and  waterways  have  had  the  eifect  of  localizing 
industries  ;  hence  each  community  has  conditions  of  trade  peculiar  to 
itself.  While  wages  are  comparatively  high  in  Constantinople  and 
other  large  cities,  they  are  extremely  low  in  distant  villages  and  rural 
districts. 

The  consul-general  says  that  the  working  classes  are  steady  and 
industrious,  especially  the  Mussulmans  and  Armenians,  among  whom 
drunkenness  is  almost  unknown.  The  food  of  the  laborers  is  simple 
and  frugal,  such  workmen  as  porters,  farm-hands,  stevedores,  gardeners, 
&c.,  being  satisfied  with  coarse  bread,  dried  salted  fish,  common  cheese, 
curdled  milk,  and  the  cheaper  vegetables  and  fruit.  Meat  is  very  rarely 
indulged  in,  and  a  cup  of  coffee  is  a  luxury. 

With  the  exception  of  guilds  for  the  protection  of  trades  from  over- 
crowding, there  are  no  labor  organizations,  and  strikes  are  very  rare. 
The  trade  guilds  partake  in  some  degree  of  the  nature  of  co-operative 
societies  for  mutual  benefit. 

The  nature  of  these  trade  organizations  is  described  by  the  consul- 
general,  that  of  the  hamals  (porters)  being  given  as  an  illustration. 
Each  quarter  of  the  city  and  suburbs  has  its  own  porters,  all  being 
under  one  head  or  chief,  who  is  recognized  by  the  Government,  and  who 
buys  his  place.  The  chief  pays  to  the  Government  the  taxes  of  all 
the  members.  The  members  can  oidy  work  in  their  assigned  quarters, 
and  the  total  earnings  for  each  day  are  divided  pro  rata.     In  cases  of 


172  LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

sickness  or  disability  of  any  kind  they  relieve  each  other.  The  hatuals 
are  mostly  all  natives  of  distant  Asiatic  provinces,  and  the  members 
are  assisted  in  visiting  their  homes,  which  they  do  every  two  or  three 
years.  The  hours  of  labor  in  Turkey  are  from  daylight  to  one  hour  be- 
fore sunset,  with  an  hour  for  dinner.  The  weekly  wages  of  the  general 
trades  in  Constantinople  are  about  the  same  as  those  which  prevail  in 
the  large  cities  of  continental  Europe  ;  higher  if  anything. 

In  Turkey,  where  everything  is  acconii)lished  by  hand,  manual  labor 
is  necessarily  in  demand  to  accomi)lish  that  which  is  done  by  machinery 
elsewhere.  Tmkish  women  are  emi)loyed  in  certain  districts  in  raising 
silkwDrms  and  weaving  carpets,  but  the  greater  number  are  engaged 
in  agriculture,  where  they  take  the  place  of  the  men  who  are  doing  mili- 
tary service,  or  who  are  acting  as  porters,  teamsters,  &c.,  in  the  towns 
and  cities.  The  difference  between  the  Turkish  and  other  European 
female  farm-workers  is  that  the  former  work  on  their  own  farms,  never 
living  out,  while  the  latter  do  both.  Turkish  women  are  also  employed 
as  domestics,  and  in  silk  and  woolen  factories.  Their  work,  however, 
is  generally  done  at  home.  Their  wages  are  very  low,  about  one-half 
those  paid  to  men. 


RUSSIA. 


The  labor  conditions  of  Eussia  may  be  said  to  be  wholly  peculiar  to 
that  Empire. 

From  the  nature  of  the  governmental  and  social  systems  of  Kussia, 
as  well  as  of  the  heterogeneous  and  segregated  condition  of  the  working 
classes,  labor  unions  are  unknown.  It  must  further  be  borne  in  mind 
that  labor  in  Eussia  should  not  be  gauged  by  the  standards  of  other 
countries.  Although  the  legal  abolition  of  serfdom  tends  to  assimilate 
Eussian  labor  to  continental  standards,  the  feudal  relationship  of  the 
em])loyed  to  their  employers  still  survives  to  an  extent  which  makes 
intelligent  comparison  difticult  through  excessive  contrast. 

Wages  throughout  Eussia  are  much  lower  than  those  which  rule  iu 
continental  Europe.  It  is  not  easy  to  arrive  at  average  rates  for  the 
general  industries,  but  those  paid  in  some  of  the  principal  industries 
will  be  found  in  the  tabulated  forms. 

In  regard  to  women's  wages.  Consul  Eawicz,  of  Warsaw,  reports  that 
girl  assistants  in  artificial-tlower  factories  earn  from  $1.50  to  $2  per 
month;  if  boarded  the}""  must  work  15  to  18  hours  per  day.  Women 
flower-makers  earn  $3  per  month  of  9  working  hours  ])er  day,  without 
b()ar<l,  but  exceedingly  expert  workers  earn  from  $7  to  $0  per  month. 
In  bookbinding  establishments  women  receive  from  $2.50  to  $3  per 
month.  In  paper-box  factories  girls  earn  $1  per  week;  girls  engaged 
in  printing  labels  $5  per  month,  holidays  deducted.  Eetouchers  in  pho- 
tograjihing  establishments  earn  fnmi  $15  to  $17.50  per  month.  In 
toilet-soai)  and  perfume  factories  girls  earn  from  90  cents  to  $1.50  i)er 
■week.  Chair  polishers  in  furniture  factories  receive  37^  cents  per 
day.    Women  laboring  in  tanneries  receive  15  cents  for  10  hours'  labor. 

Women  engaged  in  houhc  and  shop  work,  living  in  the  premises,  work 
generally  from  early  morning  until  late  at  night,  going  to  bed  at  12 
o'clock  and  getting  up  at  0  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

The  report  from  the  consul-general  at  St.  Petersburg,  Mr.  Stanton, 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE.  173 

covering  the  agencies  of  Cronstadt,  Ecvel,  and  Eiga,  is  as  complete  as 
was  possible  nuder  the  circumstances. 

In  the  largest  rope  and  cordage  factory  in  St.  Petersburg,  this  being 
a  leadiug  industry  in  Russia,  the  workers  earn  from  29  cents  to  55  cents 
per  day  of  10  hours,  with  lodging  and  fuel  in  the  factory. 

In  the  leading  glass  works  tbe  laborers  earn  from  $57.G0  to  $86,40  per 
annum,  with  food  and  lodging  in  the  works.  This  system  of  feeding 
and  lodging  employes  in  the  factories  prevails  in  Eussia.  Its  object  is 
doubtless  twofold,  viz,  to  provide  steady  workers,  and  to  hold  men  aloof 
from  rival  industries,  as  well  as  to  preserve  a  certain  amount  of  secrecy 
about  the  works.  It  naturally  involves  the  almost  complete  depend- 
ence of  the  workers  upon  their  employers.  Master-workmen  in  these 
glass  factories  earn  from  $46  to  $65  per  month;  overseers,  assorters, 
and  clerks  from  $16.80  to  $48  per  month. 

The  foregoing  are  given  not  only  as  illustrations  of  the  rates  of  wages 
and  ditferent  conditions  which  prevail  in  special  industries,  but  they 
also  serve  to  show  the  difficulty  of  arriving  at  anything  like  an  average. 
Wages  in  St.  Petersburg  are  regulated  more  by  individual  bargaining 
than  by  any  fixed  trade  rate.  At  present,  w^rites  the  consul-general, 
the  building  trades  are  very  dull,  and  it  is  easy  enough  to  hire  working- 
men  at  24  cents  per  day,  although  in  brisk  times  their  wages  may  be 
reckoned  at  from  48  cents  to  58  cents  per  day. 

The  cost  of  living  in  Eussia  is  as  difficult  to  average  as  the  rates  of 
wages.  Many  of  the  married  laborers  who  work  in  St.  Petersburg  have 
their  families  living  in  villages,  while  they  themselves  live  in  the  city. 

With  free  lodging  and  fuel,  a  manufacturer  estimated  that  a  laborer 
<;an  live  in  St.  Petersburg  on  9.6  cents  per  day.  Cotton  operatives  are 
supposed  to  consume  food  and  clothing  to  the  following  amounts  per 
month:  Men,  $4.80;  women,  $3.84;  children,  $2.88.  In  the  country 
these  operatives  have  rents  free  in  "  barracks";  in  St.  Petersburg  and 
IMoscow  they  pay  about  48  cents  per  month  rental. 

The  expenses  of  a  glass- worker's  family  are  estimated  at  from  $16  to 
$24  per  month.  In  a  steam  biscuit  manufactory  a  laborer  is  able  to  live 
on  72  cents  per  week. 

Eussian  employers  say  that  the  working  classes  are  intelligent,  but 
wasteful  and  not  to  be  relied  upon. 

The  general  condition  of  the  working  classes,  writes  Mr.  Stanton,  is 
one  of  poverty  and  want,  and  he  gives  several  interviews  with  Eussian 
workmen  of  the  better  class  in  regard  to  their  incomes  and  expendi- 
tures. 

HOW  A  METAL   TURNER   LIVES  IN   ST.   PETERSBURG. 

Aged  45;  has  a  wife  and  2  children;  earns  72  cents  per  day  of 
11  hours ;  bis  wife  earns  $2.40  per  month  sewing;  total  income,  $254 
per  year,  estimating  on  full  time.  Expenses:  Eent,  $34.56;  food, 
$190;  clothing,  $24;  taxes,  $2.40;  sundries,  $3.44;  total  annual 
expenses,  $254.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  average  workman  can 
make  full  time  throughout  a  year,  and  therefore  the  above  estimates 
must  be  regulated  accordingly. 

Eussian  workmen,  generally  speaking,  do  not  save  anything,  most 
parents  being  supported  in  old  age  by  their  children.  This  filial  de- 
votion is  one  of  the  noblest  characteristics  of  the  Eussian  laboring 
classes. 


174 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


The  wages  paid  iu  the  general  trades  in  St.  Petersbnrg  are  of  such  a 
discrepant  character  that  they  cannot  be  inchided  iu  the  general  esti- 
mates for  all  Eussia.  For  instance,  in  St.  Petersburg,  masons,  plas- 
terers, &c.,  are  paid  for  the  suunuer,  which  appears  to  be  all  there  is  of 
the  working  year  in  that  latitude,  $00,  with  board,  and  hodcarriers  and 
tenders,  $19.20,  with  board.  Plumbers  receive  $12  ])er  month,  with 
board;  bakers,  $9.G0  per  month,  with  board;  carpenters,  $43.20  for  the 
summer,  with  board ;  and  so  on  in  proportion  through  the  whole  list. 

AVERAGE  WAGES  IN  RUSSIA. 

I. — General  trades. 

Average  wages  2yfticl  per  tveek  of  72  hours. 


Occupations. 


*  Biga.         Warsaw. 


All  Bassia. 


Bricklayers 

Hodcarriers 
Masous 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Slaters    

Roofers 

Tenders 

rinnibers 

Assistants . . 

Cari)euter8 

Gasfltters 


BUILDING  TEADES. 


OTHEK  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookl)inder8 

Brir.kmakers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-malters 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers 

Draymen  and  teamsters . 

Cal)  and  carriage 

Street  railway 

Dyers " 

Engravers 

Fuirie.rs  

Gardeners 

Hulters 

Horseslioers 

Jewelers 

Laliorers,  porters,  ifcc 

Litliographers 

'v  ill\vn<ilit8 

Nailuiakcrs  (hand) 

Potters  

Printers 

Teailiers  (public  schools)  ... 
Saddle  and  harness  makers. . 

Sailiniikers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills).. 


$4  32 
2  45 


4  32 
2  30 

4  80 

5  28 


$2  50 

2  50 

3  60 


1  80 

2  25 


2  00 

3  60 

2  70 

3  00 
2  25 

2  37 
1  50 

3  CO 


3  13 
i  00 
3  00 
3  50 

2  25 

3  50 


3  50 

2  00 
5  00 

3  00 
3  00 
3  00 

2  70 

3  50 


4  00 

1  80 

2  50 


5  00 
3  00 
3  50 
3  60 
1  50 


$4  32 
2  45 
C  72 
2  88 
4  61 

2  55 
4  20 

3  75 
2  60 

4  32 

2  30 

3  30 
3  76 


2  92 

3  72 

2  72 

3  42 
2  80 

4  06 

2  91 

4  20 

5  76 

3  36 
5  00 
3  66 

3  91 

4  00 
3  50 
3  60 
3  60 

2  95 

3  16 

4  66 
3  66 
3  90 

5  10 

3  75 

4  15 

2  88 

4  88 

3  30 

3  65 

5  76 
5  76 
9  60 

4  50 
2  59 

2  88 

4  90 
8  42 

5  25 

3  96 
2  96 


*  The  wages  in  Biga  substantially  represent  those  of  St.  Petersburg. 


LABOR   IN    EUROPE. 


175 


The  following  tables  were  compiled  by  the  consul-general  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg: 

II. — Factories,  mills,  etc. 

Wages  paid  per  month  for  12  to  13  hours'  daili/  work  in  cotton  factories  or  mills  inRttssia. 


Description  of  emplojinent. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  emplo3Tnent. 

Average 

wages. 

COTTON  MILLS. 

Kaxva  (working  76  lionrs  per  week) : 

(     $7  20 
{         to 
t       7  44 
9  60 

5  28 
7  20 

6  72 
3  84 
5  28 
5  28 
5  28 
5  25 
5  28 

COTTON  MILLS — Continned. 
City  and  country  mills — Continned: 

$5  28 
4  32 

"Wages  in  spinning  department 

Eeelers . 

8  16 

Wajres  in  weaving  department 

City  and  coimtiy  mills: 

9  12 

5  28 

7  20 

5  76 

12  96 

12  96 

Cau  tenders,  boys  and  girls 

10  56 

5  28 

6  24 

12  48 

Piecers 

4  80 

Wages  paid  in  various  factories. 


Description  of  employment.             "VaeeP 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

GLUE  FACTOET. 

(Per  month,  10  to  12  honrs  daily.) 

Common  hands: 

Male*   

$6  72 
4  80 
36  00 
36  10 
18  00 

2  40 

1  53 
1  29 

BRONZE  FACTORY— Continued. 

Getters per  day . . 

Gilders 1 do 

CJouimon  laborers do 

$1  53 

1  20 

48 

1  08 

EOI'E  AND   CORDAGE  FACTORY. 

(Per  week  of  60  hours.) 

BISCUIT  AND  CRACKER  FACTORY. 

2  86 

Various  hands per  week . . 

2  02 

2  56 

BRONZE  FACTORT. 

Bronze  caster perday . . 

Mounters do 

Men  attending  forming  machine 

Men  attending  bob  Ding  machine 

1  95 

2  14 

1  80 

1  68 

■  *  Including  lodging,  light,  and  Are. 


III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  68  honrs  in  iron  jvorks  in  Russia. 


Description  of  employment. 


Caeter.s  and  formers 

Ai)preuti<P8 

Common  laborers  in  foundry 

Ca.stin.'i-dcaners 

Joiners  and  model-makers  . . 

Locksmiths  

Loc  k  sm  i  t  h  s'  assistants 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Paintei  s 

Chiselers  and  mounters 


Description  of  employment. 


Average 
wages. 


Tinsmiths 

Solderer 

Coppersmith 

Grinder  and  polisher 

Bronze-workers 

Gilders 

Metalworkers 

Metal-turners 

M  etal-plan  ers 

Laborers  


*$5  20 
'0  77 
*8  84 
*4  17 
4  61 
4  03 
4  90 
*5  47 
*5  76 
2  16 


'Piece  workers,  and  consequently  attain  so  high  an  average. 


176 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

lY. — Glass  WORKERS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  glass-workers  in  Bassia. 


Description  of  employment. 


Firemen 

Melters 

Meltera'  assistants 

Glass-masters 

Glass-masters'  assistants 
Boys 


Lowest 

Highest   1 

■wages. 

wages. 

$2  40 

$3  84 

3  60 

4  80 

1  92 

2  88    t 

14  40 

21  CO 

2  40 

3  84 

06 

1  20 

Description  of  employment. 


Assorters 

Packers 

Potters  

Smiths 

Grinders 

Female  packers 


Lowest 

Highest 

wages. 

wages. 

$3  30 

$i  80 

1  92 

7  20 

7  20 

12  90 

4  32 

6  00 

3  84 

9  60 

96 

3  36 

Y. — Shop  wages. 

Wages  jtaid  per  year  in  stores,  wliolesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  St.  Petersburg. 


Description  of  employment. 


Manager 

Bookkeeper 

Corresponding  clerks 

Office  clerks 

Clerks 


Lowest 
wages. 

Highest 
wages. 

$960  00 
480  00 
384  00 
240  00 
192  00 

$2,  880  00 

1,  440  00 

1,  200  00 

960  00 

480  00 

Description  of  employment. 


First  saleswoman  . . 
Second  saleswoman 

Apprentice 

Artelehick  (cashier) 
Artelshick  (porter) . 


Lowest 
wages. 


$168  00 

86  40 

57  60 

206  40 

48  00 


Highest 
wages. 


$432  00 
144  00 
120  0« 
576  0« 
120  04 


YI. — Household  wages  in  towns  and  oities. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  St.  Petersiurg. 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Cooks: 

$14  40 

4  80 

24  00 

19  20 

4  80 

Seamstress daily. . 

$0  38 
8  40 

4  4.5 

ScuUerymaid '           3  36 

Lady's  maid 1           7  20 

YII. — Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Eussia. 


Description  of  emplo3anent. 


Average 
wages. 


Laborer : 

Summer per  day.. 

Antnmn do 

Winter. do... 

Spring do... 


Description  of  employment. 


I  Average 
j   wages. 


Laborer— Continned :  ] 

Wages,  for  summer,  from  March  15 

to  October  1.5,  with  board I        $£6 ,40 

Wages,   for  winter,  from  October 

15  to  March  15,  with  board 14  40 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

VIII. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 


177 


Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  month  for  10   to  12  hours'  daily  work  to  printers 
{compositors,  pressmen,  proof-readers,  ^'C.)  in  St.  Petersburg . 


Description  of  employment. 

Average 
wages. 

Description  of  employment. 

Average 
■wages. 

Printing  office: 

$60  00 
25  20 
14  40 
6  00  1 

Publishing  house:* 

Type-setters,  furnishing  themselves 

$28  80 

19  20 

14  40 

Master  at  machine  (fast  press) 

31  00 

12  00 

Turner  at  machine 

7  68 

*  These  men  have  free  lodging,  but  feed  themselves  at  a  cost  per  month  of  $3.36. 


RECAPITULATION, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE   AND   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES   COMPARED. 

Having  reviewed  the  labor  conditions  of  the  several  countries  by  con- 
sulates, a  tabular  recapitulation  is  herewith  presented  of  the  results  by 
countries,  by  which  the  rates  of  wages  in  the  several  nations  of  Europe 
as  averaged  from  the  returns  of  the  consuls  may  be  compared,  not 
only  with  each  other,  but  with  the  rates  of  wages  in  leading  cities  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  national  labor  statistics  for 
the  United  States  are  not  available ;  but  as  comparisons  are  made  be- 
tween representative  districts  in  Europe  and  representative  districts 
here,  these  tables  will  enable  the  reader  to  appreciate  the  labor  condi- 
tions of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  at  their  approximate  value. 

In  the  remarks  accompanying  the  following  statements  British  results 
are  principally  selected  for  comparisons,  as  English  wages  are,  generally 
speaking,  the  highest  in  Europe,  and  English  trade  conditions  have 
more  in  common  with  Auierican  customs  and  usages  than  those  of  the 
other  countries. 

92  A— LAB 12 


178 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


I. — General  trades. 

Comparison  of  the  average  wecMii  tcagts  paid  in  the  general  trades  in  Europe  with  those 
paid  t«  similar  trades  inXew  York  and  Chicago. 


Occapations. 


BUILDING  TBADES. 


Bricklayers $7  56 

Hod-carriers 4  94 

Masons 7  68 

Tenders 5  07 

Plasterers 7  80 

Tenders 5  27 

Slaters 7  10 

Roofers 7  35 

Tenders 4  24 

Plumbers 7  90 

Assistants :  4  69 

Carpenters 7  66 

Gas-fitters |  7  66 

OTHKU  TKADE8.  | 

Bakers i    6  17 

7  37 

5  30 

6  77 
*7  00 

6  85 

5  50 

7  47 
7  68 

6  84 

6  07 

7  50 
7  00 


Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brickmakers  

Brewers 

Bute  tiers  

Brass- founders 

Cabinetmakers 

Confectioners 

Cigarmakete  1 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers 1 

Draymen  and  teamsters. .  ] 

Cab  and  carriage ; 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseshoers 


Jewelers  

Lal)orors,  porters,  &c 

Lilliiigraphers 

Millwriglits 

Nailmakers  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers 

Teachers  public  schools  ...i 

Saddle  and  harness  makers  .. 

Sailmakers 

Shoemakers 

St(^vedores 


Tanners 

Tailors 

TelegraTih  operators 

Tinsniitlis 

"Weavers  (outside  of  mills)  .. 

Mivchinists , 

Painters 

Upholsterers 


5  37 

5  15 

6  09 
C  18 
8  38 

t8  52 

5  80 

6  10 

6  32 

8  76 

4  70 

7  07 

6  97 

5  90 

5  20 

7  17 
[12  00 
5  7  70 

6  63 

7  02 


8  44 

6  38 

7  40 
7  65 
6  56 
6  31 


$4  21 

2  92 
4  07 

3  15 

4  43 
2  91 
4  20 
4  28 
2  81 
4  26 
2  72 
4  11 
4  08 


4  00 

2  94 
4  20 

3  98 


3  32 

4  38 
4  25 
3  43 
3  63 
3  97 
3  90 
3  56 


2  96 

3  21 
3  44 

3  45 
5  12 

4  20 

3  78 

4  36 

3  61 

5  21 
3  11 


3  60 
2  85 

2  95 
5  70 

^4  85 
\3   80 

3  41 
5  11 

3  55 
2  79 

4  60 
4  82 
4  52 


$5  74 
3  13 

5  33 
3  23 

6  34 
3  23 
5  65 

5  65 
3  64 

6  10 
3  61 
6  20 
6  07 


5  81 

4  72 

5  17 
5  32 
4  43 


6  54 

6  14 
4  85 

4  69 

5  58 
5  16 

7  06 

4  80 

5  57 
4  82 
4  47 

4  83 
7  35 
7  00 

5  11 
5  50 


0  24 
3-93 
7  07 
6  74 
4  84 

4  78 

6  64 

7  00 

5  70 

6  04 

2  90 
6  72 

[5  18 

5  02 
0  92 
5  46 

3  23 


$4  56 
3  22 


3  09 

4  66 

3  02 

4  98 

4  97 

3  26 

5  46 

2  93 

4  07 

5  00 

4  28  , 

5  38  I 

3  29 

5  35  ' 

4  25 
4  46 

4  31  , 

6  02  i 

5  66  i 

5  03  I 

6  28 
5  17  I 
5  28 

5  00  I 
3  95 
3  77 

3  92 

4  09  I 

6  15  1 
6  42 
6  35 

3  91 

4  60  ! 

5  62 

6  84  I 
3  77 
5  86 
5  00 


$3  55 

2  08 

3  73 
1  92 

4  01 

1  82 
4  00 
4  20 

2  80 

4  11 
2  41 

5  10 

6  09 


)  4  55 

J  4  72 

3  18 

3  15 

4  10 
6  20 

5  87 
3  50 

3  60 

4  40 

"306 
3  64 
3  00 
3  00 


2  20 
4  00 

3  68 

3  80 

4  77 
3  67 


3  85 
CI  20 
13  48 
3  80 
3  00 
5  93 
3  10 


4  86 

5  94 


3  17 

4  85 


7  74  I  8  47 


5  51 
4  56 


3  80 
3  80 


4  36 

5  81 

5  58 

6  35 
4  40 
3  95 


7  40 

4  15 

4  03 
6  75 
3  70 
3  15 


$4  80 

3  60 

4  80 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 


4  80 
2  80 

4  80 

5  60 


4  80 

3  60 

4  00 
3  20 
6  00 

3  60 

4  00 
4  80 
4  40 
4  00 

4  80 

'e'oo 

5  00 
4  40 

2  50 
4  40 

3  60 
8  00 

4  00 

3  60 

4  00 

U  40 


3  20 

4  80 
4  SO 


6  00 
6  40 


4  80 
4  00 


4  00 

5  00 
5  60 
4  00 
3  60 


$5  21 

2  99 
5  27 

3  50 
5  03 

3  40 

4  35 

2  99 

3  18 

5  18 

3  36 

4  74 

5  04 


5  20 
4  43 
4  68 
4  43 

3  78 

4  66 

4  92 

5  59 
5  84 

3  30 

4  78 
4  93 
4  02 


3  84 

4  91 
6  35 
.4  63 
3  83 

3  84 

4  65 

6  35 

3  61 

5  51 

a  30 

2  64 

4  17 

5  93 


5  20 


4  92 
6  36 


4  40 
3  05 


$4  32 
2  45 
6  72 
2  88 
4  61 


4  32 

2  30 

3  30 
3  76 


$24  00 
10  50 
24  00 
10  50 
27  00 

15  00 

21  00 

16  50 
10  50 

22  50 
5  70 

16  50 
18  00 


3  72 

2  72 

3  42 
2  80 

4  06 

2  91 

4  20 

5  76 

3  36 

6  80 
3  66 

3  91 

4  00 
3  50 
3  60 
3  60 

2  95 

3  10 


4  15 

2  88 

4  88 

3  30 
3  65 

5  76 
5  76 

9  60 

5  10 
2  59 


2  88 
4  90 

3  42 
6  55 
2  96 
2  96 


2  92  12  00 


15  00 
10  50 

16  50 

17  40 


S20  00 

11  00 

15  00 
10  00 
18  00 
10  00 
14  00 

12  00 
9  00 

16  00 
10  00 
14  00 
12  00 


16  50 
15  08 
15  00 
12  00 
18  00 
12  00 


12  00 


13  50 
16  50 
24  00 
15  00 
12  50 


13  50 
10  50 


10  00 

18  00 

13  00 

13  00 

12  00 

11  00 

15  00 

12  00 

11  GO 

18  00 

12  00 



7-12 

12  00 

12  72 

11  00 

10  00 

18  00 

12  00 

18  00 

'About. 


t  With  board. 


I  Men. 


§  Women. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


179 


To  reduce  the  foregoing  statements  to  an  equitable  level  of  compari- 
son the  following  tabulation  is  given,  showing  the  rates  of  wages  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe  as  compared  with  those  in  the  United 
States : 

I. — General  trades. 


Occupations. 

§ 

1 
Hi 

a 
< 

d 

i 

a 

OS 

a 
§ 
> 

a 
-s 

00 

s 

'S 

g 
a 

0 

B 

cm 

i 

3 
0 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$8  40 
4  60 
8  40 
4  60 
7  50 
4  60 
7  50 

7  50 
4  60 

8  10 
4  87 
8  00 
8  00 

6  50 

7  80 

6  00 

7  00 
C  00 

7  00 
4  38 

8  10 
8  80 
6  00 
6  80 
8  00 
8  00 

$4  40 
3  12 
6  00 

3  12 

4  40 
3  12 

5  00 

'4'40' 

3  05 

4  82 

5  79 

2  70 

5  50 

2  45 
4  63 

3  20 

3  20 

2  90 

6  95 
6  00 

4  65 
6  50 

3  47 

4  65 

5  21 

2  95 

3  00 

4  63 

6  00 

6  00 

7  53 
4  40 
4  75 

4  05 
6  50 
3  47 

5  80 
3  00 

$4  50 
3  50 
5  00 

3  65 

4  50 

3  61 

4  35 
4  35 

3  39 

4  57 

3  20 

5  00 

4  11 

3  55 

4  28 

3  57 

5  15 

4  75 
4  61 

3  60 

4  28 
3  33 

3  43 

4  19 
4  28 
3  91 

2  86 

3  17 

2  46 

3  10 

3  53 

4  92 
3  15 

3  10 

4  35 

3  00 

4  67 

3  63 

4  90 
3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

$7  50 

2  22 
6  06 

3  90 
6  36 
3  90 
3  78 
3  78 

3  08 

4  94 
3  36 

5  20 

3  78 

4  32 

5  40 
4  62 
4  80 
4  92 

3  78 

4  32 
4  92 
4  62 

6  36 
3  30 

3  78 

4  32 
4  02 

3  06 
3  06 

3  06 

4  62 

5  76 
5  22 

3  66 

4  62 
3  64 

5  76 
3  78 
3  78 

6  60 

2  64 

3  78 
6  06 

$4  50 

2  60 

3  40 

2  60 

3  65 

1  72 

4  00 
4  20 

2  80 

4  50 

2  50 

5  50 
5  18 

4  75 

3  50 

3  35 

4  20 

3  40 

4  20 
4  50 
4  00 
4  00 

"s'ho 

4  20 

3  00 

4  00 

2  40 
4  60 
4  05 
4  00 
4  60 

4  60 

'4'66' 

3  48 

5  20 
3  20 
5  60 
3  10 

$4  80 

3  60 

4  80 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 

Ho" 

2  80 

4  80 

5  60 

4  80 
4  80 

3  60 

4  00 
3  20 

6  00 

3  60 

4  00 
4  80 
4  40 
4  00 
4  80 

'e'oo' 

4  40 

2  50 
4  40 

3  60 
8  00 

4  00 

3  60 

4  00 
4  40 

'slo" 

4  80 
4  80 

$6  95 
3  47 

5  79 
3  47 

6  95 

3  47 
6  94 
6  94 

4  34 

6  95 

3  47 

7  50 
7  50 

4  84 
6  00 

5  00 

6  18 
6  00 

6  00 

5  00 

7  50 
7  90 

4  85 

6  00 

6  95 

5  79 
5  79 

7  53 

5  40 

4  82 

6  00 

8  75 
8  50 

5  79 
5  21 
5  79 

8  80 
5  00 

9  00 
9  80 
4  84 

<6  10> 
in   58S 
11  00 

$7  00 

4  30 

5  36 
4  29 

6  97 

3  86 

"sbo 

4  50 

6  90 

4  29 

7  00 

5  90 

4  25 
4  82 
4  82 

4  82 

5  90 

3  75 

4  37 
4  82 
4  58 

4  25 

5  09 
4  82 

6  10 
4  50 

3  22 

4  80 
4  29 

4  29 

8  00 

5  36 

4  00 

5  00 

4  82 

5  36 

4  29 

5  50 
5  87 
4  82 

4  22 

5  36 

$4  20 
1  70 

3  60 
1  70 
5  04 
1  70 

4  20 
4  20 
1  70 

3  60 

1  70 

4  00 

3  40 

4  00 
3  60 
3  40 
3  80 

5  00 
8  00 

"i'ho 

3  40 
3  75 
3  00 

2  60 

3  80 

4  20 

1  50 

2  50 

3  60 

3  20 

6  60 

4  60 

4  00 

5  20 
5  20 
3  80 

3  60 

'3"26' 
5  20 

4  60 

$4  32 
2  45 
6  72 
2  88 
6  72 

2  60 
4  80 

3  75 
2  60 

4  32 

2  30 

4  80 

5  28 

3  84 
3  84 

2  75 

3  84 

3  36 
5  76 

4  32 

4  80 

5  76 

3  60 

6  00 

4  32 

4  32 

5  76 

3  60 

3  60 
2  40 

4  32 
4  32 
4  32 
4  80 

7  20 
4  80 

4  80 
2  83 

5  76 
4  80 

4  80 

5  76 
5  76 

$24  00 

10  50 

24  00 

10  50 

Plasterers 

27  00 
15  00 

Slaters  

21  00 

16  50 

10  50 

Plumbers 

22  50 
5  70 

16  50 

18  00 

OTHER  TRADES. 

12  00 

15  00 

10  50 

16  50 

17  40 

15  00 

16  50 

15  00 

15  00 

12  00 

18  00 

12  00 

Cutfers      

50  00 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters. 

6  50 
5  00 

7  50 

7  50 

8  50 
8  50 
5  20 
5  40 

7  10 

8  00 
4  87 
8  50 
8  70 

12  00 

"13  hh 

16  50 

24  00 

15  00 

12  50 

18  00 

13  50 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

10  50 
24  00 

Potters  

4  40 
7  30 

15  00 
7  60 
7  80 

7  30 

8  00 
7  00 

7  50 

8  00 
7  00 

4  25 

5  80 

7  45 

3  20 
5  80 

6  00 

18  00 

Teachers : 



6  00 
4  50 

3  80 

7  40 

4  50 
4  40 
7  50 
4  20 
3  30 

6  40 

'4' so' 
'i'oo' 

5  00 
5  60 
4  00 
3  60 

10  00 

7  25 
6  95 

5  79 

6  94 
6  00 

8  00 
6  00 
3  50 

10  00 
4  82 

4  82 

5  00 
5  09 

5  50 

6  50 
6  70 
3  00 

5  00 

'2' 80' 
2  00 
2  20 

4  00 

5  20 

6  60 
5  20 

9  60 
4  50 
2  59 

2  88 

4  80 

3  84 

5  25 

4  32 
4  00 

Saddle  and  harness  makers . . 

5  00 
5  80 
5  00 

5  50 
4  50 

6  50 
3  47 

3  75 

2  85 
5  70 

3  57 

3  95 
5  75 

4  25 
2  50 

4  32 



4  92 
6  36 

'h'hh' 

2  64 

i2  66 

15  00 

18  00 

16  00 

Tail  ors 

15  00 

Telegraph  operators 

20  00 
12  72 

'  With  board. 


I  With  house. 


From  the  foregoing  statement  it  appears  that  bricklayers  and  masons 
in  Chicago  are  paid  very  nearly  three  times  the  wages ;  plasterers,  nearly 


180  LABOR   IN    EUROPE. 

four  times;  slaters,  three  times;  plumbers,  nearly  three  times;  car- 
penters, twice;  blacksmiths,  twice;  bookbinders,  more  than  twice; 
brickmakers,  nearly  three  times;  brass-founders  and  cabinetmakers, 
nearly  twice;  confectioners,  twice;  cigarmakers,  nearly  three  times; 
coopers,  once  and  a  half  as  much ;  draymen,  teamsters,  and  street-rail- 
way drivers,  nearly  twice;  dyers,  njore  than  twice;  engravers,  nearly 
three  times;  furriers,  twice;  horseshoers,  three  and  one-half  times; 
jewelers,  more  than  one  and  one-half  times ;  laborers,  porters,  &c.,  more 
than  twice;  lithographers,  three  times;  telegraph  operators,  twice  and 
one-half;  sailmakers,  more  than  twice;  printers,  twice  and  one-half 
times;  saddlers  and  harness-makers,  more  than  one  and  one-half  times; 
stevedores,  more  than  twice  and  one-fourth  times;  tailors,  twice;  and 
tinsmiths,  once  and  three-fourths  the  wages  paid  to  similar  trades  and 
callings  in  London. 

WAGES  IN  1878  AND  1884. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  rates  of  wages  paid  to  the  gen- 
eral trades  in  countries  of  Europe  in  1878,  when  the  last  general  reports 
from  our  consuls  in  Europe  were  compiled,  as  compared  with  the  wages 
paid  in  1884,  givon  in  the  i^resent  reports.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
the  meagerness  of  the  statistics  of  1878  does  not  permit  of  as  full  com- 
parisons as  could  be  desired.  They  are  sufficient,  however,  to  mark  the 
general  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  eight  years.  Comparisons 
between  the  Chicago  rates  for  both  years  are  also  given. 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


181 


oo  o  o  o  oo 

O  O  O  O  lO  lO  o 


(M  ffq  ffq  rH  M  iH  iH 


o  o  o  o  o  o  o 
O  O  lO  tC  o  o  o 

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182  LABOR -IN    EUROPE. 

The  advance  iu  wages  at  Chicago  froui  1S7S  to  1884  presents  a  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  fixedness  of  wages  in  Europe.  A  slight  advance 
in  rates,  but  still  an  important  one  when  the  relation  of  the  cost  of 
living  to  the  rate  of  wages  is  considered,  is  generally  noticeable  in 
every  country  specified  save  in  England,  where  a  general  decrease  has 
taken  place. 

Passing  from  the  general  trades  to  those  industries  more  directly  sub- 
ject to  the  influence  of  European  competition,  we  find  that  the  difference 
between  European  and  American  wages  becomes  less  in  proportion  to 
the  force  of  such  competition. 

II. — Factories  and  mills. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  ability  of  foreign  manufactures  to  influence 
in  a  large  degree  the  wages  of  American  mill  and  factory  operatives  the 
following  short  statement  of  the  imports  of  foreign  textile  fabrics  into 
the  United  States  during  the  past  year  is  presented: 

COTTON  GOODS  OF  ALL  KINDS. 

.  From  the  United  Kingdom $18,696,000 

From  Germany 8,711,000 

From  France -       8,788,000 

From  all  other  countries 659,  000 

Total  imports  of  cotton  goods - 36, 854, 000 

LINEN  MANUFACTURES. 

From  the  United  Kingdom $16,241,000 

From  Germany 1,288,000 

From  France 1,197,000 

From  Belgium 375,000 

From  all  other  countries 637, 000 

Total  imports  of  linen  goods 19, 738,  000 

JUTE   MANUFACTURES. 

From  the  United  Kingdom $3, 920,  000 

From  all  other  countries 2,691,000 

Total  imports  of  jute  goods 6,611,000 

SILK  GOODS. 

From  France $21,055,000 

From  England 5,745,000 

FromGermany 4,227,000 

From  Belgiimi 3,833,000 

From  all  other  countries 1, 904, 000 

Total  imports  of  silk  goods 36, 764, 000 

WOOLEN  GOODS. 

From  the  United  Kingdom $19,415,000 

From  France 15,572,000 

From  Germany 6,279,000 

From  Belgium 1,634,000 

From  all  other  countries 935, 000 

Total  imports  of  woolen  goods 43, 835, 000 

RECAPITULATION. 

Total  imports  of  cotton  goods $36,854,000 

Total  imports  of  linen  goods 19,738,000 

Total  imports  of  .jute  goods 6,611,000 

Total  imports  of  "silk  goods 36,764,000 

Total  imports  of  wool  goods 43, 835,  000 

Grand  total 143,802,000 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


183 


The  following  statement  shows  an  increase  in  the  importation  of  Eu- 
ropean manufactures : 

TEXTILE  IMPORTS  IN  1878  AND  IN  1883. 


Manufactures. 

1878. 

1883. 

Increase. 

Cotton 

$19,  933,  000 

14,  693,  000 

1,  777,  000 

24,  012,  000 

24,  329,  000 

$36,  854,  000 

19,  738,  000 

6,011,000 

36,  704,  000 

43,  835,  000 

$16,  921,  000 

5,  045,  000 

4,  834,  000 

Silk 

12, 752,  000 

"Wool 

19,  506,  000 

Totals                                    -> 

84, 744,  000 

143,  802,  000 

59,  058,  000 

This  increase  may  be  principally  ascribed  to  two  causes — an  increase 
in  the  general  prosperity  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  with  con- 
sequent augmentation  of  their  ability  to  purchase,  and  a  reduction  in 
the  prices  of  the  imported  products. 

The  textile  manufacturers  of  Europe,  in  their  active  competition  with 
each  other  for  leading  positions  in  tlie  valuable  markets  of  the  United 
States,  have  brought  about  an  increased  production  and  an  annual  de- 
crease in  the  price  value  of  their  fabrics,  and  consequently  the  increase 
in  the  quantities  imported  is  relatively  much  larger  than  in  the  values. 
This  decrease  in  price  and  increase  in  quantity  have  their  influence  in 
regulating  the  wages  in  our  mills,  which  must  manufacture  fabrics  and 
place  them  on  the  domestic  market  as  cheaply  as  the  foreign  manufact- 
urers. 

III. — Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron-works. 

Either  from  the  different  labor  systems  which  prevail  in  these  indus- 
tries or  from  the  different  technical  terms  made  use  of  in  describing  the 
several  branches  of  employment,  it  is  impracticable  to  prepare  a  detailed 
comparative  table  of  the  exact  conditions  which  prevail  in  the  iron- 
works in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  The  following  statement, 
which  gives  the  wages  as  taken  from  the  Birmingham,  Hull,  Holyhead, 
and  Newcastle  lists  (the  highest  in  Europe)  and  the  average  wages  paid 
in  rolling-mills  in  Chicago,  is  approximate. 

Weekly  wages  in  English  iron-ivorks  and  Chicago  rolUng-mills. 

BIRMINGHAM.  NEWCASTLE  FORGES — COntinned. 


Molders $11  50 

Holdersup 8  00 

Boiler-makers 10  50 

Riveters 9  60 

Planers  and  Blotters 9  60 

Drillers 7  00 

Dressers 7  75 

Pattern-makers 11  50 

Turners 10  50 

Strikers 6  25 

HOLYHEAD. 

Holders 8  47 

Pattern-makers 8  25 

Fettlers 8  36 

Laborers. 4  97 

Engineers 8  70 

NEWCASTLE  F0KGE6. 

Puddlers 10  14 

Underhand  pnddlers 5  52 

Hammerers 19  26 

Assistant  hammerers 8  10 


Rollers $17  74 

Assistant  rollers 5  88 

Coal- wheelers 5  42 

Chargers 5  8S 

Laborers 4  32 

Boilermen 5  64 

CHICAGO  ROLLING-MILLS. 

Heaters 36  00 

Rollers 48  00 

Hookers 18  00 

Roughers 30  00 

Catchers 24  00 

Laborers 7  5» 

Chargers 10  50 

Coal-wheelers 9  00 

Steel  blje;5vers 42  00 

Steel-blo"wers'  helpers  18  00 

Pitmen 9  00 

Iron-molders 21  00 

Machinists 16  50 

Blacksmiths 15  00 

Engineers 16  50 

Painters 15  60 


IV.— Glass-works.    V. — Mines  and  mining. 

The  Department's  circular  called  upon  the  consuls  to  furnish  special 
statistics  of  the  glass  and  pottery  and  mining  industries  of  Europe,  and 


184 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


the  results  have  been  shown  in  the  preceding  summary  by  countries. 
No  corresponding  statistics  being  available  as  to  these  industries  in  the 
United  States,  a  comparison  between  the  home  rates  and  those  of 
Europe  is  found  impracticable. 

VI. — Eailway  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  (those  employed  about  stations  as  tvell  as  those 
on  the  locomotives  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^-c.)  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States. 


{    London 
Description  of  employment.  and 

Liverpool. 


France. 


Ger- 
many. 


Ans- 
tria. 


Bel- 
gium. 


Den- 
mark. 


Hoi-    I    Chi- 
land.       cago. 


Locomotive  engineers 

Firemen 

Clerks 

Switchmen 

Trackmen 

Laborers 


$8  60 

5  25 

6  no 
5  75 
4  45 
4  45 


$6  60 
4  80 
4  20 
4  20 
3  75 
3  90 


$7  70 

5  36 

6  00 
4  81 

3  46 

4  81 


$6  15 


$7  80 
4  20 


5  8b 
3  00 
3  00 


4  20 
4  00 
4  20 


$9  00 
6  00 
6  75 
6  75 
4  60 
4  60 


$7  44 
4  56 
6  00 
3  60 

2  58 

3  12 


$27  00 
15  00 
12  00 
15  00 

8  70 

9  09 


It  appears  from  this  statement  that  the  Chicago  railway  engineers 
(called  engine-drivers  in  Europe)  get  three  times  the  highest  wages 
in  Denmark,  the  highest  paid  in  this  class  in  Europe,  and  nearly  five 
times  the  wages  paid  in  Austria,  the  lowest  on  the  list.  Firemen  are 
paid  on  the  Chicago  railroads  from  twice  and  one-half  to  nearly  four 
times  the  wages  paid  in  Europe ;  clerks,  twice  to  three  times  ;  trackmen 
and  laborers,  about  twice  ;  and  switchmen  from  twice  and  one-half  to 
four  times. 

VII. — Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 

For  lack  of  statistics  concerning  the  rates  of  wages  in  American 
ship-yards — the  returns  from  New  York  and  Chicago  only  specifying 
ship-carpenters,  who  appear  as  receiving  $12  in  the  first  city  and  $15 
in  the  latter  city  per  week,  and  calkers,  who  receive  $11  and  $15  in  the 
respective  cities — no  detailed  comparisons  can  be  made  between  the 
wages  i)aid  in  ship-yards  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  One  of 
the  leading  iron-ship  builders  on  the  Delaware  having,  however,  kindly 
furnished  a  detailed  list  of  the  wages  paid  in  his  yard,  a  special  com- 
parison with  European  wages  in  the  same  industry  is  herewith  pre- 
sented. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  ship-yards  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 


Description  of  employment. 

On  the 
Tyne. 

On  the 
Clyde. 

On  the 
Delaware. 

$28  09 

12  24 

10  98 

$7  42 

$7  42 

16  5« 

12  oe 

8  15 

6  80 
8  03 

7  78 
5  50 

8  51 

14  09 

7  66 
7  11 
7  00 
4  65 
7  66 

13  5» 

12  72 

13  5» 

Helpers 

9  09 

Carpenters 

14  22 

12  24 



12  09 

8  03 
6  32 

12  00 

3  19 

16  02 

7  02 

5  23 
8  51 

3  89 

7  22 

Pattern-makers 

14  64 

4  50 

Plumbers 

8  75 
6  85 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


185 


The  shipbuilding  wages  in  the  other  countries  of  Europe  are  here- 
with exhibited : 

Wages  paid  pa-  week  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  hetween  iron  and  wood  ship-huilding — in 

Europe. 


Description  of  employment. 


Germany. 
(Bremen.) 


Belgium. 

(Ant- 
werp.)* 


France. 
(Mar- 
seilles.) 


Holland. 

(Am- 
sterdam.) 


Denmark. 
(Copen- 
hagen.) 


United 
States. 


lEON-SHIP  BUILDING. 


Shipwrights 

Joiners 

Foremen 

Iron-flnishers  . . . 

Turners 

Planers 

Kiveters 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Brass-flnishers.. 

Tinsmiths 

Calkers 

Painters 

Pattern-makers . 

Laborers 

Kiggers 

Tool-makers 


$5  40 

4  28 
6  90 

5  95 

6  66 
6  66 
6  66 
6  66 

4  28 

5  40 
4  28 

2  85 

3  85 


$5  21 
5  14 


$6  40 
6  00 


5  21 
5  21 
5  21 
4  63 
4  28 

4  28 

5  21 


7  20 
7  20 
7  20 
7  20 
5  00 


7  20 


WOODEN  SHIPS. 


Shipwrights 

Foremen 

Carpenters 

Calkers 

Painters 

Joiners 

Mast  and  spar  makers  . 

Plumbers 

Bla-ckpmiths 

Riggers , 

Sawyers 

Machine-men 

Laborers 


2  92 
4  21 

3  35 


5  40 
13  80 
4  28 


3  57 

4  28 
6  90 

3  57 

4  28 

5  40 
5  40 
5  40 
3  57 


4  92 
3  70 

5  U 

3  30 

4  63 


7  60 
'7'60 


6  65 

"e'oo 


6  95 
10  22 
6  95 
6  95 
4  80 
6  95 


6  95 


5  28 

6  00 
5  28 


5  28 

'5  66 


4  08 


$4  02 
4  02 


4  02 
4  02 
4  02 
4  02 
4  02 


4  02 
4  02 
4  02 


4  02 
3  36 


6  18 

'e'is' 


6  18 


$14  22 
12  72 

28  oe 

14  00 
14  06 
14  Of 

12  00 

13  50 
9  00 

12  24 
12  24 


13  50 

14  64 
7  22 


15  00 
'i5'66 


*  No  specifications  given  as  to  steel  or  iron. 


IX.— Shop  wages. 


Owing  to  the  great  differences  between  store  and  shop  keeping  in 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  it  is  almost  impossible,  with  the  returns 
at  hand,  to  give  full  and  satisfactory  comparative  statistics.  The  fol- 
lowing table  may,  however,  be  of  interest : 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  stores  and  shops  in  Europe  and  in  the  Uiiited  States. 


Description  of  employment. 


Leeds. 


Germany. 


Brussels. 


Bheims. 


Vienna. 


Chicago. 


Dry -goods  clerks  (males)  .. 
Dry-goods  clerks  (females) 

Dressmakers 

Cash-boys - 

General  salesmen  (retail)  . . 
Bookkeepera  (males) 


$7  00 


2  50 
1  20 
5  50 
7  00 


$5  80 
3  85 
2  00 


$5  00 
2  60 


$6  65 
2  96 


*3  50 
6  50 


1  35 

*2  50 
9  00 


*2  23 


$8  00 
"2'56' 


*2  50 
8  00 


$15  09 

7  5» 

8  0» 
7  25 

15  0* 
24  00 


'  ffemales.    In  Europe  retail  shops  are  usually  attended  by  females. 


186 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 

X. — Household  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  ynonth  to  household  nervonis  {towns  and  cities)  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 

States. 


Description  of  employment. 


Servant  girls . . 
Women  cooks . 


$6  60 
9  00 


$1  98 
4  96 


$5  79 
11  50 


$6  75 
5  79 


$6  30 
3  80 


$7  00 
6  00 


p,tc 


$3  00 
5  36 


$14  00 
20  00 


XV. — Printers  and  printing  offices. 


Statement  of  the  wages  paid  per  week  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen,  proof-readers,  ^e.) 
in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 


Description  of  employment. 

o 

§ 

d 

o 

a 
£ 

s 

'S 

1 

a 
-2 

<D 

a 

.1 
> 

6 
1 

O  C 

-2-s  » 

.SaO 

$9  73 

$5  00 

$8  90 

$7  00 

$7  20 

$21  00 

$23  44 

24  00 

21  60 

9  50 
9  50 

8  24 

5  66 

6  00 
5  00 

2  00 

5  80 

$8  40 

$7  24 

4  80 

7  60 

18  00 

19  20 

21  12 

5  80 

"h'ho 

7  52 

2  03 
7  24 

7  24 

3  86 
5  50 

6  40 
2  40 

4  80 

1  60 
4  20 

21  00 

19  20 

Feeders  on  printing  presses  (fe- 

9  00 

8  76 
3  30 

19  20 

Pa;-"©rs  in  bindery  (females) 

12  00 

4  63 

2  89 

2  70 

11  94 

Feeders  on  mling  machines  (fe- 

2  80 

8  00 

13  50 

3  81 
3  81 
6  00 

9  00 

3  20 

12  00 

4  34 

19  20 

7  53 

6  36 

5  79 

21  00 
24  00 
21  00 
18  00 

It  will  be  seen  that  while  the  wages  of  compositors,  proof-readers  aiid 
stereotypers  are  alike  in  London,  the  readers  and  stereotypers  in  the 
United  States  are  paid  much  more  than  the  compositors.  A  compara- 
tive equality  is  observable  in  the  wages  of  this  industry  throughout 
Europe,  and  it  may  be  said  that  in  most  countries  they  rule  higher 
than  in  the  other  trades.  The  following  statement  of  a  very  intelligent 
and  representative  printer,  as  given  by  Consul  Potter,  is  of  interest. 


J F.  G ,  a  printer  in  Crefeld,  is  44  years  of  age ;  has  a 

wife  and  six  children ;  foreman  in  a  newspaper  composition  room ; 
has  been  29  years  in  the  printing  business  ;  wages  of  compositors 
in  Crefeld,  from  $3.57  to  $5.71  per  week ;  in  nearly  all  of  the  places 
in  Prussia  printers  are  paid  by  the  i)iece ;  the  regular  rate  for  piece- 
work is  17  cents  per  1,000  e^.v,  and  double  that  rate  for  rule  and 
figure  work ;  1,000  German  ens  are  equivalent  to  500  English  ems. 
Compositors  can,  on  an  average,  set  up  from  12,000  to  15,000  ens 
IJer  day  of  9^  hours  work.    Proof-readers  receive  per  week  from 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  187 

$6.42  to  $7.14.  Pressmen,  on  haud-machines,  earn  from  $3.57  to 
$4.28,  and  pressmen  who  have  charge  of  steam  presses,  $7.14  per 
week.  Foremen  of  composition  rooms  are  usually  paid  $8.56  per 
week.    A  printer's  days  work  throughout  Prussia  is  9|  hours. 

Compositors  and  pressmen  with  families  find  it  very  difficult  to 
live  upon  their  wages,  unless  their  wives  can  earn  something  by 
working  in  some  other  business,  such  as  winding  and  warping  iu 
silk  manufactories.  This  is  possible  in  Crefeld,  but  in  other  towns 
it  is  difficult  for  them  to  find  employment,  and,  as  a  result,  printers 
with  families  have  a  very  hard  tussle  for  existence.  Never  knew 
a  German  printer  who  had  a  family  who  was  able  to  save  a  penny. 
Unmarried  printers,  of  course,  get  on  very  well.  Compositors  in 
Germany  are  not  of  a  roving  character,  but  generally  remain  in 
one  position  during  their  lives.  Compositors  are  the  most  intelli- 
gent of  Germany's  workmen.  Compositors'  apprentices  receive  72 
cents  per  week  for  the  first  year;  second  year,  96  cents;  third  year, 
$1.20 ;  and  fourth  year,  $1.43  cents  per  week,  and  find  themselves. 
Pressmen's  apprentices  receive  24  cents  per  week  more  than  com- 
positors' apprentices. 

PRICES   OF    THE  NECESSARIES  OF    LIFE. 

The  next  obvious  basis  for  a  comparison  is  the  purchasing  power  of 
the  wages  earned  in  the  several  countries. 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  the  cheapness  of  living  in  Europe  more 
than  equalizes  the  lower  wages  there  j)aid. 

In  the  volume  on  labor  in  Europe,  published  by  this  Department  in 
1878,  it  was  shown  that  the  prices  of  food  in  the  United  States  were 
actually  lower  than  in  Europe,  and  that  the  working  classes  in  the 
United  States  could  purchase  more  and  better  aliment  dollar  for  dol- 
lar, than  the  working  classes  of  any  country  in  Europe.  The  contrary 
impression  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  working  people  of  Europe 
live  more  cheaply  than  the  working  jjeople  of  the  United  States,  from 
which  it  is  inferred  that  the  purchasing  power  of  their  wages  is  greater 
than  the  purchasing  power  of  similar  wages  here.  It  appears  from 
the  reports  hereto  annexed  that  the  American  workingman  consumes 
more  and  better  food  than  the  mechanic  or  laborer  abroad,  and  that  the 
cost  of  this  food  is  as  small  in  the  United  States  as  in  Europe. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  retail  prices  of  the  principal  arti- 
cles of  food  consumed  by  the  laboring  classes  in  seven  European  coun- 
tries, and  of  the  same  articles  in  New  York,  Chester,  Pa.,  Newark,  N.  J., 
and  Chicago.  The  European  statistics  are  compiled  from  the  consular 
reports,  and  those  for  the  United  States  have  been  kindly  supi)lied  by 
the  same  person  who  furnished  the  rates  of  wages  in  the  cities  named : 


188 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE. 


189 


It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  in  making  a  comparison,  tliat  the  better 
classes  of  food,  the  beef,  mutton,  veal,  butter  and  rice,  are  not  only  for 
the  most  part  cheaper  in  the  great  cities  of  the  United  States  than  in 
Europe,  but  they  are  here  daily  necessaries  for  the  table  of  the  better 
grade  of  skilled  workmen,  rarely  absent  from  some  one  meal  of  the  day, 
and  often  present  at  the  morning  and  evening  meal;  while  the  concur- 
rent testimony  is  that,  even  to  the  best-paid  working  classes  of  Europe 
they  are,  in  the  main,  luxuries  which  are  seldom  enjoyed;  so  that,  as 
far  as  meats  of  all  kinds  arecoucerned,  especially  fresh  meats  and  ham, 
they  can  be  passed  over  as  of  little  comparative  value.  The  lower 
classes  of  Europe  usually  eat  dark  or  black  bread,  so  that  even  wheat 
flour  and  wheat  bread  may  be  set  aside  with  the  meats  as  furnishing  no 
sufQcient  basis  for  comparison. 

Besides  this,  several  articles  which  are  staples  of  food  in  Continental 
Europe,  the  garhanzos  or  chick-peas  of  Spain,  the  poleata,  or  coarse  corn- 
meal  with  bran,  of  Italy,  the  blood  puddings  of  Germany,  and  the  like, 
are  not  found  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States ;  so  that,  outside  of 
England,  where  the  food  supplies  approximate  in  kind  and  degree  to 
those  of  this  country,  there  is  but  little  left  in  common  whereby  to  make 
comijarisons  between  the  food-purchasing  power  of  wages  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States. 

The  working  classes  of  Europe  live  mainly  on  black  or  rye  bread, 
potatoes,  cheap  coffee  and  tea,  vegetable  souj)s;  and  lard  and  olive-oil 
of  a  low  grade  take  the  j^lace  of  butter. 

As  to  quality,  the  contrast  which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  case  of 
bread  and  breadstuff's  extends  to  many  other  items  of  the  list.  The 
coffee  of  the  poorer  classes,  for  instance,  is  not  only  of  a  lower  class, 
but  is  largely  adulterated  with  chicory  and  fortified  by  a  so-called  "cof- 
fee-essence." Consul  Smith  of  Mayence  reports  an  instance  of  a  laborer 
at  Mayence,  earning  50  cents  a  day  on  which  to  maintain  himself,  a  wife 
and  five  children,  who  buys  among  other  things  "a  package  of  'surro- 
gate coffee,'  which  lasts  about  two  weeks,"  and  which  costs  2^  cents. 

The  standard  noonday  meal  of  the  workingmen  of  Mayence  is  thus 
given  by  Consul  Smith :  Potatoes  and  a  little  meat  with  peas  or  beans 
cooked  together  in  the  form  of  a  thick  soup,  to  which  a  little  green  cab- 
bage or  lettuce  is  sometimes  added.  This  dish  they  eat  day  after  day 
with  very  little  change  in  the  character  of  its  contents  or  in  the  manner 
of  its  preparation.  This  is  the  dinner  eaten  at  his  work ;  the  food  of  the 
wives  and  children  at  home  is  said  to  be  cheaper  and  less  nutritious. 

The  following  statement  of  food  products  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  year  1883  will  show  how  much 
the  people  there  depend  upon  this  country  for  the  necessaries  of  life: 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Live  animals : 

Homed  cattle 

number.. 

.In   ^ 

76,  000 
83,  000 

$7,  602,  000 
678,  000 

10,000 

. 

8,  290,  000 

65,  267,  000 

5,  717,  000 

30,011,000 

453,  000 

137,  000 

60,  000 

Bieadstuffs : 

Wheat                    

73,  OSO,  000 

Wheat  flour 

Indian  com 

Bread  and  biscuits 

barrels.. 

bushels.. 

pounds . . 

35,231,000 

20,  512,  000 

39,  000 

114,000 

Rye 

do.... 

4li,  000 

670,  000 

Total  breadstuffs 

129,  022,  000 

190 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE. 


Articles. 


Provisione : 

Bacon pounds.. 

Hams - do 

Fresli  beef do 

Beef  (salted  or  cured) - do 

Butter do 

Cheese do 

Condensed  milk  

Fish  of  all  kinds 

Lard  pounds . . 

Canned  meats : 

Fresh  mutton pounds . . 

Oysters 

Pork pounds.. 

All  other  provisions 


Total  provisions , 

Grand  total  of  food  supplies  . 


Quantity. 


242,  464,  000 
37,  645,  000 
89,  071,  000 
28, 127,  000 
4, 817,  000 
91,  582,  000 


67, 170, 000 
"2,' 193, '666 

'  is,' 082,' 666  i    1 


Value. 


845,  000 
671,  000 
101,  000 
605,000 
905,  000 
210,  000 

48,  000 
002,  000 
941,  000 
677, 000 
182,  000 
371,  000 
533,000 

70,  000 


71,  221,  000 


208,  533,  000 


As  illustrating  tbe  dietary  of  the  British  working  classes,  two  ex- 
tremes may  be  taken,  viz,  an  artisan  in  Birmingham,  who  earns  from 
$7.20  to  $8.40  per  week  at  his  trade,  and  whose  wife  and  children  also 
work,  the  total  income  of  the  family  amounting  to  about  $583  per  annum, 
as  representing  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  labor  in  England,  and 
a  female  tackmaker  of  St.  Quintain,  who  may  be  taken  as  a  represent- 
ative of  the  minimum  conditions  of  the  English  working  classes. 

The  bill  of  fare  of  the  first  family  is  given  as  follows:  Breakfast — 
bread,  butter,  and  tea,  or  bread  and  bacon ;  dinner — fish  or  meat,  vege- 
tables, and  beer ;  tea — bread  and  butter ;  supper — bread  and  cheese  and 
beer. 

In  the  second  instance,  at  St.  Quintain,  the  female  tackmaker  earns 
$1.16  per  week  of  four  days,  this  being  counted  full  time  at  present  in 
this  trade.  Her  husband  is  a  gardener,  earning  $4  per  week;  her 
brother  and  her  brother's  wife  both  work  at  nailmakiug,  and  earn  about 
$3.35  per  week,  or  $172  jjer  annum;  after  paying  rent  and  fuel  for  the 
forge,  they  have  $2.43  left  for  food  and  fuel ;  their  food  consists  of  bread 
and  butter,  with  a  bit  of  bacon  at  times,  and  they  hardly  ever  eat  fresh 
meat. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  manipulation  of  the  food  supplies, 
after  they  reach  England,  is  conducted  on  the  most  economic  plan,  under 
the  beneficent  control  of  the  great  co-operative  societies.  Everything  is 
done  that  can  be  done  to  bring  the  producer  and  consumer  as  directly 
and  closely  together  as  possible,  and  the  competition  for  custom  which 
l>revails  keeps  the  handling-cost  at  the  lowest  possible  minimum,  so 
that  the  prices  of  the  co-opczative  stores  of  England  approximate  to 
wholesale  prices  elsewhere. 

Thus,  for  instance,  bread  made  out  of  American  flour  can  be  bought 
cheaper  in  London  than  in  Chicago.  In  London  bread  is  quoted  at 
from  2J  cents  to  4  cents  per  pound,  while  in  Chicago  it  is  quoted  at 
from  5  cents  to  7  cents  per  pound.  In  explanation  of  this  apparent 
anomaly  several  circumstances  are  to  be  considered.  In  the  first  place, 
the  average  British  bread  is  not  white  and  light  like  American  bread; 
it  is  more  solid  and  darker  in  color,  and  while  probably  more  nutritious, 
it  is  less  palatable  and  of  intrinsically  cheaper  quality.  The  finer  prod- 
ucts, the  so-called  Frencli  and  Vienna  breads,  are  more  costly  in  Lon- 
don. Again,  owing  to  the  want  of  the  home  facilities  which  enable 
American  housekeepers  to  do  their  own  baking,  all  classes  go  to  the 
baker  for  their  bread.     The  question  of  higher-paid  labor  here  should 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE.  191 

also  be  remembered.  It  will  be  noted,  also,  that  London  bread  is  ap- 
parently sold  at  less  prices  than  the  flour  out  of  which  it  is  made, 
lor  while  the  flour  costs  from  3^  cents  to  5  cents  per  pound,  bread  is 
quoted  at  from  2^  cents  to  4  cents  per  pound,  which  would  seem  to  imply- 
that  the  increase  in  weight  from  flour  to  bread  makes  the  larger  share 
of  the  profits. 

PRICE   OF   CLOTHINa  IN  EUROPE. 

In  general,  clothing  can  be  purchased  cheaper  in  Europe  than  in  the 
United  States,  especially  clothing  of  the  higher  grades. 

As  to  relative  quantity  and  quality  of  clothing,  the  bases  for  an  iden- 
tical comparison  do  not  exist.  The  same  influence  which  prompts  the 
higher-paid  workingman  in  the  United  States  to  purchase  better  and 
more  varied  food  than  his  European  comrade,  extends  also  to  his  cloth- 
ing, for  he  buys  more  and  better  garments. 

Consul  Schoenle,  of  Barmen,  gives  a  schedule  of  the  outlay  of  a  Bar- 
men workingmau's  family  of  seven  persons,  the  parents  and  five  chil- 
dren, the  cost  of  clothing  for  the  family  being  set  down  at  $17  per  an- 
num, exclusive  of  shoes;  and  this  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  of 
the  clothing  expenses  of  workingmen's  families  throughout  Germany. 

In  a  statement  showing  the  weekly  expenditures  of  two  working- 
men's  families  in  Tunstall,  Consul  Lane  gives  the  estimate  for  cloth- 
ing, including  shoes,  of  the  first  as  37  cents  out  of  a  total  expenditure 
of  $4.62,  and  as  48  cents  for  the  second  in  a  total  expenditure  of  $6. 
This  would  give  an  annual  expenditure  for  clothing  for  the  first  family — 
husband,  wife,  and  four  children — of  $19.24,  and  for  the  second  family — 
husband,  wife,  and  three  children — of  $24.96,  or  about  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  expenses  for  the  Mayence  laborer's  family. 

Consul  Shaw,  of  Manchester,  in  his  report  draws  particular  attention 
to  this  question  of  the  cost  of  workingmen's  clothing  in  England  and 
in  the  United  States.     He  says  : 

I  believe  that  clothing  similar  to  that  which  English  operatives 
wear  can  be  purchased  in  the  United  States  at  about  the  same 
prices.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  misleading  sentiment  about  this 
fact,  for  the  reason  that  the  cost  of  clothing  worn  by  American 
work  people  is  known  to  be  more  than  that  paid  by  operatives  here, 
but  sufficient  importance  is  not  given  to  the  superior  quality  and 
make-up  of  the  former.  Give  the  same  styles,  make,  and  quality, 
and  we  can  equal  the  English  in  cheapness,  if  not  undersell  them. 
Surprising  as  this  will  appear,  a  visit  to  a  great  ready-made  cloth- 
ing house  in  New  York  will  abundantly  verify  the  statement  her© 
made. 

HOUSE  RENTS  IN  EUROPE  AND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

House  rent  in  Europe  is  apparently  lower  than  here,  but  the  habi- 
tations are  usually  inferior  to  those  in  the  United  States. 

In  Dundee,  one  of  the  most  thriving  industrial  centers  in  Europe, 
23,670  persons  live  in  8,620  houses  of  one  room  each;  74,374  persons 
live  in  16,187  houses  of  two  rooms  each. 

Of  workingmen's  homes  in  Manchester  Consul  Shaw  writes : 

Great  numbers  of  houses  visited  by  me  contained  only  one  liv- 
ing-room, and  this  served  as  parlor,  kitchen,  dining-room,  sitting- 
room,  and,  in  some  instances,  also  as  a  bed-room. 


192  LABOR   IN    EUROPE. 

The  representative  workman  of  Glasgow,  writes  Consul  Harte,  lives 
in  a  house  of  two  rooms,  known  in  Glasgow  and  all  over  Scotland  as 
"  room  and  kitchen."  These  houses  are  built  together  in  certain  locali- 
ties, near  public  works  or  factories,  and  go  by  the  name  of  tenements. 
One  tenement,  built  to  a  height  of  four  stories,  generally  contains  as 
many  as  sixteen  "  dwellings,"  as  these  combined  apartments  are  called. 
The  lower  order  of  workmen  live  in  houses  of  one  room,  built  in  tene- 
ments similar  to  the  foregoing. 

The  question  of  artisans'  dwellings  in  Great  Britain  has  of  late  years 
attracted  a  very  large  share  of  public  and  legislative  attention,  and  in 
no  country  in  the  world  has  the  general  movement  in  the  direction  of 
their  aineiioration  been  more  earnest  and  more  successful. 

On  the  continent,  where  the  conditions  of  life  are  not  only  widely 
different  from  those  of  Engiaud,  but  exhibit  wide  contrasts  in  the 
several  countries  and  even  in  the  several  local  districts  of  the  same 
country,  ojiportunities  for  identical  comjjarison  with  analogous  condi- 
tions in  the  United  States  are  rarer,  and  tables  of  relative  rentals  do 
not  afford  trustworthy  means  of  estimating  general  results.  There, 
as  here,  the  question  is  one  of  locality,  and  the  amount  of  physical  com- 
fort obtainable  by  the  individual  is  measured  as  much  by  the  ability 
to  purchase  and  the  extent  of  the  demand  as  by  the  nature  of  the  ac- 
commodation offered,  while  both  are  influenced  and  controlled  by  cli- 
matic influences  and  by  national  habits  and  traditions. 

RELATIVE   COST   OF   MANUFACTURE   IN  DIFFERENT   COUNTRIES. 

There  are  certain  natural  and  artificial  conditions  which  so  largely 
affect  the  direct  conditions  of  wages  .as  to  be  entitled  to  consideration 
in  any  analytical  examination  of  the  great  questions  of  labor ;  but  fi^om 
their  abstruseness  they  are  less  evident  to  the  general  mind  and  more 
debatable  than  the  simple  relations  shown  in  the  reports  of  the  consuls 
and  summarized  in  this  letter.  It  would  be  a  legitimate  field  of  inquiry 
to  ascertain  what  are  the  conditions  which  enable  England  to  manu- 
facture machinery  and  other  i)roducts  at  less  prices  than  similar  goods 
can  be  manufactured  in  France,  and  at  prices  equal  to  those  in  Germany, 
while  the  rates  of  wages  paid  to  the  workmen  engaged  in  those  manu- 
factories in  England  are  on  the  whole  higher  than  those  paid  for  similar 
labor  in  France  and,  as  the  foregoing  table  shows,  more  than  double 
those  paid  In  Germany. 

A  very  interesting  contribution  from  Consul  Williams,  of  Kouen,  in 
answer  to  the  labor  circular  of  the  Department,  which  will  be  printed 
jn  the  collected  re]>orts  of  the  consuls,  deals  with  this  question  so  far 
as  regards  the  relative  cost  of  production  of  a  complex  piece  of  machin- 
ery, such  as  a  locomotive,  in  the  great  machine  shops  of  England,  France, 
and  Germany.  Mr.  Williams's  report  is  valuable  as  almost  the  only  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  the  consuls  to  treat  this  essential  phase  of  the 
question. 

SOCIAL   AND   MORAL   CONDITIONS. 

The  social  and  moral  conditions  of  independent  peoples  are  legitimate 
subjects  of  investigation  by  another  government  when  they  directly  af- 
fect its  national  policy,  but  only  as  they  may  throw  light  on  the  precise 
point  under  discussion.  In  collecting  information  for  a  comparison  of 
the  wages  and  state  of  labor  at  home  and  abroad,  while  the  consuls 
were  expected  to  furnish  only  such  details  as  might  tend  to  establish  the 
connections  between  individual  habits  and  labor,  if  any  existed,  a  review 


LABOE   IN  EUEOPE.  193 

of  many  of  tbeir  reports  leads  to  tLe  conclusion  tliat  eo  far  as  moral  con- 
ditions aflect  production  and  waj^es  or  are  aliected  by  them,  the  rehir 
tious,  if  any,  are  indirect,  obscure,  and  often  contradictory.  Improvi- 
dence, inteuiperance,  and  immorality  may  often  be  found  prevalent  ia 
communities  side  by  side  with  successful  conditions  of  labor.  From  ele- 
ments like  these,  not  reducible  to  statistics,  no  effective  general  conclu- 
eious  can  be  drawn.  The  physical  and  psychical  traits  of  communities 
are  most  often  duo  to  natural  causes,  climate,  race,  tradition,  and  to  vir- 
tuous and  religious  advantages  and  training.  This  subject,  however, 
belongs  rather  to  the  domains  of  higher  political  economy  and  to  the  phi- 
losophy of  morals  than  to  the  i)ractical  questions  of  labor,  and  of  tho 
purchasing  power  of  labor,  to  which  this  present  examination  is  mainly 
confined. 

CONCLUSION. 

This  review  of  the  consular  reports  has,  of  course,  omitted  much  in- 
teresting and  valuable  information  furnished  by  tho  different  officers, 
and  has  been  necessarily  confined  to  the  simpler  conditions  of  labor 
which  admitted  of  comparison  with  those  here  existing. 

The  facts  have  been  presented  as  they  were  reported,  without  regard 
to  any  political  or  economical  argument  which  may  be  drawn  from 
them. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

FKED'K  T.  FEELINGHUYSEN. 

92  A— hi 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

GERMANY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  BREWER,  OF  BERLIN. 

In  accordance  with  directions  contained  in  Circular  Letter  of  February 
16,  1884,  I  beg  leave  to  submit  the  following  observatious  with  acconipa- 
D.ying  statistical  information,  touching  the  question  of  labor  and  the  cost 
of  living  in  Germany,  more  especially  in  the  city  of  Berlin.  There  seems 
to  have  been  no  report  made  irom  this  consulate  general  in  1878  touch- 
ing these  questions,  and  I  am  unable  to  iind  any  statistical  iulormatiou 
here  upon  the  subject  matter  previous  to  the  year  1881.  I  am  therefore 
unable  to  make  the  comparison  suggested,  showing  the  diflerence  be- 
tween the  price  of  labor  in  1878  and  the  present  time,  s^he  great  de- 
pression in  trade  and  business  in  the  United  States,  which  was  so  felt\ 
from  1873  to  1878,  extended  over  Germany  as  it  did  over  nearly  all  the 
other  European  countries,  Imt  in  the  latter  year  this  state  of  depression 
here  had  somewhat  ])assed  away,  and  business  began  to  assume  its  nor- 
mal condition.  At  this  time  the  Government  began  to  hold  out  hopes 
that  measures  would  be  enacted  for  the  relief  of  the  laboring  classes, 
while  it  at  the  same  time  enacted  very  stringent  laws  looking  to  the 
preservation  of  the  public  peace  and  the  repression  of  certain  organiza- 
tions and  societies  possessing  socialistic  tendencies.  This  hope  of  relief, 
together  with  the  penal  laws  thus  enacted,  had  the  tendency  to  break 
op  many  such  organizations,  and  drive  the  indolent  and  riotous  classes 
from  the  larger  cities. 

PKOTECTIVE   TARIFF. 

In  the  year  1879,  in  accordance  with  such  previous  suggestions,  the 
Government  enacted  a  tarill"  law,  having  in  view,  no  doubt,  a  twofold 
object:  first,  the  raising  of  revenue,  and,  second,  the  protection  of  the 
agricultural  and  other  industries  in  the  Empire  from  the  competition 
which  they  met  with  by  the  importation  of  the  productions  of  other 
countries.  By  this  law  a  heavy  import  duty  was  phiced  on  many  arti- 
cles ;  still  but  little  regard  seems  to  have  been  paid  to  the  fact  as  to 
whether  such  imported  articles  came  into  competition  with  home  produc- 
tions or  not,  for  a  very  heavy  du  ty  was  i)l  jced  on  tea  and  cottee,  as  well  as 
upon  many  other  articles  which  cannot  be  produced  in  Germany.  There 
is  the  usual  diflerence  of  opinion  among  the  German  i)eople  as  to  the 
general  effect  of  this  measure  upon  the  price  of  labor,  the  cost  of  living, 
and  the  general  industries  of  the  Empire,  the  friends  of  protection  claim- 
ing the  measure  was  wnse  and  that  the  effect  thereof  has  been  benefi- 
cial, while  its  opponents  insist  to  the  contrary.  Whatever  may  be  the 
fact  my  observation  has  led  me  to  the  conclu.sion  that  protection  is  the 
settled  policy  of  Germany  for  many  years  to  come.  The  customs  duties 
collected  under  this  law  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  March  31,  1883, 
amounted  to  $44,378,944. 

195 


196  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

PROTECTION  OF  EMPLOYl^S  IN   GERMANY. 

Ill  the  year  1878  measures  were  taken  looking  towards  the  inspection 
of  mines,  factories,  &(i,  in  the  interest  of  the  i)eople  therein  e;ni)!oye(l, 
and  in  Jaunarv,  1881,  a  more  stringent  hiw  was  etuicted  making  it  the 
duty  of  inspectors  to  bo  appointed  to  inspect  factories,  shops,  mines, 
and  other  j)la(;es  where  hiborersare  employed,  and  making  it  obhgatory 
upon  such  insjiectors  to  see  that  snch  phices  shall  be  properly  ventilated, 
and  that  the  machinery  and  appliances  in  snch  shops,  mines,  &c.,  shall 
be  properly  adjusted  so  that  the  workmen  shall  not  be  endangered.  It 
is  also  provided  by  law  that  young  persons  shall  not  be  allowed  to  be 
put  to  work  earlier  than  5.3U  a.  m.  or  allowed  to  work  later  than  8.30 
p.  m.  Children  under  twelve  years  of  age  shall  not  be  employed,  and 
those  under  fourteen  shall  not  be  allowed  to  work  to  exceed  six  hours  per 
day,  and  those  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  sball  not  be 
allowed  to  work  longer  than  ten  hours  a  day,  and  women  shall  not  be 
employed  within  three  weeks  immediately  after  child  birtli.  These  pro- 
visions are  applicable  in  the  i)riucipal  factories  and  to  the  principal 
trades,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  law  rests  with  the  public  inspectors 
above  mentioned. 

By  a  law  enacted  in  1883  it  is  made  compulsory  upon  i)rincipal  em- 
ployers, in  connection  with  their  workmen,  in  each  commuuiry  to  organ- 
ize and  maintain  a  bank,  or  funds  for  the  relief  of  those  employed  in 
case  of  sickness  or  other  disability,  which  shall  prevent  them  from  labor- 
ing. One-third  of  such  fund  is  contributed  by  the  employer,  and  two- 
thirds  by  the  employes,  the  latter  contributing  according  to  the  amount 
of  wages  received,  and  receiving  relief  accordingly.  Space  will  not  per- 
mit me  to  give  at  length  these  several  measures  for  the  protection  and 
relief  of  workmen.  The  Government  here  is  entitled  to  much  commea- 
dation  for  the  interest  which  it  takes  in  protecting  the  person  and  righta 
of  the  laboring  classes. 

POPULATION,  AND   EMPLOYMENT   OF   THE    SAME. 

By  the  census  returns  for  Germany  for  the  year  1882  the  po})ulation 
of  the  Empire  was  shown  to  be  45,213,901,  of  which  22,140,783  were 
males,  and  23,007,118  were  females.  Thirteeii*million  three  hundred  and 
seventy-two  thousand  five  hundred  and  nine  males  and  4,2r)8,405  females 
were  engaged  in  professions  or  trades,  including  masters,  employ6s,  as- 
sistants, ai)prentices,  «&c. ;  besides,  there  were  30,529  males  and  1,153,580 
females  classed  as  servants,  being  such  persons  as  are  usually  employed 
in  and  about  the  house. 

Female  persons  employed  in  sonw  of  the  principal  induntrien  attd  trades  in  Germany,  hoitse- 
hoUl  Htrvants  and  officials  not  included. 


Oocapations. 


Preparation  of  Hplming  atafTn  . 
Spinnin;;,  &.c. : 

At  honi'o  

In  f.ictoriea 

Weavint;: 

At  iioino , 

In  fu<;torio8  *. 

KnittinK : 

At  homo 

In  Cactorics  

Blecchinj;.  dyolng,  &c 

TriniuiiDK  makoi-s 


Independent  ^-Jft--^ 


174  4,008 

0.  ^75  !  S,  508 

318  I  01,689 

6,668  I  21,910 

iH 

7,920 
155 
7(9 
421 


84,213 

3,501 
7,068 
15,63S 
6,8S« 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  197 

Female  persona  eihjjloyed  in  sonie  of  the  principal  industries  and  trades,  <fc. — Continued. 


Occupation. 


Paper-goods  workers  . 

Cartoon  luakors 

'J'obacco  workers 

SciltUStlOSSC'8 

Tailois    

Lailiis'  <lross makei-s . 
MiUinors 


n.  fee 


lak 


Bhoomaki'vs 

Lauiulrc8s;c8.  &c.  

Printers,  litliographers,  &.C 

Moichants  

Hotel  imi  keepers 

UoiHOslie  Hcrvaiils  

Persons  (.loins  work  of  ;i  rlianKins  nature 
Persons  iu  hospitals,  uiiil-wivcs,  &c 


TOTALS. 

J.   rarniinjr,  hortirultnro 

2.  Foiest.y.  liiintin.i;.  li.^jiins  

3.  Jliiiiu^,  I'liiiidrii's.  induslry,  biiildinj; 

4.  Tiatlo  :in<l  romim  ICO    .. 

5.  Woi  k  of  a  cliau;:!!!';  cliavactcr  for  w.t^os  and  domestic  servie.cs  . 

6.  PioR'Ssiou.s  anil  olriccrs  of  stale,  cliiireli,  &.C 


Indopendeut, 


200, 

4r>, 


377 
527 
59!) 
758 
241 
170 
713 
331 
720 
373 
341 
301 
900 


270,  831 

352 

421,412 

15u,  557 


115,202 


Assistants, 
laborers. 


17,135 
7,401 
3.-),  023 
5:!,  400 
22,  3:)8 
IS.  133 
10,  707 
5,  302 

4,  937 
10,2:18 

5,  557 
52,  037 
77,  820 

110.475 

07,  200 

4,093 


2, 136, 000 
2,931 

545, 240 
14  J,  252 
183,  735 


Total  of  female  ])crsoas  actively  engaged  in  all  professions,  trades,  &.0 4,  2.58,  403 

Servants 1,  1.53.  058 

Menibeis  of  family 10,249,398 

Total    21,000,801 

Females  wit  lion  t  oeciipatiou  or  unknown  occupation 1,  400,  257 


Orau'l  total  of  females  in  Germany  23.007.  118 

Against  m.iles 22,  140,783 

Total  population  of  the  German  Empire 45,  213,991 

MORAL  EFFECTS   OF  FEMALE  LABOR  IN   GERMANY. 

Females  uiuler  the  iJcrinnn  laws  are  ])ormitte(l  to  carry  on  business 
in  tbeir  own  iiaiiio,  but  youiiji'  peisims  and  females  may  be  prevented 
Irom  entering  iipmi  any  employment  wliicli  sliali  be(ianf;erons  to  bealtU 
or  morals,  aiitl  women  in  no  event  are  to  bo  employed  in  mining  under 
ground.  Ibit  little  attention  can  be  i)ai(l  by  very  many  of  the  laboring 
women  of  tiie  jioorer  classes  to  tlieir  liouseliold  affairs,  for  their  labor  is 
mostly  i)erformed  in  tbe  sho}),  the  factory,  or  tbe  tiehl,  and  away  from 
their  home.  Tbeir  cbildreiii,  of  course,  must  l)c  mueh  neglected,  and 
thi'ir  moral  eihutation  and  training  dispense<l  witb.  Tbe  number  of  ille- 
gitinuite  ebiUlien  born  in  Clermany  is  very  hi rge,  reaching  in  some  prov- 
inces as  higli  as  liv)  and  -5  per  cent,  of  all  the  birtbs.  Tbe  mothers  of 
these  natural  born  children  are  mostly  found  among  the  laboring  classes 
lueutioned. 

FEMALE  WAGES. 


The  average  price  paid  per  year  for  common  house  servants  (females) 
in  lierlin  is  from  $27  to  840,  wbile  cooks  in  large  families  get  from  8G0 
to  875  ])er  year.  Uonse  servants  of  all  kinds  exi)ect,  and  usually  get^ 
a  liberal  Cbristmas  i>res<Mit  from  their  employer.  The  size  of  tbis  jires- 
cnt  depends  upon  tbe  ability  of  the  employer  to  pay.  The  "trink  geld," 
or  present,  is  an  imjiortant  matter  in  Germany,  and  too  many  people  ex- 
pect tbe  same  to  make  it  pleasant  for  the  traveler  or  the  employer.  As 
1  have  said,  every  house  servant,  male  or  female,  expects  a  Christmas 


198  LABOR  IN  EUROPE  —  GERMANY. 

preseut,  so  every  person  wlio  assists  yon  at  the  restanraiit  or  at  the  ho- 
tel expects  his  "trink  peld,"  whih^  tW.  droschke  drivers,  the  street-car 
condnctors,  and  thi*  schatliier  or  conductor  on  the  railroads  are  much 
more  accommodating  to  those  who  place  a  few  i)t'ennigs  in  their  hands 
lor  their  own  benelit. 

CREDIT   AND   LOAN   ASSOCIATIONS   IN   GERMANY. 

In  the  year  1882  there  were  reported  to  have  been  1,875  "credit  and 
loan  associations"  in  Germany.  These  associations  are  incorporated, 
and  formed  by  snch  ai-tisans,  workmen,  and  small  dealers  or  tradesmen 
as  are  al)le  to  contribute  to  their  su]>i)ort.  The  object  ot  their  lormatioa 
is  to  create  a  safe  place  lor  the  deposit  of  the  savings  of  its  members, 
and  snch  members  also  ac(iuire  a  Cj:'rtain  amount  of  credit  at  such  asso- 
ciation, so  that  they  can  borrow  therefrom  should  they  at  any  time  de- 
sire to  do  so.  Whatever  profit  may  accrue  to  the  association  is  divided 
among  the  members,  the  division  beingbased  ujion  the  amount  deposited 
by  the  respective  members.  These  associations  might  j)roperly  be 
be  called  mutual  savings  banks.  Whether  the  classes  who  belong  to 
these  associations  dcri\  e  much  benefit  from  becoming  mendters  thereof 
I  am  unable  to  say,  but  from  the  lact  that  so  n)any  of  the  associations 
exis^it  may  be  safe  to  conclude  that  they  are  beneficial. 

In  3882  there  were  954  "unions"  in  the  several  trades  (not  labor  or 
trade  unions) ;  also  021  "  co-operative  stores  and  supply  unions,"  and  35 
unions  for  building  ])urposes.  The  nund)er  of  ]>eopIe  belonging  to  all 
these  associations  and  unions  are  given  as  1,100,000  to  l,200,U0l>.  It 
seems  to  be  well  understood  that  associations  for  trade — co  operative 
stores  have  not  been  successful,  and  I  think  there  are  less  now  in  Ger- 
many than  there  were  three  years  ago. 

TRADE    SOCIETIES. 

There  are  many  so-called  "labor  associations"  in  the  large  cities  and  in- 
dustrial centers  of  Germany,  quite  similar  to  such  as  are  found  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  permitted  under  the  laws,  but  with  some  limi- 
tation in  their  sco{)e  of  action.  They  nmst  remain  local,  and  they  are 
not  permitted  to  extend  their  organization  or  jurisdiction  over  the  Em- 
pire. They  are  forbidden  to  discuss  political  or  governmental  questions 
at  their  meetings.  The  feeling  between  the  employer  and  the  employed, 
I  think,  has  been  quite  satisfactory  during  the  last  few  years  until  quite 
recently. 

STRIKES. 

During  the  last  two  months  there  have  been  several  strikes;  one  at 
the  "Beilin  Velvet  Factory,"  where  about  nine  hundred  women  and  girla 
are  employed,  and  neaily  as  many  men. 

About  twelve  hundred  men  engaged  in  sewing  machine  factories  here 
were  recently  on  a  strike,  and  also  several  tliousand  joiners.  I  think  in 
each  case  the  workmen  demanded  an  increase  of  wages,  and  some  of 
them  also  a  decrease  in  the  hours  of  labor,  which  was  refused  by  the 
emjdoyers. 

The  strike  at  the  Berlin  Velvet  Factory  was  of  brief  duration,  and  the 
workmen  mostly  returned  toilieir  work  without  accomplishing  their  ob- 
ject, although  the  manager  allowed  some  few  of  them  a  small  increase  in 
their  wages.  The  strikers  at  the  sewing-machine  factories  were  com- 
pelled to  yield  and  return  to  their  work  at  the  old  rates,  while  the  strik- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  199 

ing  joiners  were  generally  allowed  a  small  increase  of  wages  and  have 
now  retnrned  to  their  labor.  These  striking  workmen,  especially  the 
joiners,  rieceived  money  assistance  to  aid  them  in  their  contest  fi  om  other 
similar  associations  in  Berlin  and  other  cities.  The  governing  power 
here  is  much  more  strict  than  in  the  United  States,  and  Berlin,  with  its 
■excellent  and  large  police  force,  supplemented  with  forty  thousand  sol- 
iliers  in  and  about  the  city,  is  at  all  times  able  to  preserve  order,  and 
other  workmen  who  seek  to  take  the  places  of  those  out  upon  a  strike 
are  generally  protected  from  harm  from  those  whoso  places  they  seek  to 
fill.  No  provision  is  made  for  the  settlement  of  disagreements  between 
employer  and  employed  by  means  of  arbitration. 

FOOD  PURCHASES.  ^ 

Workmen,  at  least  in  this  portion  of  Germany,  purchase  the  neces- 
saries of  life  where  they  see  fit,  the  employer  not  attempting  to  control 
that  matter,  and  for  their  labor  they  are  paid  in  gold,  silver,  and  paper 
money,  usually  on  each  Saturday. 

HABITS   OF  THE  WORKING   CLASS. 

The  habits  of  the  working  people  may  generally  be  considered  good. 
They  are  usually  found  at  work  whenever  they  can  find  employment, 
whether  wages  be  great  or  small.  But  very  few  of  them  are  able  to 
earn  any  moie  than  a  scanty  living  for  themselves  and  their  families, 
however  much  economy  they  may  exercise,  and  if  they  have  families 
each  member  thereof  of  sufticieut  age  must  assist  in  doing  something 
for  their  own  support.  The  excessive  amount  of  beer  consumed  by  the 
workingmen  and  their  families  may,  and  undoubtedly  does,  tend  to 
stnpify  and  make  them  sluggish,  yet  it  is  very  seldom  you  see  one  exhiint- 
ing  symptoms  of  intoxication.  These  workmen  are  usually  able-bodied, 
apparently  enjoying  good  health.  Whenever  the  weather  is  suitable 
and  time  will  permit,  the  men,  women,  and  children  are  accustomed  to 
spending  much  of  their  time  out  of  doors,  in  beer  gardens,  &c.,  sipping 
their  beer,  listening  to  music,  and  visiting.  For  this  purpose  places  are 
supplied  on  a  basis  suitable  for  the  ])ockets  of  all,  rich  and  poor,  and  the 
quality  of  the  beer  is  graded  accordingly.  The  German  workmen  dress 
<;omfortably  well,  but  employers,  generally  speaking,  give  but  little  at- 
tention to  the  morals,  well  being,  and  happiness  of  their  workmen. 
The  workmen  are  expected  to  care  for  themselves.  There  are  a  few 
large  establishments,  like  those  of  Krupj^,  at  Essen,  where  the  work- 
men are  supi)lied  with  comfortable  houses  at  a  small  rental  value,  to- 
gether with  church  and  school  accommodations,  but  such  are  exceptional 
cases. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

All  male  citizens  of  twenty  five  years  of  age,  and  upwards,  not  includ- 
ing paupers,  &c.,  are  qualified  to  vote  for  members  of  the  German  Reich- 
stag, but  under  the  laws  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  the  right  of  voting 
and  power  exercised  by  the  voter  is  based  somewhat  upon  the  amount 
of  taxes  paid  by  him. 

For  the  j)urpose  of  electing  city  councilmen  in  Berlin  the  voters  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  amount  of  taxes  which  they 
paj,  communal,  district,  i)rovincial,  and  state  taxes.  The  first  class  ia 
composed  of  those  highest  tax-payers,  who  pay  an  aggregate  of  one- 
third  of  the  entire  amount  of  taxes  paid  by  the  entire  body  of  voters. 


200  LABOR   IN   EUROPE — GERMANY. 

Tlie  second-class  of  those  highest  tax-payers  paying  the  aggregate 
second  third,  and  tiie  third-class  includes  all  the  other  voters  not  in- 
cluded in  the  two  former  classes.  Under  the  laws  of  Prussia  every  male 
citizen  twenty-four  years  of  age  and  ui)wards,  except  paupers,  &c.,  who 
pay  at  leastOniarks  class  tax, can  vote  for  municipal  officers  in  Berlin  orfor 
members  of  the  Prussian  Parliament,  upon  the  basis  above  given.  Each 
of  the  three  classes  into  which  the  voters  are  divided  exercise  the  same, 
or  an  equal  power  in  the  selection  of  such  officers,  although  there  may 
be  many  less  voters  in  the  first  and  second  classes  than  in  the  third  class. 
As  a  general  rule  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  voters  belonging  to 
the  third  class  take  any  interest  in  election  mattei-s  or  attend  the  poll- 
ing places. 

ARMY  SERVICE  AND  FEMALE   FIELD-WORK. 

A  largo  portion  of  Germany,  especially  of  Prussia,  has  a  light  soil, 
nnd  is  only  made  to  produce  reasonably  sized  crops  by  being  carefully 
tilk'd. 

]"]very  young  man  able  to  bear  arms  must  serve  in  the  army  from  one 
to  tiiree  years.  Tiiose  who  are  well  advanced  in  their  studies  and  can 
clothe  tliemselves  while  in  the  service  usually  serve  only  one  year,  while 
those  who  have  been  less  lortunate  in  educational  and  financial  acquire- 
ments s<^rve  tliree  years.  This  is  the  case  with  nearly  all  the  sons  of 
tho  iioorer  jx'ople.  Their  places  upon  the  farm,  and  often  in  the  shop, 
are  lilied  by  their  mothers  and  sisters.  Many  young  men  seeking  to 
avoid  this  service  find  a  home  in  America.  This  military  system,  to- 
gether with  the  small  wages  paid  for  labor,  and  the  inability  of  the 
laborer  to  see  any  way  to  better  his  condition  or  that  of  his  family  of 
children  growing  up  around  him,  is  undoubtedly  what  tends  to  cause 
2(((),U00  and  upward  of  German  subjects  to  leave  their  fatherland  annu- 
ally and  seek  a  home  in  the  United  States.  Undoubtedly  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  emigrants  from  Germany  to  America  comes  from  the 
classes  I  have  mentioned,  while  the  small  tradesmen,  artisans,  and  a  few 
educated  and  ))rofessional  men  go  to  make  u))  the  large  number  stated. 
The  Germans  seem  to  be  a  very  prolific  peojjle,  lor  notwithstanding  the 
large  numbers  which  leave  the  empire  annually  the  population  is  con- 
tinually on  the  increase. 

« 
TAXATION  IN  GERMANY. 

The  question  of  taxation  is  important  in  considering  the  price  of  labor 
and  cost  of  Jiving  and,  therefore,  1  take  the  liberty  of  here  quoting  a 
large  jiortion  oi"  the  very  full  and  interesting  report  ui)on  that  subject 
lately  presented  to  the  Department  by  Mr.  Smith,  late  consul  at  Mauu- 
lieinj. 

This  refers  to  the  system  of  taxation  in  Prussia. 

In  Prussia  Il)f>  tax  called  "  Klasson-Steiier,"  or  clashed  tax,  is  levied  on  every  person 
wlio.s<i  iiicomo  doca  not  cxci-od  :5,()(J0  innikH.     Exc(']»t. — 

(".)  All  i)cr>()ii8  v\  Iioso  iiicoiiio  is  h^as  than  4x!()uiaika. 

(b.)  A'l  pcrsiins  who  aio  not  bixteeu  years  of  age,  and  whose  annual  income  does  not 
exceed  (WO  inarkH, 

(c.)  Mcinl)erH  of  llio  army. 

{({.)  F(irei<jnei-sdniing  their  first  year  of  residence,  except  those  wlio  carry  on  a  trade^ 
do  l)i\!siiitKH,  or  )ii;u:li(«)  their  j)rolVih8ion8. 

(c.)  Owners  of  the  iron  cross  and  other  military  distinction. 

(y.)  'i  hoHo  who  took  paitin  the  wars  of  IBtKiaud  1815. 

(ij.)  MiuorM  yet  under  Iho  couti;ol  of  their  parents  and  supported  by  tbem. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


201 


In  Prnesia  (ho  nmonnt  of  this  tax  is  ahont  42,OO0,rO0  marks.     It  is  <livi<le<l  iuto 
twelve  clasbce  aud  paid  annually,  accoidiug  to  the  annual  income,  as  follows : 

ANNUAL  TAX. 


Classcfl. 

Income. 

lax. 

1 

Marks. 
420  lo      CfiO 
CtiO  to      ooo 

901)  to  i,or)0 

l.d.lO  to   1,100 

1,200  to  i,:ro 
i.;t5i)  to  ],.'>(io 
i.r.oo  to  i,(i:io 

1,0 ')0  to  1.800 
1,800  to  V,  100 
2,  100  to  2,400 
2.400  to  2.700 
2,  700  to  a,  UOO 

ilarkg. 

2 

6 

3 

9 

4  

12 

5 

13 

6 

2* 

7 ; 

30 

8 

30 

0 

42 

10 

48 

11 

CO 

12 

7i 

[Note  1. — Since  the  preparation  of  Consnl  Smitli's  repot  provision  has  hecn  made 
so  that  no  clas^  tax  ior  Static  purposes  i.s  collected  on  incomes  of  less  than  UOO  marks, 
hut  in  Berlin  the  class  tax  ior  municipal  purposes  is  jiaid  on  incomes  precisely  an 
given  in  this  table. — 15kkwi:u.] 

Tax*  8  ate  levied  accoriiinjj;  t'>  households.  Memhers  of  ihe  lionsehold  who  are  paid 
for  their  services,  or  who  jiay  for  their  board,  aro  also  subject  to  payment  of  this 
tax.     »     •     * 

Tax  on  annual  incomes  exceeding  3,000  marks  is  levied  on  all  persons  receiving  an 
inciime  givaler  than  that  sum,  juid  lorcigneis  who  cany  on  trade,  mauuraclmc,  and 
who  <lo  business,  except ing  t he  niemb(isol'  the  royal  hnu.se  of  \hi-  princely  Camilies 
of  Hobenzollcin,  of  tin;  royal  Janiily  ot  llanovei',  ol  the  family  of  the  I'lince-l^lector  of 
Kuihesseii,  of  the  family  of  the  Uiike  of  IS'assaii.     l-^xcmpt  liom  this  tax  are: 

( 1 )  The  military  :  Salary  and  jiciipii^iies  of  the  membi  is  of  the  army. 

(2)  That  ])art  (f  the  ituome  whi'h  originates  in  estates  in  a  foreign  country,  if  it 
can  be  s1m)wii  ihat  the  lax  is  already  paid  in  the  foreign  country. 

It  is  levied  as  follows : 


Classes. 

lucome. 

Annii.al 
lax. 

Classes. 

lucomo. 

Annual 

tll.V. 

1 

21  arks. 
3,00.1  to      3,cno 

3.  t;oO  t  o       4.  200 
4,2iiO  lo      4,800 
4>00  to      ,'■.,400 

5. 400  to  ,  (!,  ceo 

(1.(011  to      7,100 

7,  200  to      8,400 

8,  4(jO  to      9,000 
9,0'  0  to     10.800 

10,800  to     12,000 
r.',  OtO  to     11.4(0 
14,400  lo     10.8  0 
Hi,  8(0  lo     19.200 
19.200  li:     21,000 
2 1,000  10    2.'i,  210 
2"),  200  1  o     2S.  t-OO 
i:8,bU0  to    32,4(;0 

Marks. 
90 
lOi 
12ii 
144 
102 
180 

2  Hi 

2X8 

3  4 
300 
42 
.^.04 
570 
018 
7.^.6 
804 

18 

Marks. 
32,400  to   3G,nnn 

30,000  lo     42,000 
42,000  to     48.000 
48,(00  to     54,010 
54.000  to     00.000 
00,000  lo     72,0(0 
72,  (;00  lo     81,(100 
M.OOO  to     90.000 
90,000  lo  118.010 
108.(100  lo  ]J0.  000 
120,101  lo  144.0(0 
144.01  0  to  lOf*.  OiiO 
108,000  lo  204.(01 
204.000  lo  240.000 
240.000  lo  300.  000 
300,  OuO  to  3C0,  UOO 

Marks. 
972 

2   

3 

10    

20 

1.080 
1  "00 

4 

21 

22 

;3 

5 

1  (;"'o 

C    

1.8(0 
2   too 

2t 

0-, 

8 

2  5"0 

9 

i  ??;:;:::::;;;;::;::. 

2  X80 

10 

3  "40 

11 

12 

1  28    

1  29 

\-M 

!  31 

3,  r.(  0 
4  3"0 

13 

5  040 

14 

(1  1:^0 

I.''. 

32 

7  '>>  0 

10 

■  i;3 

9,000 

17 

And  so  on,  always  rising  (iO,rCO  marks,  and  the  tax  1,800  marks  eacli. 
The  income  tax  is  levied  on  the  income  diiived  fioui:  (1)  Keal  estate  ;  (2)  capital; 
(3)  trade,  business,  or  from  any  paying  prolession. 

•  »•-«••« 

Gewerhe-Stouer  (trade-tax)  is  levied  on  :  (1 )  Comn'erce  ;  (2)  hotels,  rpstanrants,  and 
iniikeejiers;  (3)  maniifaetnn-s  and  trades  cmi)loyiiig  a  number  of  persons;  (4)  mill 
industry;  (.'')  navigation,  freight  c.»tablishiiients,  livery -stables,  &e. ;  (G)  peddlers. 

These  aie  divided  into  three  classes:  A  I,  A  II,  and  IJ. 

1.  A  I  includes  large  manufacturing  and  coiniiK'rcial  establishments  of  commiss'on 
and  hhijiping.  (Agents  of  insurance  compani(  s  arc  free  from  this  tax.)  Banking, 
exchange,  iusurauco  couipauics,  shix)ping  estublishmeuts,  aud  all  cstuhlishuieulti  baueU 


202  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

on  commercial  or  money  transactions,  circulating  libraries,  mill,  baking,  bnt-chering, 
Lrewiug  establishments,  and  all  others  where  the  capital  employed  is  large  and  th» 
business  is  important. 

*2.  All  includes  smaller  establishments  of  the  same  kind  as  A  I. 

3.  B  incltides  business  establishments  of  the  least  important  chise,  including  dealer* 
in  fruit,  vegetables,  SiC,  unless  their  business  is  quite  important. 

Foreign  insurance  companies  possessing  an  establishment  and  ofificers  with  general 
-agent  in  Prussia  are  subjrct  to  taxation.     Exempt  from  this  tax  are: 

(1)  Die  Konigliche  Sechan<lluug  and  all  industrial  establiKhmeuts  belonging  to  the 
State;  (2)  foreigners  during  their  visits  at  fairs,  &c. ;  (:5)  foreign  purchasers  of  do- 
mestic ]u<)dnct  ions;  (4)  agents  of  insurance  compauiis;  ('))  authors  who  sell  only 
their  own  publications;  ((>)  persons  wlio  do  literary  work  for  others;  (7)  dentists ; 
(B)barbers;  (9)  jiersons  who  have  rented  biidge  tolls;  (10)  distilU-rs  of  brandy  ;  fllj 
persons  who  aie  eugaired  in  making  discoveries  of  amber  ou  their  ^wn  estate;  ^12) 
Farmers  who  sell  self-baked  bread  on  nuirket  days. 

Class  IV  includes  small  tradesmen  who  employ  more  than  one  assistant  and  an  ap- 
prentice, and  the  mill  industry.  Only  meu  w  ho  have  technical  ability  are  coneidered 
assistants. 

Mere  jdiysical  strength  is  not  accepted  under  the  title  of  "tradesman." 

B  includes  freight  and  livery  establishments  and  navigation. 

In  order  to  ascertaxi  the  amount  of  taxes,  four  departments  have  been  created, 
■within  the  Prussian  Government,  according  to  its -wealth  and  in<lu8try.  yet  for  the 
taxes  under  A  I  only  two  departm«>nt8  exist.  First,  the  Goveiiiinent  districts,  Aix- 
la-Chai)elle,  Arnsberg,  Breslau,  Cologne,  Danzig,  Diisseldorf,  Konigsberg,  Liegnitx, 
Mngdebnrg,  Merseberg,  Potsdam,  Stettin,  and  tlie  city  of  Berlin. 

The  other  Government  districts  belong  to  the  seconcl  de]iartment.  The  first  depart- 
incht  iiiclndes  some  of  the  largest  cities;  the  second  includes  cities  of  medium  size; 
the  thini,  all  other  cities  of  about  1,500  inhabitants  and  more,' and  one-fourth  of  the 
flat  countries  and  all  towns  not  belonging  to  one  of  the  three  previous  departments. 

In  order  to  estimate  the  amount  of  tax  to  be  levied  it  is  customary  to  suppose  a 
medium  tax;  thus,  if  there  are  80  tax-payers  in  one  class,  and  the  medium  is  found 
to  be  150  marks,  the  amount  of  the  tax  wiil  be  '2,400  marks.  In  case  the  tax-payer  is 
not  able  to  pay  the  medium  tax,  a  lower  rate  is  granted  him  and  the  sum  is  added  to 
the  taxes  of  other  rate-payers.     Medium  taxes  are  levied  on — 

(a)  Commercial  pursuits;  (b)  hotels,  restaurants,  and  innkeepers;  (c)  tradesmen. 

The  rates  are  levied — 

I. — Commerce. 
Class  A  1. 

(c)  Medium  rate. — (1)  First  department,  288  marks  annually,  or  24  marks  monthly; 
(2)  second  department,  216  marks  annually,  or  18  marks  monthly. 

{b)  Low( 8t  rale. — The  lowest  rate  in  both  departments  144  marks  annually,  or  12 
marks  monthly.  By  a  special  royal  decree  the  medium  tax  can  be  reduced  to  144 
marks,  and  the  lowest  tax  to  72  marks. 

Class  A  II. 

(a)  Medium  rate. — (1)  First  department,  72  marks  annually,  or  6  marks  monthly: 
<2)  second  department,  48  marks  annually,  or  4  marks  monthly  ;  (:i)  third  and  fourth 
<lcpartments,  30  markx  annually,  or  2.;')0  marks  monthly. 

(/>)  Lowest  rate. — (I)  First  department,  3(>  marks  annually,  or  3  marks  monthly  ;  (2) 
second  department,  24  marks  annually,  or 2  marks  monthly  ;  (3)  third  and  fourth  de- 
3)artmeiits,  18  marks  aunnallv,  or  l..'')0  marks  monthlv.  The  rates  rise  from  18  to  24, 
3(>,  3(5,  42,  4-^,  54,  GO,  72,  84,  90,  9(5,  108,  12(5,  144,  15(5,  168.  180,  and  upwards  (each  time 
for  the  amount  of  36  marks),  according  to  the  importance  of  the  transactions. 

Class  B. 

(a)  Medium  rate. — (1)  First  department,  24  marks  annually,  or  2  marks  monthly; 
(2)  second  dei)artment,  18  marks  annually,  or  1.50  marks  monthly  ;  (3)  third  depart- 
ment, 12  marks  annually,  or  1  mark  monthly;  (4)  fourth  department,  6  marks  an- 
nually, or  .50  mark  monthly. 

(b)  Lowent  rate. — (l)In  tho  three  dei)artments,  6  marks  annually,  or  50  pfennig* 
monthly;  (2)  in  the  lourrh  department,  3  marks  annually,  or  25  ])fennigs  monthly. 
The  rates  rise,  according  to  the  im])()rlancc  of  tho  transactions,  up  to  6,  12,  15,  18,  21, 
24,  36,  54,  72,  90,  108, 144  marks,  and  upwards,  each  time  for  36  marks. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  203 

II. — Holeh,  resiauranU,  and  inn-keepers. 
Cijvss  C. 

(a)  Medium  rate. — (1)  First  department,  54  marks  annually,  or  4.50  marks  monthly; 
<2)  second  department,  36  marks  annually,  or  iJ  marks  monthly  ;  (!i)  third  departnieut, 
24  marks  annually,  or  2  marks  monthly  ;  (4)  fourth  department,  12  marks  annually,  or 
1  mark  monthly. 

(b)  Lowest  rate. — (1)  First  and  second  departments,  12  marks  annually,  or  1  mark 
monthly  ;  (2)  third  and  fourth  departments,  G  marks  annually,  or  50  pfennigs  monthly. 
The  rates  above  6  marks  rise  in  the  same  way  as  in  Class  B. 

III.— Trade. 

Class  II. 

(a)  Medium  rate. — (1)  First  department,  24  marks  annually,  or  2  marks  monthly: 

(2)  second  department,  18  marks  annually,  or  1.50  marks  monthly;  (3)  third  ana 
fourth  departments,  12  marks  annually,  or  1  mark  monthly. 

(6)  Lowest  rate. — (1)  First  department,  12  marks  annually,  or  1  mark  monthly;  (2) 
in  the  three  other  departments,  6  marks  annually,  or  50  pfennigs  monthlj'.  The  rates 
rise  in  the  same  way  as  iu  Class  B.  lu  certain  cases  exemption  from  the  tax  i« 
granted,  especially  to  poor  trades  people. 

IV. — Navigation,  freight,  and  liverif  business. 

Navigation. — Ships  of  the  following  measure  (1  last  =  32.9769  hectoliters)  pay  :  3  to  6 
lasten,  2  marks;  7  to  12  lasten,  4  marks:  13  to  18  lasten,  6  marks:  19  to  24  lasten,  8 
marks.  Steamboats  on  rivers,  &c.,  are  taxed  according  to  their  machinery,  75  pfen- 
nigs each  horse-power  annually.  Navigation  on  th#  coasts,  oceans,  «S:c.,  is  taxed 
as  commerce  (A  1). 

Freight  and  livery-stables.  —  People  engaged  in  the  freight  and  livery-stable  business, 
who  keep  two  horses  and  more,  pay  3  marks  annually  for  each  horse. 

Miscellaneous. — Peddlers  pay  an  annual  tax  of  48  marks.  The  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury has  the  right  to  commute  this  tax  to  36,  24,  18,  and  6  marks  in  paiticiilar  cases; 
for  instance,  when  the  peddler  is  deformed.  He  has  also  the  power  to  raise  the  tax  to 
72,  96,  and  144  marks  for  circus  companies,  actors,  «&:c. 

In  order  to  control  this  system  of  taxation,  each  municipality  has  to  present  a  list 
with  the  names  and  professions  of  the  inhabitants,  indicating  such  ca.ses  as  are  subject 
to  the  tax. 

Those  inhabitants  who  are  subject  to  taxes  in  Classes  A  I,  A  II,  and  C,  must  ba 
present  during  the  allotment  of  the  rate  of  tax. 

GRUND8TEUR — TAXES  ON  LANDED  PROPERTY,  REAL  ESTATE,  ETC. 

According  to  the  law  of  May  21,  18G1,  the  "  Grnndsteuer"  is  divided  as  follows: 
(1)  Tax  on  houses  and  court-yards,  gardens,  &c.,  belonging  to  them  ;  this  tax  is  gen- 
erally called  "  GebiLude-Stener  "  (house-tax).  (2)  The  "Grundsteiier"  proper,  i.  «., 
the  tax  on  landed  estates,  farms,  &c. 

Exempt  flora  the  "  Grnndsteuer "  are :  (1)  property  of  the  state;  (2)  property  of 
those  princes  and  counts  who  formerly  were  independent  of  the  Empire  (law  of  1820) ; 

(3)  property  belonging  to  and  being  in  general  use  by  the  provinces,  districts,  munici- 
palities, &c.  ;  (4)  bridges,  high  roads,  canals,  and  railways;  (5)  property  which  at 
the  time  of  the  issue  of  this  law  was  already  in  possession  of  the  Protestant  or  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  property  rents  of  which  are  used  for  schools,  charity  es- 
tablishments, &c.  ;  (6)  real  estate  in  possession  of  the  Empire. 

gebaude-steuer  (house-tax.) 

All  houses  with  yards  and  gardens  not  exceeding  the  extension  of  25  are  (53  square 
meters)  are  subject  to  this  tax.  More  extensive  on.  s  are  sabject  to  the  '•  Grundsteur." 
Exempt  from  it  are:  (1)  Editices belonging  to  the  royal  family  and  to  all  princes  and 
counts  formerly  independent  of  the  Eiupire  ;  (2)  editices  belonging  to  the  state,  prov- 
inces, «fec.,  used  for  public  purposes;  (3)  university  and  school  buildings;  (4) 
churches,  chapels,  &c. ;  (5)  the  habitations  of  the  clergy  ;  (6)  hospitals,  orphan 
houses,  &c. ;  (7)  such  buildings  as  are  necessary  to  farming  purposes ;  (8)  water 
bnildings. 


204  .  LABOR    IN   EUROPE GERMANY. 

The  annnal  amonnt  of  the  tax  is  for :  (1)  Hotiscs  desijjncd  for  habitation,  shops, 
ateliers,  theaters,  &c..,  4  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  aiiuual  vahie  ;  (2)  factories  and  all 
hnildiup:8(lesip:iicd  for  the  carrying  on  trade,  breweries,  distilleries,  lorges,  mills,  build- 
ings designed  for  purposes  of  agriculture,  stables,  &c.,  2  jicr  cent,  of  the  estimated  au- 
iHial  value.  The  amount  of  the  tax  is  assessed  by  a  committco  whose  members  aro 
el(!cted  by  iho  board  of  aldermen,  and  whoso  deliberations  aro  presided  over  by  a 
special  commissioner  of-  the  Government.  The  system  of  taxation  is  subject  to  a  re- 
vision every  lifteenth  year. 

KOMMUNAL  (MUNICIPAL  TAXES.) 

Tho  roppcctive  dispositions  are  contained  in  the  mnnicipal  and  town  ordinances. 
The  income  irom  that,  part  of  tho  property  being  outside  of  the  town  limits  cannot  1)0 
taken  into  account.  The  consent  of  tho  Goverument  is  necessary  f()r-(a)  All  addi- 
tions to  i  be  income  tax  (see  note  1);  (b)  all  additions  to  the  otherdirect  taxes,  iftho 
addition  exceeds  fiO  j)er  cent ;  (c)all  additions  on  indirect  taxes.  Special  nainicipal 
taxes  may  be  assessed,  but  only  by  consent  ol  the  Government.  Tho  laws  regulating 
the  name  subject  in  the  other  ijrovinces  contain  the  same  iiriueiples  in  about  tho  same 
foini. 

The  general  principle  of  mnnicipal  taxation  is  as  follows:  According  to  tho  mnni- 
ciiial  constitutional  laws  the  municipal  budget  may  be  provided  for:  (1)  by  additions 
to  the  state  taxes  ;  (2)  by  sjiecial  direct  or  indirect  municipal  taxes. 

The  lirst-uamed  taxation  fornrRjhe  rule,  and  has  been  designated  several  times  by 
tho  secretary  of  the  treasury  as  brtng  the  best  mode  of  mnnicipal  taxation. 

Additions  are  especially  levied  on  :  («)  Klassen  and  income  tax  ;  {h)  taxes  on  trades, 
Aviiii  ihe  exception  of  the  tax  on  peddlers,  Which  trade  cannot  be  taxed  by  tho  muni- 
cipalities; ((■)  ground  and  house  Tax. 

'Jiiore  exists  no  nniibrm  legislation  for  municipal  taxation  in  cities,  towns,  or  vil- 
lages. Town  ordinances  for  tlio  i)roviuces  of  Prussia,  Posen,  Pomerania,  Si'esia,  ]>rand- 
enliuig,  and  Saxony  state  that  it  is  the  duty  of  every  inhabitant  to  contribute  to  tho 
town  budget.  Where  the  mnlPicipal  tax  is  levied  in  the  form  of  an  addition  to  tho 
clnsH  lax  it  is  only  paid  by  those  subject  to  tho  class  tax. 

When  the  income  of  the  town  is  not  sutlicient  to  pay  tho  expenses  of  the  nninici- 
paliiy,  1  hen  the  aldermen  possess  the  right  to  assess  muuici])al  taxes:  (I)  by  an  addi- 
tion lo  the  state  tax;  (2)  in  case  of  addition  to  the  income  tax  the  income  from  prop- 
<r!yout^ido  of  the  town  limits  cannot  be  assessed ;  (:{)  th(i  eoi.Kcnt  of  llie  Govern- 
ment is  necessary  for  all  additions  to  the  income  tax  and  all  other  direct  taxes  if  tho 
addituui  exceeds  50  per  cent.,  and  (or  all  additions  on  direct  taxes. 

Tho  increase  of  the  nmuieipal  budget,  when  necessity  occurs  through  the  increase 
of  the  state  tax,,  forms  the  rule,  and  has  been  designated  l)y  the  seeretaiy  of  the  treas- 
ury as  the  best  mode  of  municipal  taxation  rather  than  by  special  direct  taxation. 
It  is  generally  added  to  Klassen  or  income  tax. 

[NoTK  2. — In  the  city  of  Ijcrlin  a  so-called  rent-tax  is  annually  levied  for  municipal 
pui  poses,  and  i)aid  by  ihi^  lessee  of  any  8ho|»,  store,  dw«lliug-liouse,  or  other  ajtpart- 
meut.  The  amount  is  a  lixed  per  "cent,  based  u])ou  tho  auiouut  of  mon«'y  annually 
jiaid  iiy  tho  lessee  ibr  tho  uso  of  tho  premises.  Tho  rate  is  usually  Gf  per  cent,  per 
annum".— DuiiWER.] 

TAX   ON   TUADES. 

Ground  avd  house  tax. — In  some  towns,  by  Government  decree,  tho  municipal  tax  is 
fixed  as  follows  (seo  note  1) : 

Annual  income  of—  Annnal  tixs  in  marks. 

300  to     4rX)  marks G 

4.:()to     600 9 

(iCOto      1:0 12 

TI'.O  to      900 , 15 

900  to  l.O.'iO 18 

i,o:a)  to  1,200 24 

1,200  to  l,r;00 30 

l.-'iOO  to  1,9.j0 3G 

l,9r,0to  2,400 4-1 

2,4()0to2,700 GO 

2,700  to  3,000. 73 

An  annnual  incoinoof  morethan  ^.COOmarUsisasessed  by  tbestatetax.  Thisassesa- 
uient  is  made  by  a  eouimittec  ofeight  iuemh<'r8  electe  di)y  the  board  of  aldermen. 

In  tr)wns,  cities,  &c.,  where  Ihe  '•Mali!-  iiiid  Scblaehtsteiier"  (tax  on  butchering  and 
grinding),  abolished  on  January  18,  1675,  existed  as  a  municipal  tax,  tho  "  Schlaci.t- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  205 

etener  "  (tax  on  butcljering)  may  y«'t  bo  lovicd  as  a  muuicipal  tax  as  the  requiremonta 
Qf  tbe  niuiiicipal  biulj;;(?t  deinaiulH  its  coiitimiation. 

Exempt  from  municipal  taxation  aro :  («)  pnblic  endowments  maintained  by  tho 
state,  namely,  pensions  of  widows;  (/>)  retired  otlicers  and  oflleials ;  (c)  officers,  &c., 
of  tho  army  ;  (d)  clcrf^ymen  and  teachers  of  elementary  schools. 

Tho  salary  of  Government  oflicials  can  only  bo  taxed  one-half  of  its  amonnt.  The 
Klasscn  and  income  tax  of  Prnssia  do  not  vary  much  during  diflei-ent  years. 

*  •  »  •  ■  #  •  • 

Tbe  figures  referring  to  the  "  Klassensteuer  "  show  that  the  number  of  tax-payers 
who/jo  income  is  estimated  at  from  4"J0  marks  to  1,500  marks  annually  is  4,734,277  or 
89.01  percent,  of  tho  whole  number  of  the  inhabitants  subject  to  this  class  of  taxa- 
tion.    They  pay  the  largest  part  of  the  tax,  i.  e.,  27,906,'39:}  marks. 

The  figures  of  tho  "  income  tax  "  show  that  the  lowe^st  class  of  tax-payers  (whoso 
income  varies  between  3,000  marks  to  6,00(5  marks  annually)  number  121 .07"  I,  and,  con- 
sequently in  tho  majority,  pay  the  largest  part  of  the  tax,  i.  c,  l*,527,3:i4  marks. 

Regarding  "communal  taxes"  ("Kommunal  Steuer")  it  has  been  already  stated 
that  tho  communities  provide  for  the  expense  of  this  budget,  as  the  income  from  their 
property  does  not  suffice  by  addition  to  the  state  income  tax. 

It  has  been  observed,  and  it  is  the  cause  of  bitter  complaint,  that  this  system  is  an 
.unjust  one.  The  state  tax  in  itself  is  not  large;  but  additions  for  municipal  purposes 
make  it  in  many  parts  of  Gennany  burdensome. 

[Note  3. — It  seems  to  bo  generally  conceded  that  this  system  of  taxation  works 
much  hardship  upon  the  poorer  classes  of  the  people,  more  especially  those  provisions 
of  the  law  which  prescribe  the  "rent  tax"  and  tho  tax  on  tho  smaller  incomes. — 
Brewer. 


206 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY, 


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LABOR   IN    EUROPE-— GERMANY. 


201 


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208 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


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LABOK   IN   EUROPE GEKMANY. 


209 


C4 

.         ,-1         »         t~Tf. 

.    <o   e^    ino 

" 

o 

•  M 

^    o    cooo 
CO    CO    coe^i 

w   w   CO-* 

tH 
lO 

^ 

^  ^  1 

r-l 

CO 

2  61 
C   2  38 
)   2  85 
<   3  57 
i       4  04 

CO 

s 

o    -■      o 

iH 

CO 

lO 
CO 

00 

o 

o   o 

n 

.-!    in 
e^    00 

CO     IM 

g 

■♦ 

^ 

caScQ 

C3 

eo 

!>■*  — J  00    m    00  CO 

ir5r-(tr-«3     •■a'     (M(M 

eo-*ioeo    CO    ■*io 

CO 
CO 

O     -H      O     O         O 

^     rt     ^      „        ^ 

rH 

41,  614 
51, 858 
75,  038 
31, 711 

124, 000 

290,  055 
6,557 

ci 

< 

a 

1 

1 

c 
C 

c 
£ 

5 

C 
0 

1 

92  A— LAB 14 


210  LABOR    IN   EUROPE GERMANY. 

Table  ahoioing  the  average  price  of  agricultural  labor  in  Germany. 


Provinces. 


Prussia , 

Pomerania 

Posen 

Brandenburg 

Silesia 

Saxony 

Hanover 

Schieswig-Hclstein 

"Westphalia 

Kheinland 

Saxony 

Bavaria 

"Wurtemberg 

Baden , 

Hesse-Darmstadt  .. 
Elsass-Lothringen 


Winter. 


$0  31 
42 
33 
37 
22 
35 
41 
48 
41 
42 
38 
37 
44 
44 
35 
49 


Sammer. 


$0  20 
26 
29 
25 
17 
27 
32 
31 
33 
33 
29 
28 
33 
35 
29 
39 


Average. 


$0  25 
35 
26 
31 
20 
31 
36 
39 
37 
38 
34 
32 
39 
39 
32 
44 


*  This  table  is  taken  from  a  work  published  by  S.  Baring  Gould  in  1881,  entitled  "  Germany,  present 
and  past,"  and  I  am  informed  that  out  little,  if  any,  change  has  occurred  in  the  price  of  farm  labor 
since  then. 

Total  income  of  a  day  laborer  and  his  family  living  on  a  manorial  estate  in  the  province  of 

Fomtrania. 

Wages  in  money  per  year $35  70 

Wages  in  "  naturalia  " : 

Lodging $14  28 

Fuel 7  14 

Use  of  land  for  raising  potatoes 10  71 

Use  of  land  for  raising  flax 4  28 

Keeping  cow 24  09 

Keeping  slieep 4  28 

Keeping  geese 7  14 

Grain  and  wages  for  thrashing 66  40 

Carrying  (fare) 2  85 

Physician  and  medicines 2  14 

143  31 

Total  income 179  01 

In  this  budget  there  is  not  included  the  wage  earned  by  the  wife 
and  children,  nor  the  profit  accruing  from  hog-raising  and  working  up 
flax  and  wool.    Inclusive  of  these  items  the  grand  total  income  is  given 

at  $265. 

A  SIMILAR  STATEMENT  MADE  UP  IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF  EAST  PRUSSIA'. 

In  this  instance  it  is  supposed  that  the  laboring  family  (wife  and  two 
to  three  chihlren)  keeps  a  helper,  that  both  are  employed  during  the 
whole  year  (Sundays  and  holidays  excepted),  and  that  the  laborer's 
wife  works  for  the  proprietor  in  the  afternoon  during  summer  season. 

WAGES  IN  MONEY. 
a 

Husband  for  himself  and  helper  in  summer  time  (fixed) $8  56 

Wife  in  summer  (average)  7  14 

Husband  and  helper  earn  in  winter  for  the  days  on  which  thoy  do  not  thrash, 

on  an  average '    5  71 

Total 21  41 

WAGES  IN   "  NATURALIA." 

Lodging $14  28 

Fuel,  inclusive  of  carrying 9  99 

Potato  land,  manured  and  worked 8  56 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  211 

Flax $1  42 

Pasture  aud  winter  food  for  1  cow 17  §5 

Pasture  for  2  hogs 2  14 

Pasture  for  2  geese  and  their  young 3  57 

Cereals  furnished  during  summer,  on  an  average  : 

1  6.5  bushels  rye,  vakied  at $13  00 

3  bushels  barley 1  90 

3  bushels  oats 1  19 

3  bushels  peas 2  38 

18  56 

Average  amount  of  81  bushels  winter  grain  and  pulse  per  family  (for  thrash- 
ing), every  bushel  estimated  at  $0.7137,  equals,  round 57  83 

Waste  grain  in  thrashing 1  42 

Physician  and  medicines,  gratis,  given  by  employer 2  14 

Total 137  76 

PROFITS  FROM   OWN  USE  AND  FURTHER  WORKING  OF   "NATUEALIA"   RECEIVED. 

Additional  amount  derived  from  utilizing  the  potato  land $9  28 

Additional  amount  derived  from  utilizing  flax  l?ind 7  14 

Wife's  spinning,  weaving,  and  making  clothes  in  winter 7  14 

Additional  profits  from  hog- raising 10  71 

Additional  profits  from  geese  and  chickens 8  56 

Total 42  83 

Grand  total  of  income 202  06 

Eeferriug  to  this  last  statement  showing  the  income  of  a  laboring 
family  (husband,  wife,  and  two  to  three  children)  and  helper,  a  state- 
ment showing  the  expenditures  for  same  is  given,  which  is  reported  to 
have  been  made  up  by  a  committee  after  hearing  the  respective  laborers  : 

Food: 

Rye  and  pulse,  round $42  84 

Potatoes 17  13 

Pork  (250  pounds),  9.5  cents  per  pound 23  75 

Other  meat  (50  pounds),  7.1  cents  per  pound 3  57 

Three-fourths  of  a  barrel  herrings,  $4.28  per  barrel 3  21 

900  liters  milk,  1.78  cents  per  liter 16  06 

100  pounds  of  salt,  2.38  cents  per  pound 2  38 

5  pounds  of  coifee,  28  cents  per  pound 1  42 

13  pounds  of  sugar,  14  cents  per  pound 1  85 

26  liters  whisky 2  47 

Spices 30 

Total $114  98 

Clothing : 

2  pair  boots  for  husband 4  99 

2  pair  boots  for  wife 1  90 

4  pair  boots  for  children 1  90 

Flax,  wool,  cotton  for  spinning,  knitting,  and  weaving 10  71 

Smaller  wearing  apparel 1  70 

100  days'  work,  7.14  cents  each,  of  wife  in  spinning,  &o 7  14 

Total 28  54 

Lodging 14  28 

Firing  aud  light 10  83 

Sundries : 

Train  oil  for  boots 1  14 

Soap  (27  pounds) 2  14 

Tear  and  wear  of  furniture,  beds,  &c 4  28 

Tools,  implements 1  78 

Physician,  medicines 2  14 

Total 11  48 


212 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


Taxes,  wages: 

Wage  to  the  helper $14  28 

Taxes  to  state,  church 1  72 

And  school 71 

Total $16  41 

Grand  total  of  expenditures 196  52 

Grand  total  of  income 202  06 

Balance 5  54 


Rates  of  tvages  in  Berlin. 
[Taken  from  a  recent  publication  of  the  statistical  burean  of  the  city  of  Berlin.] 


Wages  per  week. 

<s 

1 

> 
« 

(4 
P< 

Ocoapations. 

Time-work. 

Piece-work. 

•il 

Low- 
est. 

Aver- 
age. 

High- 
est. 

Low-  Aver- 
est.    age. 

High- 
est. 

1 

Stone-cntters : 

$5  00 
5  71 
5  00 
3  57 
3  57 
3  57 

$5  42 
6  42 
5  71 
4  28 

3  80 

4  28 

$6  28 
7  14 
7  14 
4  76 
4  28 

$3  57    

$5  23 

$6  42 

Cent*. 

Hra. 
10 

10 

12 

4  28 



5  23 

12 

12 

4  76 
4  28 

5  71 
4  64 

12 

Crockeryware : 

5  00 

23 

13 

13 

13 

5  71 
5  00 
5  35 
3  82 
3  37 

5  00 

r  1* 

4  25 
3  92 

5  71 

3  21 
3  57 

52 

71 
35 

Potters : 

3  57 

6  71 

12 

12 

Porcelain : 

3  57 
3  92 
2  61 

5  35 
5  71 

3  ."i? 

7  25 
7  73 
4  76 
4  76 

2  01     3  57 

71 

5  71 

4  28 
2  85 

2  85 

2  38 
71 

3  57 

1  42 

6  06 

4  76 

3  37 

4  28 

2  85 
1  07 

5  00 
5  71 
5  00 

2  38 

6  42 

5  23 

3  92 

6  42 

4  28 
1  42 

7  14 

In  porcelain  factories : 

f   ^ 

Molders i 

Goldsmillis: 

n 

11 

11 

In  Bilver-Kooda  factories: 

EoUcrs 

3  57 

7  14 
4  76 
3  57 
2  14 

5  71 
1  90 

8  56 
2  38 

•^  10 

2  14 
71 

2  38 

4  76 

J 
1 

In  German  silver  factories  : 

4  28 

5  7lj 

11  90 
14  28 

i;:::: 

2  85 

5  00 

5  71- 
2  14 
5  95 

5  71 
5  71 

7  14 
2  85 

8  56 

14  28 

7  14 

14  28 
3  80 
11  90 

4  28 

5  7lj 

ii  90 
14  28 

!•:;: 

.  u 

2  14 

4  04 

5  71 

71 
3  57 

3  57 

71 

3  57 

i  07 
4  28 

4  28 

■4'28' 

1  42 
5  00 

5  00 

1  78 
7  14 

Girdlers : 

Journeymen 

4  28 

6  42 

12 

12 

Tin-founders,  j ourne ymen 

4  28 

8  56 



12 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Bates  of  wages  in  Berlin— Continued. 


213 


Wages  per  week. 

1 
Ah 

Occupation. 

Time-work. 

Piece-work. 

Low- 
est. 

Aver 
age. 

High 
est. 

Low- 
est. 

1 
Aver-  High 
age.     est. 

1 

Braziers : 

$3  57 

3  57 

2  85 

71 

2  85 

5  00 

$4  76 
4  76 

4  28 
95 

3  35 

5  71 

6  66 

4  76 

5  71 

4  85 

4  28 

3  57 

5  oe 

4  28 

5  00 
5  00 
5  95 
4  76 
3  21 
2  38 

95 

2  85 

3  57 

2  61 

3  57 

3  80 

4  28 

$5  71 
5  65 
5  00 
1  19 
3  57 

7  14 

$4  76 
4  04 
4  04 

«>A  OR     47    -lA 

Cents 

Hrs. 

5   00 

5  00 

6  18 
6  18 

"'.'.'.'J      12 

Apprentices 

12 
12 

13 
13 
13 

12 

Woikmen 

In  Berlin  brass  works  : 

Artisans 

Fonudera 

Operatives 

3  92 

4  28 
3  28 

3  57 

2  85 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 

8  33 

7  28 
7  80 

5  71 

4  28 

7  14 

5  71 
7  14 

■     ' " 

In  Berlin  copper  and  brass  works  : 

Artisans 

"Workmen 

12 

Coppersuiitbs : 

Jonrnejinen 

5  71 

6  42 

7  14 

12 
12 

Lalxirers 

In  metal-jroods  factories : 

Turners 

10 

Locksmiths 

10 

Coppersmiths 

10 

Painters 

10 
10 

Girdlers 

5  35 

3  57 

2  14 
1  78 

83 

1  78 

3  33 

2  38 
52  85 
^3  35 

3  57 

6  42 
5  95 
4  28 
3  57 

1  19 

3  57 

4  28 

2  85 

5  00 

4  76 

5  00 

Polishers 

3  57 

5  35 

7  14 

10 
10 

Operatives,  male 

10 

Appieutices 

10 

10 

In  foundries  of  articles  of  art : 

Founders,  molders 

54  28 
U  76 

^4  52 

9 

47 

9 

12 

5feedle-makers,  journeymen 

3  57 

4  28 

5  00 

12 
10 

2  85 

4  28 

5  71 

12 

3  57 
2  38 
2  85 
2  85 

4  99 

1  42 

2  85 

4  28 
4  28 

4  28 

3  21 

2  92 

3  57 

4  76 
3  57 

5  71 

1  78 

3  57 

4  45 

4  76 

4  53 
3  72 

4  28 

5  71 

6  42 

5  71 

6  42 
2  14 

4  76 

5  71 
5  71 

5  71 

4  28 

13 

2  14 

2  38 

3  57 

3  21 

4  28 
4  28 

4  28 

5  71 

5  71 

6  42 
6  42 

10  71 

13 

Cutlers,  journeymen 

12 

12 

Steel-])en  workers : 

11 

Girls 

11 

Nailsmiths,  journeymen 

2  14 

2  85^ 

6  11 

7  54 
«  33 

8  09 

3  57 

4  76 

f 

12 

In  engine  works : 

Mechanics  

\  "i 
114 

5';S 

lis 

12 

lU 
12 

9J 
12 

lilacksmiths 

Joijiers > 

Molders I 

Workmen 

In  sewing-machine  factories : 

Locksmiths 

4  28 
4  28 
3  33 
2  61 

'3' 57" 

2  38 

3  57 

[4  28 

5  47 

5  23 
4  28 

3  33 

4  28 

6  90 

'4'28' 

4  76 

5  95 

6  18 
5  95 
5  00 
3  80 

Joiners 

Workmen,  male 

Workmen,  female 

Cartwri-ilits,  journeymen 

2  85 

3  59 
2  85 
2  85 
2  85 

5  00 

4  28 

5  00 

5  47 
2  85 
1  90 
1  42 
1  42 

3  57 

4  61 
4  28 
4  76 

4  28 

5  17 
5  00 
5  71 

5  95 
3  54 
2  38 
1  90 
1  42 

4  76 
6  42 

5  71 

6  42 

7  14 

6  42 

6  42 

7  14 

7  14 
4  28 
2  85 
2  38 
1  90 

Telegraph-makers,  journeymen 

Mechanicians,  ji>urue\Tnen 

7  14 

6  42 

7  14 

7  14 

Surpical-instiumeut  makers 

Watch-makers,  journeymen 

In  lamp  tactories  : 

Brazil  rs 

Girdleis 

12J 

Turners 

In  a  chemical  factories: 

Foremen 

Laborers 

•   19 

Worn  en  and  girls 

1 

Workers  under  sixteen  years 

214 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Eates  of  wages  in  Berlin — Contiuued. 


Ocoapations. 


Wages  per  week. 


Time-work. 


Low- 
est. 


Aver- 


High- 
est. 


Piece-work. 


Low- 
est. 


Aver-  High' 
age.     est. 


In  an  aniline  color  factory : 

Foremen 

Artisau.s 

Laboreis 

Operatives 

Soap-iuakers 

Day  laborers 

Ethereal  oils  factories,  operatives .. . 
Asphaltera 

Rooters 

In  silk-^oods  factories  (operatives) : 

Male 

Female 

In  wool  mills : 

Weavers 

Shearers 

Winders,  female 

Hand- workers,  female 

Macliine-workers,  female 

Waipers,  female 

Ribboii-makers,  journeymen 

Weavers : 

Jouineymen 

Warpers 

Winders,  female 

Carpet  weavers : 

Operatives 

Workers,  female 

Weavers 

Cloth-makers,  journeymen 

In  a  Berlin  velveteen  factory  : 

Operatives 

Apprentices 

Women 

Girls 

In  bleaching  and  dyeing  works: 

Laborers 

Women 

Foremen 

Girls 

In  reiining  works  (dressing  fabrics) ; 

Masters 

Laborers,  male 

Laborers,  female 

Fullers 

Carders,  female 

Silk  button  and  tiimming  makers : 

Foremen «. 

Manager,  female 


Journeymen . 


Girls  . 


Kopo-makers : 

Journeymen 

Apprentices 

Lads 

Statuary,  paste-board  factories : 

Foremen 

Gilders 

Joinirs 

Bookbinders 

Laborers 

Gilders,  females 

Artisans 

Tanners : 

Journeymen 

A  ppreutices 

Workmen 

Bookbinders : 

Journeymen 

Girls 


$5  00 
5  00 
3  14 

3  57 

4  28 
3  21 


5  00 
4  28 


3  57 
1  66 


$5  71 
5  71 
3  14 

3  92 

4  76 

3  57 

4  28 

5  95 
5  23 

3  92 
2  14 


Cents. 


$6  42 
6  42 

3  74 

4  28 

5  95 
5  00 


7  14 
6  42 


5  00  

•2  61  $2  14 


1  42 

1  42 


2  14 

1  90 


2  85 

2  85 

2  85 
1  19 

3  57 
1  78 


3  57 

3  21 

4  28 
1  78 

4  28 
1  90 


3  21 

2  38 

4  28 

4  28 

3  57 

5  71 
2  49 

5  00 
2  14 


2  85 


2  38 
1  90 

3  21 
1  78 
5  71 

1  64 

5  00 

2  38 

1  66 

3  57 
3  57 

6  42 

2  38 
(3  57) 
]  to  [ 
k  28i 

1  42 


3  21 
1  07 
1  42 


3  21 

2  49 
2  85 


4  28 


3  57 
2  14 


$2  85  $3  57 


2  14 
4  28 
2  14 
1  90 
1  66 


3  45 
5  71 
2  85 
2  85 
2  38 


I  42 


2  85 


2  38 
4  76 

2  38 

3  57 

'285 


3  57 


3  92  3  57 
2  49  1  30 
8  56 


5  59 
2  85 

1  90 
4  28 
4  28 

7  14 

2  85 


1  90 


8  33 

4  28 

2  38 

5  71 
5  71 

8  56 

3  57 

5  71 

i2  38) 
to  [ 

^2  85) 


4  28 
1  19 


3  57  4  28  1  07 
1  30  I  1  54 
1  78  2  14 


4  28 
4  28 
3  57 
3  21 
1  90 


7  49 
5  71 
5  00 

3  92 

4  28 
2  38 

5  00 


3  57 

1  42 


7  14 
5  71 

4  64 

5  23 
3  21 


2  85 
1  42 


4  64  5  00 

2  14  3  92 

3  57  3  92 

4  04  5  00 
1  90  2  85 


3  57 
3  57 

3  57 


4  28 


7  14 
2  85 


4  28 
§'57 


5  11 
2  38 


2  38 
1  42 


4  76 
7  14 

3  57 

4  76 
4  28 


4  28 


3  57 
9  52 
3  33 

5  71 


4  28 


6  66 
2  85 


6  42 

4  28 
1  78 


5  00 
5  00 
5  00 


5  35 


2  85  4  28 
1  42  2  88 


6  42 
6  42 
6  42 


5  71 


5  71 
3  57 


Hr8. 


12 


13 

12 

10 
10 

13 
11 

10 
10 
10 

■8J-10i 
10 

■  \      10 

'  14 

'   14 

■  ^* 
12 
12 
12 
12 

12 
12 
12 
12 

12 
12 
12 
18 

13 
13 
13 
13 
13 

11 
11 

11 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


215 


Bates  of  wages  in  Berlin — Contmued. 


Ocoapationa. 


Bookbinders— Continued. 

Gilders,  male 

G-ildora,  female 

Leather-workers 

Harness-makers 

Wagoneis 

Cigar-case  makers 

Military-eli'ects  makers 

TJpbolsters : 

JoTiiueymen 

"Women 

Steam  saw-mill  workers 

Steam  saw-mill  laborers 

Joiners : 

For  buildings 

For  furniture 

Coopers,  jonrneymeu 

Basket-makers,  journeymen 

Makers  of  bufi'alo-born  buttons 

Women 

Makers  of  vegetable  ivory  buttons : 

Master 

Laborers,  female 

Laborers,  male 

Girls 

Comb-makers,  journeymen 

Varnishera,  journeymen 

Gilders,  journeymen : 

Male 

Female 

Steam  millors 

Firemen 

Locksmiths 

Laborers 

Bakers : 

First  iourneyman  (and  free  board) 

Second  journeyman  (and  free  board) 

Third  journeyman  (and  free  board) 

Confectioners,   journeymen  (and  free  board),  per 

month 

Butchers,  jduraeymen  (and  free  board) 

Mineral- water  workers 

Brewery : 

Brewers per  month.. 

Coopers do 

Laborers  .  - 

Ci^rnr-raakers: 

Male 

Female 

Linen-makers: 

Foremen per  month.. 

Cutter-out 

Tailors : 

Journeymen 

Females 

Ladies'  cloak  makers 

Females 

Hatters : 

Journeymen 

Laborers,  female 

Fur-makers : 

Journeymen 

Laborers,  female 

Glove-makers,  journeymen 

Shoemakers : 

Journeymen 

Journeymen 

Hair-dressers,  journeymen  (with  board) 

Masons 

Carpenters 

A  ppreiiticos 

Laborers 

Glaziers,  journeymen 


"Wages  per  week. 


Time-work. 


Low- 
est. 


Aver- 


High, 
est. 


76  $5  71 


Piece-work. 


Low- 
est. 


Aver- 


21  42 


2  14 


2  14 
4  28 

3  57 

4  04 
3  68 

3  80 

4  76 

2  38 

5  95 

3  57 

5  00 


4  28 
2  85 
4  28 
2  14 

6  42 

2  35 

3  21 

1  66 
3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

2  14 

5  83 
5  83 
5  59 
4  56 

2  85 
2  14 

1  78 

10  00 

2  14 

3  57 

23  80 


2  85 
5  71 
4  28 
4  76 

4  28 
4.52 

5  71 
2  85 
8  33 
5  00 

5  71 
5  71 
5  71 

4  28 

5  00 
2  85 

8  56 

2  85 


57  i$4  76 
4  04 
4  52 
4  16 
4  28 


High 
est. 


$5  95 


1  90 

4  28 

4  28 

5  00 

2  85 

6  23 
5  83 
5  83 
5  00 

3  57 
2  61 

2  14 

14  25 

3  57 

4  64 

38  55 


3  57 

1  78 


4  28 
2  14 


27  37  32  13 
3  57 


2  85 
1  42 
4  28 


4  76 

2  38 

3  57 
1  90 
3  33 


1  10 

3  99 

4  21 

4  78 


4  28 


3  85 
2  85 

4  85 


6  42 
2  85 

4  28 
2  38 
4  28 

4  28 


1  42 
4  56 
4  56 

2  14 


7  14 


4  28 
2  85 


2  38 
1  66 


1  66 
3  57 


3  33 


2  85 


3  57 


3  33 

1  66 

2  85 

2  14 

1  90 

2  38 


3  57 


t  28 
2  38 


2  14 
4  28 


3  80 

2  14 

3  33 


2  85 

3  57 


4  76 


6  42 
6  42 


6  18 
3  69 


2  85 
5  71 


4  28 


Cents 


4  28 


7  14 


2  14 


4  28 
2  85 
4  28 

4  28 
4  041 
4  76< 


5  71 


Hrs. 
12 
12 
12 
10 
10 
10 
10 

94 
91 
11 
U 

13 
13 
10 
12 
12 
12 

11 
11 
11 
11 
13 
13 

12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 

13 

13 
13 


16,17 
13 

12 

12 
12 

12 

12 

12 
12 

10,11 


11 
11 

12 
12 
12 

12 

12-14 

16 

9i 

9 

9 

10 


216 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE— GERMANY. 


Bates  of  wages  in  Berlin — Continued. 


Wages  per  week. 

a 

0 

Oooapatioiis. 

Time-work. 

Piece-work. 

M4^ 

Low- 
est. 

Aver- 
age. 

High- 

est. 

Low- 
est. 

Aver- 
age. 

High- 
est. 

^ 

0 

^ 

$3  92 
5  00 

4  28 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

6  28 
6  71 

$4  28 
5  71 

5  16 

4  28 

6  33 

5  30 

6  85 
6  75 
6  28 

5  71 

6  02 
1  71 
3  59 

1  71 

2  35 

7  59 
6  87 

2  57 

3  80 

35  70 
35  70 
17  85. 

4  76 

19  69 
21  42 
25  00 
21  42 

$5  OO 
7  14 

7  14 
5  00 

8  56 
7  14 

7  85 

9  13 

I'u 

8  56 

Cents. 

Hrs. 
9 

$8  56 

$9  52 

10 

10 

8  57 

$4  28 

5  71 

10 

Pnntinjr-office  of  GeniiaD  Empire: 

10 

'7'i4' 
7  14 
7  04 

7' 85 

7  85 
7  85 

k'hh' 

8  56 
8  56 

10 

10 

Setters 

10 

Copper-plate  prjnters 

10 

5  00 
5  00 

10 

5  71 

6  42 

4  14 

10 

2  74 
1  71 
1  99 
7  14 
4  28 

1  85 

2  14 

23  08 
23  08 
14  25 

3  57 

5  00 

1  71 
3  57 
8  56 
8  56 

2  85 

6  06 

47  60 
47    6 
23  81 

7  14 

10 

10 

10 

J 

..   .. 

>7-9 

) 

5  71 

Hi 

Merchants: 

Managing  clerks per  month. . 

Book-keepers do 

Sellers :  store-keepers do 

Apprentices do 

Berlin  Steamship  Company,  captains: 

...  1 

t 

> 

9-18 

J 



19  63 



19  63 
17  85 
12  13 
10  71 

2  85 

3  21 



Lad 

Common  day-laborers : 

Field 

Factories 

2  28 
2  85 

3  21 
3  57 

^2  85 

4  76 

6  18 

59-71 
35-47 

71-83 
5&-71 

10 

Laborers  on  macademizod  streets  (with  cloth- 
ing)    

Sculptors : 

3  67 

2  85 

3  64 

2  38 
71 

5  23 

4  76 

5  23 

3  57 
83 

8  56 
7  14 
7  61 

4  71 
95 

10 

10 

10 

Molilera: 

4  28 

5  71 

6  42 

1*} 

12 

STATEMENT  SHi  (WING  TIIE  INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURES  OP  TWO  LABORERS  IN  BERLIN. 

Laborer  emj)loyed  in  a  coal-yard,  iciih  famUn  in  very  poor  circumstances. — Forty-one 
years  old  ;  day  laborer  in  a  coal-yard  ;  a  wife  and  fonr  children  ;  earns  about.  $1*23  a 
year,  but  very  uncertain  ;  does  job  work,  according  to  business;  cannot  support  his 
family  upon  such  wages ;  his  wife  is  compelled  to  do  all  sorts  of  work — washing — and 
eldest  daughter,  fifteen  years  old,  assists. 

United  earnings  amount  to  about  $183.73.  Detailed  expenditures :  Two  rooms,  and 
kitchen  in  the  court-yard,  basement,  $77.11;  clothing,  $23.80;  food,  $.')1.40  ;  income 
tax  for  city,  $3.57  ;  fuel,  $10,71  ;  school  books,  $3.80  ;  doctor,  medicines,  $7.14  ;  sun- 
dries, $8.  r)G  ;  total,  $180.09.  Saving,  therefore,  is  out  of  question.  Wo  live  mostly 
on  potatoes  we  raise  on  a  piece  of  land  let  by  Berlin  magistrate  against  a  fee  of  $2.14. 
Meat  wo  cat  only  fonr  times  a  week,  buying  half  a  pound,  worth  11  cents. 

Cobbler  and  gaH-lighter. — Thirty-nine  years  old  ;  a  wife  and  two  little  children  ;  earns 
about  $300  per  annum  when  ho  has  full  era  ployment ;  works  according  to  business ; 
wife  does  small  housework  for  other  people. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  217 

Total  income  about  $3.23  Expenses  :  Two  rooms,  one  kitchen  in  the  court-yard  base- 
ment, $77.35;  clothing,  $35.70;  food,  $171.36;  rent,  tax,  $2.85;  aid  society,  71  cents  j 
doctor,  medicines,  $4.28;  sundries,  $17.85 ;  total,  $320.10.  No  saving,  and  we  have 
to  take  quite  meager  meals ;  a  little  piece  of  meat  and  vegetables — mostly  pota- 
toes— for  dinuer. 

STATEMENT  SHOWING  INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  TWO  MASONS  IN  BERLIN. 

A  mason,  having  a  wife  and  three  children,  residing  outside  Berlin. — Thirty-nine  years 
old  ;  I  am  a  mason  ;  jouruoynian,  and  work  for  about  eight  months  in  Berlin ;  the  other 
part  of  the  year  I  live  with  my  family;  I  have  a  wife  and  three  children  ;  the  oldest 
is  ten,  the  youngest  five  years  old ;  they  reside  in  a  village  in  the  province  of  Brand- 
enburg ;  I  receive  here  in  Berlin  4  marks  (95  cents)  a  day  of  10  hours,  or  40  pf.  (9.5  cents) 
per  hour.  This  rate  of  wages  is  now  paid  throughout  Berlin  to  masons  of  my  class. 
As  long  as  the  daylight  permits,  we  commence  work  at  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  and 
quit  at  G  o'clock.  In  the  later  season  of  the  year,  when  the  days  get  shorter,  we  work 
with  electric  light,  or  gas-light,  in  some  instances.  For  about  four  months  and  longer 
I  am  without  work  in  the  building  trade,  and  try  to  do  any  work  I  may  get. 

We  take  half  an  hour  for  breakfast  (8.30  to  9  o'clock) ;  one  hour  for  dinner  at  noon, 
and  half  an  hour  at  4  o'clock  vespers.  We  take  our  supper  after  the  day's  work  is 
done.  Can  hardly  support  my  family  on  such  wages ;  especially  in  winter,  if  I  can- 
not find  work,  and  the  money  I  saved  in  summer  is  used  up. 

In  the  summer-time  my  wife  works  on  a  farm,  for  which  services  we  have  the  use 
of  a  piece  of  land  to  grow  potatoes  on  (about  45  schetfel  =  67  bushels)  and  to  keep  a 
goat  for  milk  and  to  raise  a  hog  for  meat  purposes.  I  can  hardly  tell  what  we  earn  a 
year.  The  last  winter  I  had  to  contract  debts  to  get  along,  as  I  was  two  months 
without  work.  In  the  other  years  we  made  no  debts,  but  saved  nothing.  My  own 
earnings,  taking  eight  mouths'  work,  and  the  mouth  at  twenty-two  davs,  may  average 
1,000  marks  (.$23b). 

Expouses  :  For  rent — my  sleeping  place  in  Berlin  for  eight  months,  $11.42 ;  outside 
Berlin  (family)  for  twelve  months,  $12.85  ;  clothing  for  self  and  family,  $29.75;  food 
per  day,  self  in  Berlin,  42.8  cents,  for  eight  mouths,  $102.72;  family,  outside  (17.85 
cents)  for  eight  months,  $42.H5;  food  per  day,  self,  family  at  home  (42.8  cents)  for 
four  months,  $51.30;  fuel  and  light,  in  all,  $7.14;  municipal  income  tax  in  Berlin, 
$1.42;  school-tax  at  home,  71  cents;  tobacco,  $9.28;  sundries,  $28.65;  Mechanics' 
Aid  Society,  Berlin,  $2.85;  total,  $301.00. 

When  in  Berlin  I  want  nearly  the  like  articles  of  food  as  the  other  single  fellow- 
journeymen.  When  in  my  home  village  we  eat  only  on  three  day  of  the  week  a  little 
meat,  mostly  i)0tf5'0C8  of  our  own  growth,  but  little  coffee  or  milk,  soup,  with  rye 
bread  in  the  morning,  and  bread  or  potatoes  for  supper. 

As  already  stated,  the  ])ortiou  I  save  during  summer  is  mostly  used  up  during 
the  winter.  If  I  get  sick  I  have  physiciau  and  medicines  gratis,  throiagh  the  Mechan- 
ics' Aid  Association. 

Maxon  (single). — Twenty-si  x  years  old  ;  a  bachelor;  earn  95  cents  per  day.  In  win- 
ter-time 1  try  to  find  manual  labor,  of  whatever  nature  it  may  be,  to  earn  something 
to  live  upon. 

Expenses:  For  food,  $173  ;  sleeping  place,  $17.36  ;  clothing,  $18.32;  fuel  and  light, 
$2.38;  municipal  income  tax,  $1.42;  dues  to  Mechanics' Aid  Association,  $2.85;  to- 
bacco, $9.28  ;  sundries,  $14.85  ;  total,  $239.46;  approximate  iucome,  $238. 

For  breakfast,  bread  and  coffee  ;  for  dinner,  meat  and  one  kind  of  vegetables;  at  4 
o'clock,  beer  and  bread  ;  for  supper,  bread,  sausage,  or  cheese  and  beer.  The  last 
year  I  earned  as  much  as  I  wanted  ;  but  this  was  not  always  the  case  in  former  years. 

STATEMENT   SHOWING  THE   INCOME  AND   EXPENDITURES   OF  TWO   BOOKBINDERS. 

Bookbinder,  having  a  wife  and  three  children  (hale  and  hearty  in  appearance). — I 
am  thirty-three  years  old  ;  I  am  an  ordinary  bookbinder ;  I  have  a  wife  and  three 
children  ;  the  oldest  is  six,  the  youngest  three  years  old.  I  receive  89  cents  a  day 
(the  average  wages  being  from  71  to  101  cents) ;  ten  hours.  We  begin  work  at  7 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  quit  at  7  o'clock  p.  m. ;  one-half  hour  for  breakfast  (8.30 
o'clock),  one  hour  for  dinner  at  1  o'clock,  one-quarter  hour  (4.30  o'clock)  for  vespers. 
Supper  is  taken  after  work.  Cannot  fully  support  family  upon  such  wages ;  the  de- 
ficiency is  made  up  by  letting  a  room,  &c. 

Income  about  $370.'  Expenses  :  For  rent  two  rooms  and  kitchen,  $92.82;  food  and 
fuel,  I  give  my  wife  a  weekly  household  money  of  $3.57  X  52  =  $185.64  ;  clothing,  self 
and  family,  $38;  rent  tax,  $5.71;  municipal  income  tax,  $1.90;  Mechanics' Aid  Society, 
$9;  smoking,  $8.56;  newspapers,  $4.28;  beer  and  amusements,  $25;  total,  $370.91. 
We  are  unable  to  save  anything. 


218 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Bookbinder,  bachelor  {an  orderly-looking  man). — Twenty-seven  years  old ;  engaged 
in  lettering  and  gilding  ;  has  no  family  ;  earus  89  cent«  per  day ;  ten  hours'  work 
(from  7  o'clock  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.). 

Income  about  $"27d.  Expenses :  Rent,  sleeping  place,  §21.42;  clothing,  $16.18;  boots, 
&c.,  $4.76:  food,-$l-i3.84;  washing,  $6.80;  light  and  fuel,  $2.14;  income  tax,  $1.42; 
Mechanics  Aid  Society,  $:}.57 ;  periodicals,  books,  $').9b ;  amusements  (I  am  no  smoker), 
f  12.37;  total,  $198.45 ;  balance  of  $79.55  is  invested  in  a  savings  bank. 

Common  day-laborers  get  2  marks  (48  cents)  per  day;  work-time, 
twelve  hours,  includinj]^  pauses. 

A  man  who  receutlj'  furnished  the  workmen  coffee,  beer,  &c.,  describes 
their  general  manner  of  living  as  follows : 

Table  showing  income  and  expenditure  of  laborers  employed  in  the  city  of  Berlin  for  work 

on  the  seiverage. 


Items  of  expenditure. 


Cost. 


Breakfast  about  9  a.  m.  usually ;  coffee  and  ordinary  rolls 

Rye-bread  and  cheese,  without  butter 

Dinner,  one  portion  in  so-called  people's  kitchen 

Lunch,  coffee  and  ordinary  roU,  or  beer  and  rye-bread 

Supper,  after  work  

Sleeping-place  per  night 

Total 

"Wages  per  day 

Balance  remaining  for  clothing  and  all  other  necessities 


Cents. 
2.35 
7.14 
7.14 
4.70 
4.70 
4.70 

30.73 
48.00 


17.  iff 


Comparative  statement  of  weekly  average  wages  at  Berlin  in  July,    1881,  atid  February, 

1884. 

[Taken  from  publications  of  the  statistical  bureau  of  the  city  of  Berlin.] 


Ooonpations. 


Potters 

Girdlers 

Coppersmiths 

Brass  founders 

Needlcrs  and  sieve-makers 

File-cutters 

Tinsmiths 

Locksmiths 

Blacksmiths 

Machiue  builders 

Wheelwrights 

Sur!:i(;al-in8trumentmak- 
ers 

Mechanicians   and  opti- 
cians   

Soap-makers 

Silk-ribhon  makers 

Weavers : 

Warp  shearers    

Spoolers  (female) 

Trimming-lace  and  but- 
ton makers 

Hosiery-makers   (women 
and  girls) 

Kopeujakers 

Tanners 

Bookbinders 


July,  1881. 

$3  .57 

3  57 

$4  28-4  99 

3  57 

3  92 

3  09 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 

2  25-3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

3  57 

3  57 

2  15 

3  57 

1  60 

3  92 

1  78 

3  57 

4  28 

4  10 

February, 
1884. 


4  28 
4  28 
4  76 

3  57 

4  28 
4  09 
4  28 
4  28 
4  47 

3  57 

4  76 

4  28 
3  92 

3  57 

4  28 
1  75 

4  99 

1  42 

3  .57 

4  64 
4  28 


Occupations. 


1  Albtim-makers 

I  Saddlers,  harness 

I  Upholsterers 

i  Joiners 

j  Coopers 

Brush-makers 

Comb-makers 

Varnishers 

Bakers  (with  board  and 
lodging) 

Butchers    (with    board 
and  lodging) 

Tobacco  factorj' workers 

(men) 

I  Tailors , 

Ladies'  cloak  makers 

Fui'riera     

,  Gloves-makers 

Shoemakers  (piece-work) 

Hair-diessers 

Masons  

Roofers  (slates)    

Laborers  (unskilled) 

Operatives  in  chemical 
factories.     

Sculptors  and  plasterers. 

Painters 


July,  1881. 


$4  28-4  99 
4  99 
3  57 
3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

3  33 

4  28 

2  38 

2  38 

3  57 

2  85 

4  28 

3  57 
2  85 

2  85-3  57 

2  14 

4  64 
7  14 

3  21 

3  57 

4  28 
4  76 


February, 
1884. 


$4  28 
3  57 

3  57 
57-4  28 

4  28 
4  04 
3  57 
3  57 


2  41 

3  57 

2  85 

4  38 

3  57 
3  33 

2  85-3  57 

*1  19 

3  99 

5  71 

2  85 

3  57 
5  23 

4  26 


•With  board. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


219 


Salaries  and  wages  paid  bt/  the  Great  Berlin  Tramway  Company  to  their  offidals  and  em- 
ployes. 

[Without  board.] 


Occupations. 


I  Hours 
per  day. 


Yard  managers : 

First-class  ($428  salary,  $178  for  rent) . . . 

Second-class  ($357 salary,  $107  for  rent). 

Contro'lers  (.liter  Ave  years'  service) 

Master  drivers 

Forase  masters 

Conductors 

Drivers 

Forage-drivers 

Fore-riders 

Stablemen 

Car-cleauers  

Kight  watchmen 

Machinists 

.Attmdersof  sick  horses 

Switchmen 

Bridge  watchmen 

Blacksmiths         

Track  watchmen 

Locksmiths  

"Wheelwrights  and  masons 

Saddlers 

Workers  in  shops 

Day  laborers 


Service. 


Yearly 

..     do    

Monthly... 

Yearly 

— do 

Monthly... 

— do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

.-  do    

...do 

...do 

.-  do 

...do 

Weekly 

DaUy 

...do 

...do 

..  do 

..  do 

Daily 


Pay. 


$6oc  oa 

464  oa 

as  7t 

428  0« 
357  00 

17  70-21  40 

18  50-21  40 

21  40 

14  28 

17  13-17  80 

17  80-18  96 

18  56-21  40 

17  80-21  40 

18  5&-21  40 
17  80-18  5G 

17  80 
4  99 
54.  7-59.  5  cents. 
71.4-107      " 
71  4-95      " 
71. 4-95      " 
59.5-71.4      " 
57. 10      " 


Note.— The  employes  mentioned  from  yard  managers  to  fore-riders,  inclasive,  in  addition  to  tbwr 
pay,  receive  free  uniforms.    Pensions  paid  when  the  persons  employed  become  old  or  unable  to  work, 

Average  salaries  and  wages  paid  per  year  by  the  Prussian  Government  to  the  officials  and 
employes  of  the  Hamburg  Railroad. 


Class  of  employment. 


President  

Members  of  the  board  of  directors : 

Two,  each • 

Two,  each 

Two  legal  advisers,  each 

Director  of  trains 

Superintendent  of  trains 

Chief  engineer  

Chief  of  the  technical  bureau 

Chief  cashier 

Comptrollers 

Chief  book-keepers,  recorders,  &c.. 

Clerks 

Co|  yi.sts 

Draftsmen  

Telegraph  inspector 

Freight  custodian 

Track  engineers 

Track  masters 

Track  assistants 

Watchmen  on  the  line 

Foremen  on  the  line -': 

Station  inspector 

Station  heads 

Assistant  inspectors 

Telegraphers 

Porters 

Switchmen 


Pay. 


$5,355 


570 


071 
142 

428 
785 
547 
190 
761  I 
511  I 
375  1 
287  ; 
380  ' 
642  I 
833  i 
987  : 
368 
273 
$137  to  204  ■ 
161 
630 
404 
391 
285 
202  I 
179 


Class  of  employment. 


Car  revisers 

Coal  measurer 

Coal  measurer's  assistants 

Messengers 

Night  watchmen 

Watchmen 

Manager,  freight  department 

Custodian : 

Heavy  freight 

Light  freight  and  baggage 

Assistants   

Baggage-master,  station 

Weighers 

Ticket  sellers 

Ticket  printers 

Conductor,  chief 

Baggage-master  on  train 

Conductors  (first  class) 

Conductor's  assistants  (second class) 

Engine  cleaners  

Master  machinists 

First  assistant 

Second  assistant 

Auditor,  repair  shop 

Porters,  repair  shop .,     

Locomotive  engineers 

Locomotive  firemen 


Pay. 


$278 
657 
345 
238 
258 
166 
1,423 

$C90  to  737 
476 
345 

226  to  285 
214 
214 

214  to  338 
287 
249 
190 
157 
182 
833 
52S 
368 
511 
202 

238  to  428 
207 


Note  1.— German  officials,  generally,  received  an  allowance  for  lodgings  or  rent,  being  a  certain  per 
cent,  based  on  the  amount  of  salary  received  by  each  some  twelve  years  ago.  It  was  enacted  that  all 
places  throughout  Germany  should  be  graded  into  five  classes,  according  to  the  cost  of  living,  Berlin 
constituting  the  highest  class.  These  several  classes  are  gr;Klect  upon  nearly  the  following  ratio  :  5 
6,  9,  12,  15,  and  20  ;  Berlin  con.stituting  the  last  class.  The  rate  of  allowance  to  the  several" grades  of 
officials  in  Berlin  is  about  as  follows  :  Ministers,  chiefs  of  the  highest  authorities,  receive  $119;  chiefs 
of  departments  and  the  like,  $95  ;  officers  in  the  departments,  &c.,  $71 ;  inferior  officials  $42  •'  lowest 
officials,  $20.  ' 

Note  2.— Railroad  companies  are  liable  for  injuries  occurring  to  the  employes  only  when  such  in- 
juries occurred  by  the  carelessness  or  negligence  of  the  company  or  its  agents.  This  same  common 
law  principle  appiliea  to  all  employers. 


220 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Salaries  paid  to  the  officers  and  employ^  of  the  royal  police  department  of  Berlin. 

[Taken  from  the  Prussian  budget  bill.] 

President,  salary,  $2,713,  and  $856  local  allowance  (see  note  1,  ante) $3,569  00 

First  chief  Government  councilor  (total) 1,  FOO  00 

2  Governmental  councilors $1,  213  00  and  1, 000  00 

3  chiefs  of  dupaitmont,",  average  salary,  $1,213,  and  local  allowance,  $47  (each) 1, 260  00 

20  directors  ot  divisions,  average 856  00 

78  police  secretaries,  average 678  00 

42  police  secretaries,  assistants,  average  447  00 

54  police  secretaries,  assistants,  second  class,  average 447  00 

15  copyists 447  00 

1  chief  treasurer , 1,  071  00 

1  chie  f  book-keeper,  1  treasurer,  7  book-keepers  (average  salary) 678  00 

1  chief  of  messenjiers,  1  house  inspector,  1  house  castellan  (each) 321  00 

11  messengers,  porters,  &c $228  00  to  285  00 

1  commander-in-chief  of  police  force 1,428  00 

13  police  captains  (average) 928  00 

136  police  lieutenants 714  00 

10    olico  sergeants  (in  difjweot  department's  offices) 392  00 

2,971  policemen  (each) 285  00 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


221 


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LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  223 

Current  retail  prices  of  provisions,  ^c,  in  the  city  of  Berlin  May  1,  1884. 

Wheat  flour* per  pound..  $0  04J  to  $0  0 

Corn  meal do 05J  to  06 

Oat  meal do 054  to  06 

llice: 

Carolina do 08  to  10 

Java do 05  to  06 

Table  butter do 30  to  38 

Beef: 

Roasts do 17  to  20 

FiUots do...  30  to  40 

Mutton  (roasts) do 17  to  20 

Pork do 16  to  20 

Ham do 25  to  30 

Lard do 18 

Veal do...  22  to  25 

Turkey do...  22  to  25 

Chickens do 20  to  25 

White  bread  (wheat) do 09  to  11 

Black  bread  (rye) do 05  to  07 

Sugart : 

White  (pulverized  or  granulated) do 11  to  13 

White  (bricket  or  loaf ) do 12  to  15 

Second  quality do 08  to  10 

Coffeet: 

Mocha do 27  to  40 

Ceylon do....  30  to  36 

Java do 22  to  27 

Eio do....  20  to  25 

Teas : 

Pecco do....  1  30  to  2  00 

Congo do....  70  to  130 

Souchong do 70  to  130 

Imperial do 70  to  2  00 

Gunpowder do 70  to  1  30 

Hyson do....  70  to  130 

Ejrgs perdozen-.  15  to  20 

Oysters : 

In  season,  English  in  sheU do 90  to  95 

Holland  in  shell        do 55  to  60 

Calico  (per  meter  =1.0936  yards) 08  to  12 

Cotton  sheetings  (bleached) 1.6  meters  wide  .  36  to  40 

Linen  sheetings  (bleached) 2  meters  wide. .  48  to  68 

Coal: 

Stone perton..  4  50  to  5  00 

Brownsoft do 3  50  to  4  00 

*  The  German  pound  is  half  of  one  kilogram  or  1.11  of  an  English  pound,  but  in  making  the  above 
computations  I  have  reduced  the  price  to  equal  the  English  pound. 

t  The  duty  on  coti'to  is  4^  cents  per  pound  and  on  tea  11  cents.  There  is  a  duty  of  3J  cents  per  pound 
on  sugar,  but  little  sugar  is  imported,  as  Germany  produces  more  than  it  consumes.  All  sugar  pro- 
duced in  Germany  pays  an  internal  tax,  which  tax  is  rebated  when  such  sugar  is  exported. 

COST   OF   LIVING  IN   GERMANY  AND   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

My  own  experience  as  a  housekeeper  in  Berlin  convinces  me  that  tea, 
coffee,  sugar,  and  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  shape  of  food, 
are  higher  in  Berlin  than  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Cotton  goods  are 
probably  cheaper  in  New  York  than  here.  Boots  and  shoes,  I  should 
say,  cost  about  the  same  as  in  New  York.  Woolen  clothing  is  30  to  40 
per  cent.,  table  linen  20  to  30  per  cent.,  silk  goods  from  10  to  25  per 
cent,  cheaper  here.  For  some  reason  which  1  am  unable  to  e:^plain, 
woolen  blankets  are  but  very  little  cheaper,  if  any,  here  than  in  America. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  woolen  underclothing.  There  are  very  many 
things,  such  as  china  and  porcelain  wares,  glass  buttons,  laces,  gloves, 
hosiery,  «&c.,  which  are  much  cheaper  here  than  in  America.  I  have 
no  doubt  whatever  that  one  can  live  in  America  as  cheap  as  he  can  in 
Germany  if  he  will  live  in  the  same  manner.  I  know  the  question  is 
often  asked  in  America,  How  can  the  laboring  people  in  Germany  live 
if  they  receive  such  a  small  pittance  for  their  labor  ?  My  reply  is, 
simply  because  they  do  not  live  as  well  as  the  laboring  classes  do  in 
America.  They  also  are,  as  a  rule,  much  more  economical  in  their  ex- 
penditures and  in  their  manner  of  living,  and  every  member  of  the 


224  LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 

family  who  cau  labor  must  do  so  in  order  to  assist  in  caring  for  them- 
selves and  the  general  household.  The  laboring  women  here  are  ac- 
customed to  perform  the  hardest  of  manual  labor  on  the  farm,  in  the 
shops,  about  the  mines,  i&c.  Such  labor  as  would  only  be  performed  by 
the  strongest  of  men  in  the  United  States. 

The  articles  which  are  mentioned  in  the  last  table  above  given  are  of 
such  quality  as  are  usually  used  in  the  families  of  merchants,  profes- 
sional men,  «&;c.,and  I  think  it  safe  to  say,  of  a  better  quality  than  those 
used  by  the  ])easant,  or  laboring  classes,  as  these  latter  are  compelled 
to  s«.dect  the  very  cheapest  kind  of  all  articles.  They  consume  but  little 
meat  or  coffee,  and  scarcely  no  sugar  or  tea.  Black  or  rye  bread  is 
preferred  by  some  of  the  more  wealthy  people,  and  no  other  is  used  by 
the  laboring  classes,  while  their  butter  is  of  the  very  poorest  kind, 
often  mixed  with  lard,  and  sometimes  seasoned  lard  alone  is  used  by 
them  as  a  substitute  for  butter.  Cheap  beer  is  largely  consumed  by 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  some  of  the  men,  especially  droschkie 
drivers,  workers  upon  tbe  streets,  &c.,  use  a  considerable  quantity  of 
cheap  "  schnaps,"  the  very  poorest  kind  of  gin. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  intelligent  or  definite  statement  as  to 
rents  in  Berlin,  as  the  price  therefor  depends  entirely  upon  the  size 
and  location  of  the  apartment. 

Much  is  being  done  in  Berlin  by  the  more  wealthy  and  titled  classes 
towards  relieving  the  wants  of  the  poor  and  unfortunate.  Hospitals 
are  prepared  for  the  sick,  i^ublic  kitchens  for  the  hungry,  and  asylums 
to  lodge  the  weary.  There  are  fifteen  so-called  "public  kitchens"  in 
Berlin,  which  have  been  organized  by  the  titled  and  more  wealthy 
classes  of  Berlin  for  the  purpose  of  sujiplying  the  poor  people  with  an 
amount  of  wholesome  food  for  a  very  small  amount  of  money.  During 
the  year  1883, 2,290,360  portions  or  meals  were  supplied  by  these  public 
kitchens  at  30  pfennings,  or  7  cents  each  portion.  The  total  receipts  of 
these  kitchens  during  the  year  was  353,417  marks,  and  the  expenditure 
was  250,430  marks.  The  Berlin  Asylum  Association,  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  shelter  to  the  needy,  has  2,371  members,  belonging, 
as  I  have  said,  to  the  higher  classes.  During  the  year  1883, 105,241  men 
and  10,917  women  were  given  shelter  by  this  association,  while  baths 
were  supplied  for  22,748  men  and  2,411  women.  Since  the  1st  of  Jan- 
uary last  arrangements  have  been  made  by  this  association  for  supply- 
ing the  inmates  of  the  asykim  with  work.  The  receipts  of  the  associa- 
tion for  1883  were  28,050  marks,  and  the  expenditure  was  43,599,  the 
deficiency  being  contributed  by  the  members  and  coming  from  chari- 
table entertainments,  &c. 

In  conclusion,  I  desire  to  state  Mr.  Koi,  one  of  my  clerks,  who  has  been 
long  connected  with  this  office,  has  rendered  me  great  assistance  in  the 
procuring  and  i)reparation  of  the  statistical  information  given  in  this 
report. 

M.  S.  BREWER, 

Cotisul- General. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Berlin,  May  23,  1884. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  225 

PRUSSIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GENERAL  VOGELER. 
DIVISIONS   OF   LABOR   IN    THE    GERMAN   EMPIRE. 

The  t(3?^ms  "■workiugmen,"or  "laboriug  classes,"  altliongii  in  gfcueral 
use,  are  not  very  exact,  innsmiicb  as  not  every  "man-'  vvlio  "  works"  or 
all  "classes"  "wliich  labor"  are  intended  to  be  nicluded  witbin  those 
terms.  The  small  peasant,  who  lives  on  the  income  of  his  lew  acres  of 
land,  is  a  "workingman  ;"  the  master  mechanics  or  artisans,  the  shoe- 
makers, the  tailors,  the  joiners,  who  work  directly  for  their  own  cus- 
tomers, belong  to  the  "  laboring  classes,"  yet  none  of  these  are  intended 
to  be  referred  'to  when  we  sjjcak  in  general  of  the  laboring  classes. 
Narrowed  down,  thereibre,  to  their  technical  meaning  these  terms  refer 
to  that  vast  class  of  peoi)le  who  perform  physical  or  manual  work  for 
wages,  deriving  no  appreciable  assistance  or  income  either  Irom  the 
possession  of  property  or  from  the  patronage  of  customers. 

This  vast  class  of  i)opulaiion  may  be  subdivided  into  five  distinct 
classes,  viz:  Those  engaged  in — 

(1.)  Agriculture,  cattle  and  hog  raising,  gardening,  forestry,  hunting, 
and  fishing. 

(2.)  Mechanicalindustry,  building,  and  mining. 

(3)  Commerce  and  tialiic. 

(4.)  Domestic  service. 

(5.)  Military  service,  in  school  and  religious  teaching,  in  hospital  and 
benevolent  institutions,  and  in  the  civil  service. 

Applying  to  these  five  classes  the  limitation  hereinbefore  stated,  the 
numbt-r  of  working  i)eople,  nuile  and  female,  in  the  German  Lnii)ire  is 
estimated  at  from  1(),()0(),()()()  to  11,(KK),0(H>,  of  which  not  less  than  L*,5U0,- 
000  are  engaged  in  domestic  service.  These  fignres  may  appear  exor- 
bitant in  a  population  of  only  40,000,000,  but  1  believe  Ihem  to  be  faiily 
correct.  As  a  test  1  refer. to  the  fact  that  the  census  of  Prussia  of  1880 
shows  that  out  of  a  jjopulation  of  L'T, 000,000  there  were  engaged  in  do- 
mestic service  not  le.-s  than  1,074.357  peoi)le;  namely,  570,511  males  and 
1,103,840  lemales.  It  must  be  consideied,  however,  that  the  number  of 
persons  dependent  upon  these  10,000,000  or  11,000,000  of  hi  borers  for 
their  sup[)ort  is  comparatively  less  than  in  the  better  situated  chisses, 
because  among  the  laboring  classes  is  found  a  vast  number  of  young, 
unmarried  persons. 

It  is  im])ossiblo  to  estimate  the  number  of  i)ersons  engaged  as  work- 
ingmi'U  in-  agricultural  i)ursuits  in  the  German  Emi)ire.  The  ])ersons 
so  engaged, however,  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz:  («)  Free  la- 
boreis,  owning  real  e-tate;  [h)  fiee  laborers,  without  real  estate j  (c) 
laborers  bound  by  contract. 

Class  a  comprises  those  i)ersons  (called  in  German  "  Hiiusler  Coloni- 
sten"  or  "liiidner")  wlio  own  a  little  house  and  some  land,  a  small 
garden  and  pasture,  the  income  ot  whieh,  however,  is  not  suhicieiit  to 
maintain  themselves  and  family,  and  who  are  therelore  compelled  to 
work  on  neighboring  farms  or  estates  for  wages.  The  amount  of  land 
necessary  to  maintain  a  family  varies  with  the  location.  In  Noith 
Germany  a  larger  area  is  required  than  in  South  Germany.  While  in 
the  Palatinate  an  area  of  5  to  0  acres  may  sufli<;e  to  maintain  a  family, 
from  10  to  15  acres  are  required  in  the  less  productive  i)ortions  of  North- 
eastern Germany.  Many  of  these  small  property  owners  have  learned 
92  A— LAB 15 


226  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

and  followed  trades  connected  with  agriculture,  such  as  wagon-making, 
smithing,  horseshoeing,  coopering,  or  the  like,  and  thus  manage  to  live 
in  comparative  comfort. 

Class  b  comprises  the  great  bulk  of  free  agricultural  laborers,  who 
own  no  real  estate,  and  who  therefore  are  called  tenants  (Einlieger),  or 
hu-elings  (Heuerliuge).  These  have  no  income  whatever  but  their 
wages,  and  although  these  are  very  fair  during  harvest-time,  yet  the 
little  savings  made  in  summer  are  usually  lost  agaiu  in  winrer,  when 
work  is  scarce  and  less  remunerative.  This  class  of  laborers  is  at  a 
great  disadvantage  as  against  either  the  small  property  owner  or  the 
contract  laborer.  Rent,  victuals,  fuel,  &c.,  they  are  compelledt  o  par- 
chase  out  of  tbeir  scanty  wages,  while  the  small  property  owner  derives 
many  of  these  necessaries  from  his  own  land,  and  the  contract  laborer, 
on  the  other  hand,  of  whom  I  shall  speak  presently,  receives  board  and 
lodging  from  his  employer.  The  hireling,  therefore,  will  work  for  com- 
paratively very  little,  if  he  be  furnished  food  and  lodging.  This  class 
of  laborers  form  the  greater  part  of  the  fluctuating  agricultural  populo- 
tion  which  moves  in  dense  masses  into  those  provinces  where  labor  is 
in  demand  ;  for  example,  into  Brandenburg  and  Saxony  at  the  time  of 
the  sugar-beet  harvest.  Often  they  are  found  felling  timber,  mending 
roads,  quarrying,  i&c,  but  in  summer  they  invariably  return  to  the 
harvest  field,  and  in  winter  they  prefer  thrashing  and  other  work  con- 
nected with  farming.  Ordinarily  they  rent  a  piece  of  land,  perhaps  an 
acre  or  two,  raise  a  hog,  keep  a  cow  or  goat,  and  some  chickens,  and 
thus  manage  to  make  a  living  from  one  harvest  to  the  other.  Their 
condition  is  a  deplorable  one.  In  age  or  sickness  they  are  dependent 
upon  public  support.  Their  boast,  however,  as  against  the  laborer 
bound  by  contract  is  that  they  are  free  men  5  that  if  an  employer  does 
not  suit  them  they  can  quit  him  at  a  day's  notice. 

Class  c  consists  of  the  laborers  bound  by  contract.  These  laborers 
contract  with  the  farmer  or  estate  owner,  usually  for  a  year.  They  live 
in  small  houses,  built  or  owned  by  the  estate  owner.  They  receive  from 
the  estate  owner,  besides  a  small  sum  in  cash  per  month,  the  use  of  the 
dwelling,  fuel,  feed  for  one  cow,  the  use  of  land  for  potatoes  and  wheat 
or  rye,  and  usually  a  very  small  interest  in  the  result  of  the  yield  of 
grain.  In  some  provinces  the  necessaries  furnished  comprise  seven- 
eighths  of  the  wages,  while  in  others,  for  example,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Brunswick,  they  hardly  amount  to  one-fourth.  If  the  employer  re- 
quires it  the  laborer's  wife  must  also  work  iu  the  field  or  in  the  house- 
hold or  stables  at  a  rate  of  wages  agreed  upon.  As  to  the  wages  of 
these  three  classes  of  agricultural  laborers  and  the  cost  of  living,  which, 
after  this  description  of  their  mode  of  life  and  work  will  be  better  appre- 
ciated and  understood,  I  submit  the  following  as  fair  examples : 

now   A  FAMILY  LIVES. 

RECEIPTS   AND    EXPENDITUKKS   OF   A   FAMILY   OF   AGKICULTURAL    LABORERS   OWNING 
REAL  ESTATE  AT  DIRMSTEIN,    PALATINATE. 

The  family  consists  of  man,  wife,  and  three  children ;  one  of  the 
children  is  out  of  school,  the  two  others  attend  school ;  the  family  be- 
longs to  the  better  situated  ones  of  their  class ;  they  own  a  house  worth 
about  $21G,  mortgaged  for  $105.(50 ;  some  furniture,  implemeuts,  and 
also  a  cow,  $38.40 ;  a  calf  worth  $7.91! ;  also  one  hectare  (about  4  acres) 
of  land,  worth  $570  ;  25  ar  (about  one  acre)  of  leasehold  land,  worth  $216. 
The  feed  for  the  cow  is  found  in  summer  in  the  ditches  along  the  coun- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  227 

try  roads  and  by  gathering  weeds  and  grass  in  the  vineyards  and  in 
the  woods,  and  in  winter  by  beets  cultivated  on  the  land. ' 

RECEIPTS. 

Wages  of  the  man,  270  days,  at  33^^  cents  (the  balance  of  the  time  he  was  en- 
gaged about  his  own  house) $89  86 

Wages  of  the  wife,  19  to  21^  cents  (the  wife  is  almost  constantly  engaged 

about  the  house)  and  of  the  daughter,  18  cents  per  day 69  26 

Making  a  total  wage  receipt  of,  together 159  12 

Other  receipts : 

Rental  value  of  house 15  42 

Milk 48  98 

A  fattened  hog , 11  92 

Grain,  16  cwt.,  of  2  acres S5  45 

Potatoes,  80  cwt.,  of  2  acres 32  63 

Beets,  various  kinds,  raised  on  leasehold  acre,  200  cwt 32  63 

177  03 

But  the  products  of  the  land  are  not  all  consumed  by  the  family  :  they  sell — 

900  liters  of  milk §24  49 

14iowt.  grain 32  13 

Total 56  62 

The  total  receipts  are  therefore  as  follows : 

Wages $159  22 

Grain  and  milk  sold 56  62 

Products  consumed 119  70 

Total 335  54 

EXPENDITURES. 
Food: 

Beef  per  week,  1^  pounds §10  64 

Meat  and  fat  of  a  hog  (including  purchase) 15  99 

Milk,  900  liters  at  llf  pfennigs 24  49 

Bread,  daily,  5  pounds 55  83 

Potatoes,  70  cwt 28  56 

Coffee  per  week,  1  pound 14  14 

Chicory,  104  packages 1  43 

Salt,  78  pounds 186 

Wine,  beer,  cake,  &c 8  14 

Total 161  08 

Raiment : 

Clothing  and  linen 20  42 

Shoes  and  mending 9  00 

Total 29  42 

Lodging  : 

Rental  value  of  house 14  71 

Small  repairs  78 

Total 15  49 

Fuel: 

Coal,  50  cwt.,  and  kindling 20  42 

Light 4  07 

Total 24  49 


228  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Tools,  physicians,  and  apothecary $2  07 

TaxcH,  assessinent ,  and  insurance 4  07 

Interest  on  mortgage 8  14 

Rent  for  one  acre 9  78 

Eight  of  pasture  on  road 2  41? 

Oil-cakes,  1(14  ))iece8 3  86 

Beets  for  own  use  and  fed 22  Gli 

Beet  sicd,  2^  liters 35 

Seed  potatoes,  10  cwt 4  07 

Seed  grain  for  2  acres 3  32 

Total '. 70  72 

RECAPITULATION. 

Receipts,  grand  total 335  54 

Expenditures 301  20 

Surplus 34  34 

HOW  A  LAEORER'S  FAMILY  LIVES. 

BECEIPTS     AND     EXPENDITURES     OF     A     LABORER     AND     FAMILY     OWNING    NO    REAL 

ESTATE. 

RECEIPTS. 

200  working  days  of  the  man $71  40 

30  days'  work  mowing  in  harvest  time 14  28 

60  days'  work  with  family  weeding  and  hoeing  beets,  32  acres 60  92 

200  working  days  of  wife 38  08 

Total 184  68 

EXPENDITURES. 

Food  : 

Purchase  of  a  pig 4  76 

Meat  ptr  «eek,  2  pounds,  at  60  pfennigs 14  28 

Battel  ]ier  week,  1^  pounds,  at  1  mark 18  56 

Biead  ]ier  week,  '.'y-i  )  ion  nils,  at,  17^  pfennigs <>9  02 

Other  victuals 11  90 

Total 118  52 

Rainient 23  80 

Lodging  (rent) 11  90 

Fn i-l 1 4  28 

Sundry  ex[iensea 11  90 

Grand  total ' 180  40 

RECAPITULATION. 

Receipts 184  68 

Expenditures 180  40 

Sur[>lu8 4  28 

now  A  FARM   laborer's   FAMILY"   LIVES. 

RECEIPTS    AND    EXPENDITURES   OF    A    FARM    LABORKi:    AND    FAMILY    ROUND    BY   CON- 

TUACl. 

Rl  CKIPTS. 
Wages : 

Summer  work  of  the  man 8  57 

SnmmtT  w<>ri<  of  i  he  wife. 7  14 

Winter  work  of  the  man  (exclusive  of  threshing) 5  71 

Total ..        -.     2142 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


229 


Necessaries : 

Lodgings $14  28 

Firewood 10  00 

One  acre  of  potato  land  inepared 8  57 

Oue-sixtb  acre  of  flux  laud  prepared 1  43 

Pastiire  aud  feed  for  oue  cow 17  85 

Pasture  aud  feed  for  two  bogs 2  14 

Pasture  and  feed  for  two  geese  and  goslings 3  57 

Eleven  bushels  of  rye 13  09 

Two  bii.sbels  of  barley 1  90 

Two  bu.slielsof  oats 1  19 

Two  busbels  of  peas 2  38 

Extra  earnings  of  the  family  for  tbresbing  in  winter 61  40 

Profits: 

On  the  products  of  tbe  land i.  23  56 

On  tbe  products  of  tbe  bog 10  71 

On  tbe  products  of  tbe  geese  and.  cbickens 8  57 

Total  income 202  06 

EXPENDITURES. 

Food $115  78 

Raiment 28  56 

Lodging 14  28 

Fuel 10  83 

OtUer  expenses 27  92 

Total 197  37 

Surplus 4  69 

I  have  not  deemed  it  necessary  to  itemize  in  the  hist  two  instances 
the  different  items  of  expenses,  because  tbe  very  complete  recital  of 
them  in  the  first  instance  will  suftice,  with  proper  modifications,  to 
elucidate  the  other  two. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  FOOD  EXPENSES. 

As  a  general  thinj>-  it  may  be  observed  that  the  percentage  of  earn- 
ings expended  for  food  is  proportionately  the  largest,  where  the  earn- 
ings are  the  lowest,  and  decrease  in  pro])orti(>n  as  the  earnings  increase. 
Thns  it  has  been  ascertained  that  in  the  families  of  laborers  wlio  barely 
succeed  in  i)roviding  for  their  wants  the  percentage  of  the  earnings  ex- 
l^ended  for  the  different  necessaries  is  as  follows  5  Food,  65  per  cent.j 
raiment,  15;  lodging,  5  ;  fuel,  C;  sundries,  15. 

INDUSTRIAL   AND  MECHANICAL  LABORERS. 

I  now  turn  to  that  important  element  of  population,  the  industrial 
and  mechanical  laborers,  namely,  those  [)ersons  working  for  wages  in  the 
mining  aud  smelting  works,  iu  factories  and  shops,  on  railroads  and 
transportation  lines.  Their  number  iar  exceeds  that  of  })ersons  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  1875  there  were  emidoyed  in  the 
German  Empire  in  the  i^ursuits  mentioned : 


Jouriioyvnen  and  ■workmen 
Apprentices 

Total 


Male. 


2,521,477 
4J2,  350 


2,  943, 827 


Female.       Total. 


549,030     3,071,107 
32,  089         454,  439 


581,  719     3,  525,  546 


230  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Since  1875,  however,  there  has  been  a  considerable  accession  to  this  ele- 
ment of  population,  for  the  last  census  shows  that  those  parts  of  the 
empire  which  are  distinguished  for  industrial  activity  have  attracted 
immense  masses  of  people.  Hence  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  this 
class  of  workmen  now  numbers  no  less  than  5,000,000.  Among  the  man- 
ifold pursuits  of  this  great  array  of  workmen  we  may  distinguish  the  fol- 
lowing as  embracing  the  bulk  of  that  army :  (a)  Miners,  diggers,  and 
iron-workers,  {h)  Factory  men.  (c)  Mechanics  and  workmen  engaged 
in  their  work  at  home  {e.  g.  cigar-makers,  weavers,  &c.). 

{a.)  MINERS,  DIGGERS  AND   IRON- WORKERS. 

More  than  one-half  of  all  the  workmen  belonging  to  this  class  are 
employed  in  coal-mines,  coke-ovens,  brown-coal-works,  and  in  peetdig- 
ing ;  tiie  majority  of  the  other  one-half  are  employed  in  iron-mines,  fur- 
naces, smelting-works,  iron  and  steel  works,  wire  and  nail  factories,  a 
comparatively  small  number  only  finding  employment  in  silver,  cop- 
per, lead,  zinc,  and  salt  mines. 

The  vocation  of  the  miner  is  a  very  exacting  one;  the  descending  into 
and  ascending  out  of  the  deep  pits  alone,  which  in  the  smaller  mines 
is  still  accomplished  by  means  of  ladders  and  which  in  many  cases  oc- 
cupies an  hour,  is  a  hard  task.  Then  the  work  under  ground,  at  a 
depth  of  from  one  to  three  thousand  feet,  in  a  moist  atmosphere,  in  a 
stooping  or  lying  position,  surrounded  by  manifold  dangers,  is  no  less 
trying  and  fatiguing.  Yet  this  is  the  work  to  which  three-fourths  of 
all  the  miners  are  devoted,  the  other  fourth  being  engaged  in  haul- 
ing, tending,  preparing,  and  other  incidental  work.  A  working  day  is 
eight  hours,  seldom  more  than  ten,  and,  when  the  work  is  very  hard  and 
wet,  only  six.  The  miners  work  in  constantly  continuing  reliefs.  They 
are  engaged  by  contract  of  four  week's  duration.  They  are  paid  by  the 
ton  and  are  able  to  earn  enough  to  lay  up  small  amounts  from  time  to 
time. 

For  centuries  there  have  existed  among  them  "  relief  associations," 
here  called  "  Knappschaftsvereine,"  the  membership  to  which  is  obliga- 
tory in  Prussia,  which  afford  to  the  permanent  members  relief  in  sick- 
ness, medical  aid,  medicine,  funeral  expenses,  an  annuity  in  case  of  dis- 
ability, as  well  as  support  to  their  widows  and  orphans.  The  temporary 
members  receive  medical  aid,  medicine  and  relief  in  case  of  sickness, 
and  an  annuity  in  case  of  disability  caused  by  accident  in  pursuit  of 
their  vocation.  Of  these  aid  societies  there  were  in  Prussia  in  1875,102, 
representing  2,601  works  and  having  a  membership  of  257,042,  namely, 
138,559  permanent  and  118,483  temporary  members.  In  1880  there  were 
in  the  Prussian  Kingdom  183  such  societies,  with  320,000  members. 
The  work  of  these  societies  is  very  beneficent ;  they  build  orphan  and 
invalid  asylums,  hospitals,  schools,  provide  "Kindergarten,"  &c.  In 
the  district  of  Saarbriicken,  in  which  the  mining  population  seems  to  be 
most  prosperous,  these  aid  societies  paid  during  the  year  1880 — 

To  2,807  invalids,  an  average  pension  of $92  11 

To  2,247  widows,  an  average  pension  of , 39  03 

To  3,281  orphans,  an  average  pension  of 10  23 

Other  districts,  however,  can  not  make  so  favorable  a  showing.  The 
State  pays  one-half  of  all  the  contributions;  the  other  half  is  paid  by 
the  workmen.  The  average  annual  contribution  of  a  workman  is  $10. 
The  average  earnings  of  a  miner  are  $228.48  to  $285.60.  The  condition 
of  the  miners  is  not  accounted,  in  Germany,  one  of  indigence.     Indeed, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  231 

many  of  them  manage  to  buy  or  build  a  little  dwelling-house,  and  to  ac- 
quire some  land.  Take,  as  an  example,  the  miners  of  the  district  of 
Klausthal;  the  statistical  report  of  1881  shows  that  there  were  em- 
ploj^ed  in  mining  during  the  year  1880,  in  all  the  mines,  12,051  men;  of 
these  7,007  were  married ;  2,248  were  laud  and  house  owners ;  1,010 
house-owners  only  ;  465  were  laud-owners  only  ;  8,328  had  no  property. 
These  12,051,  furthermore,  owned  2,894  head  of  cattle ;  4,821  hogs,  and 
6,077  goats. 

The  number  of  men  employed  in  the  mining  and  iron  industries  of 
Germauy  is  constantly  increasing.  The  Prussian  furnaces  employed 
in  1879,102,729  men;  in  1880,  the  number  had  increased  to  113,128 
men.  The  total  number  of  men  emi^loyed  in  the  mining  and  iron  in- 
dustries of  Prussia  increased  during  said  years  from  231,782  to  247,356. 
The  report  relating  to  200  coal  mines  of  the  Ehenish-Westphalian  dis- 
trict shows  a  working  force  of  only  79,269  men  in  1880,81,269,  in  1881 
and  88,832  in  1882,  an  increase  of  more  than  11  percent.  The  amount 
of  wages  paid  by  these  works  is  claimed  to  have  increased  26  per  cent., 
an  actual  increase  of  15  per  cent,  for  the  same  number  of  men.  There 
are  but  few  minors  employed  in  these  industries.  The  law  of  1879  pro- 
vides that  children  below  twelve  years  of  age  may  not  be  employed  at 
all  and  that  children  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  may  not  be  employed 
more  than  six  hours  each  day,  while  no  more  than  ten  hours'  work  shall 
be  exacted  from  any  person  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age. 
Women  are  not  employed  in  these  enterprises. 

''  The  association  of  iron  and  steel  men"  held  a  meeting  a  few  days 
ago  in  Berlin.  The  annual  report  of  the  association  showed  a  member- 
ship of  350  employers.  The  number  of  workmen  emi)loyed  by  them 
was  240,000  ;  the  capital  employed  $259,000,000.  The  statistical  re- 
searches of  the  association  showed  that  since  the  introduction  of  the 
protective  tariff  (July  15,  1879),  the  number  of  workmen  employed  in 
the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  Germany  had  increased  33.2  per  cent., 
the  total  wages  52.1  per  cent.,  and  the  wages  of  the  single  workman 
14.2  per  cent.  The  report  further  showea  that  in  spite  of  the  unfavor- 
able condition  of  the  iron  market  in  the  latter  half  of  the  year  1883, 
there  had  been  observable  only  a  slight  decrease  of  the  number  of 
workmen  employed  and  the  amount  of  wages  paid.  The  average  earn- 
ings of  the  men  were  shown  to  be  about  $4.20  per  week,  as  against 
about  $3.65  in  1879.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  iron 
and  mining  industry  of  Germany  has  prospered  beyond  any  other  branch 
of  industry  since  the  adoption  of  the  tariff  of  1879,  exceptiug  the  man- 
ufacture of  beet  sugar,  the  astounding  growth  of  which  industry  is  due 
to  the  payment  of  premiums  on  the  export  thereof.  In  many  branches 
of  industry,  notably  in  the  textile  branch,  there  has  been  no  progress 
made  beyond  that  which  is  necessarily  consequent  upon  the  constant 
increase  of  population  and  consequent  increase  of  consumption. 

(6.)   WAGES  IN  FACTORIES. 

It  is  impossible  to  even  mention  by  name  all  the  numerous  branches 
and  subdivisions  of  establishments  which  come  uuder  the  designation 
of  factories.  It  is  frequently  dif&cult  even  to  draw  the  line  between  a 
small  factory  and  a  large  shop.  The  workman,  too,  emi)loyed  in  the 
factory  to-day  may  have  CvStablished  himself  as  a  master  mechanic  the 
next  day  or  he  may  have  taken  work  with  some  master  mechanic. 

The  condition  and  wages  of  the  workmen  also  differ  materially  with 
the  region  in  which  they  live  and  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged. 


232  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Even  in  the  same  place  and  industrial  esfablislimcnt  the  wages  of  the 
men  differ  materially  accordin,^  to  the  skill  and  industry  of  the  work- 
man. It  hai)i)ens  that  the  weekly  waji^es  of  men,  followiuji'  the  same 
eu.ployinent  in  the  same  place  vary  from  $2.88  to  $12,  especially  in 
branches  of  industry  where  it  is  j)ossible  to  work  by  the  piece.  The 
locksjuirh,  turner,  coppersmith,  &c.,  ordinarily  earns  from  $3.00  to  $4.30 
per  week,  but  a  skilltul  workman,  working  by  the  piece,  may  earn  as 
much  as  $10.80  to  $11.52  in  the  same  line  of  employment.  Among  type- 
setfefrs  and  i)rinters  the  sanie  difference  in  the  amount  of  earnings  is 
observable,  the  weekly  earnings  ranging,  according  to  skill,  from  $3.00 
to  $9.<1().  This  great  variation  makes  the  fixing  of  average  wages  very 
diflicult  and  ])recarious.  The  emi)loyment  of  youthful  workmen  in  some 
branches  ot  industry  also  has  a  tendency  to  depress  the  average  wages 
and  to  make  the  earnings  of  the  worknVen  in  those  branches  ai)pear 
lower  than  they  are  in  fact.  Boys  are  always  ])aid  lower  wages  than 
men,  while  this  is  not  the  case  with  female  work,  girls  of  fifteen, to  six- 
teen years  being  generally  i)aid  as  well  as  full  grown  women  and  some- 
times even  better;  hence  the  average  female  wages  are  more  easily  ascer- 
tained and  less  liable  to  fluctuations;  they  vary  from  $1.20  to  $:i.SS  per 
week,  in  rare  instances  only  reaching  $4.80.  The  great  bulk  of  female 
laborers  is  emi)loyed  in  the  different  branches  of  the  textile  industry  and 
in  cigar  factories. 

A  slight  advance  in  wages  must  bo  conceded  in  almost  all  lines  of  in- 
dustry. The  Dortmund  Union,  for  exam])le,  rei)orts,  that  the  average 
vi'ages  paid  by  them  during  the  years  1879,  1880,  and  1881  were  as  fol- 
lows: 1879,  $i90.8S  per  year;  1880,  $194.08  per  year;  1881,  $210.39  per 
year. 

The  sewing-machine  factory  of  Frister  &  Eossmann  employed  in  the 
year  1882  six  hundred  and  sixty  workmen,  and  the  average  wages  dur- 
ing that  year  amounted  to  $281.85.  This,  however,  is  an  exceptionally 
favorable  showing,  and  the  average  earnings  ])er  year  in  the  different 
factories  are  about  as  follows: 

Men $142  80  to  $214  20 

Wuuicn   47  GO  to    119  00 

YoiUbt'ul  workmen 47  60  to    117  10 

An  exact  genera'  average  can  hardly  be  given.  As  near  as  it  may 
be  done,  it  is,  lor  men,  $178.50;  women,  $83.30. 

CONDITION    OF  FACTORY  WORK-PEOPLE. 

In  order  to  present  a  more  accurate  view  of  the  life  and  condition  of 
factory  workmen,  I  shall  now  i)rocee(l  to  give  such  details  of  the  ar- 
rangements prevailing  at  one  of  the  leading  chemical  factories  of  Ger- 
many as  may  be  conducive  to  that  end. 

«' 

ANILINE  FACTORY  AND  ITS  WORKMEN. 

Tar-colors  factory  of  the  firm  of  Meister,  Lucius  tt'  Bruninfj,  of  Jlochsf 
{near  Franlfort-on-ihe-Main). 

The  number  of  workmen  employed  at  this  factory  is  1,290 ;  of  which 
about  00  i)ercent.  may  be  considered  stationary  and  40  per  cent,  fluctu- 
ating. All  are  engaged  at  14  days,  mutual  notice.  Each  workman, 
upon  his  engagement,  is  furnished  a  set  of  rules  and  regulations,  to 
which  strict  conformity  is  exacted.  Of  these  1,290  workmen  837  are 
married,  438  single,  and  21  widowers. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY.  233 

The  size  of  the  families  of  the  858  married  men  and  widowers  is  as 
follows:  114  workmen  are  childless;  108  have  1  child;  198  have  two 
<^hildren  ;  139  have  3  children ;  115  have  4  children  ;  59  have  5  children ; 
38  have  0  children  ;  21  have  7  children  ;  2  have  8  children ;  2  have  9 
children ;  1  has  10  children  ;  1  has  12  children. 

It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  no  workman  is  engaged  who  is  not 
in  good  health  and  whose  age  exceeds  thirtj^-tive  years,  althou<>h,  if  once 
engaged,  he  is  never  discharged  on  account  ot  age,  infirmity,  or  sick- 
ness, but  if  invalid  or  unfit  for  work,  is  cared  for  by  the  firm,  as  will  be 
shown  below. 

Work  commences  at  6  o'clock  a.  m.  and  ceases  at  5  o'clock  p.  m.  Half 
the  force  of  workmen  ceases  work  for  lunch  from  8  to  8,30  a.  m.  arfd  the 
other  half  from  8.30  to  9  a.  m.,  and  the  former  have  their  dinner  hour 
from  12  to  1  p.  m.,  and  the  other  half  from  1  to  2  j).  m.  There  is  no  in- 
terruption of  work  for  vespers,  because  the  general  work  ceases  at  5  p. 
m.  The  necessary  night  work  is  done  in  two  reliefs,  and  an  addition  of 
10  per  cent,  is  paid  for  such  work  over  and  above  the  amount  paid  for 
the  same  duration  of  day  work.  On  Sundays  and  holidays  work  ceases 
entirely.  The  workmen  are  allowed  a  reasonable  time  to  vote  at  elec- 
tions for  members  of  the  Eeichstag  and  the  Prus>ian  Landtag  without 
any  deduction  of  wages.  The  daily  wages  run  from  between  $0.12  and 
$l".24. 

The  following  table  shows  the  wages  actually  paid  these  1,290  work- 
men : 

WAGES  PER  DAY. 

9  men $0  12  to  |0  24 

16mea 24  36 

47  meu 36  48 

401  meu 48  60 

585  meu 60  72 

177  men 72  84 

40  men 84  96 

20  men 96  1  08 

1  man 1  13 

As  to  the  subdivisions  of  work  the  average  daily  wages  range  as 
follows : 

In  the  mechanical  workshop $0  77   * 

In  the  machine  rooms 74 

In  the  builders'  shop 71 

In  the  hauling  department 62 

In  the  alizarine  factory 62 

In  the  aniline  factory  . -. 62 

In  the  acid  factory 64 

In  the  packing  rooms 60 

In  the  dye  rooms 57 

<}eneral  average  per  day 65 

To  thevse  regular  wages  must  be  added  "premiums,"  which  the  firm 
awards  at  the  end  of  each  year  to  such  of  the  workmen  as  have  shown 
themselves  exceptionally  industrious  and  well-behaved.  Of  such  prem- 
iums the  firm  has  pai<l  last  year  $4,014.82,  the  payments  being  made  as 
follows:  More  than  $23.80  to  4  men;  from  $11,9()  to  $23.80  to  40  men; 
from  $5.95  to  $11.90,  to  87  men;  from  $0.47  to  $5.95,  to  1,175  men. 

Including  these  premiums  in  the  wages  paid,  it  will  appear  that  a 
competent  workman  in  this  establishment  can  earn  about  $238  per  year. 
This  is  not  a  very  high  figure,  but  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  the  firm  have  in  many  other  respects  shown  a  marked  and  intelli- 
gent care  for  the  well-being  of  their  workmen. 


234  LABOR    IN   EUROPE GERMANY. 

FACTORY  HOMES. 

They  have  erected  a  sonp  and  coffee  est.iblishment,  where  those  men, 
whose  families  live  at  a  distance,  can  obtain  dinn<'r  and  coffee  at  5  cents 
per  day.  They  have  built  houses  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  factory,  con- 
taining in  all  72  dwellings  and  51  sleeping-berths  (the  latter  in  8  large 
rooms),  of  which  they  give  the  use  to  their  workmen,  at  very  low  rates. 
The  houses  containing  the  dwellings  for  families  are  one  and  two  story 
buildings,  with  attic.  They  are  situated  within  five  minutes'  walk  from 
the  factory,  and  each  of  them  has  attached  to  it  a  garden  of  U50  square 
meters  surface,  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  families  in  the 
house.  The  houses  are  built  of  brick,  and  coiitaiu  lodgings  for  four 
families  each.     I  attach  drafts  of  the  two  kinds  of  houses  budt. 

In  the  house  E  14,  the  lodging  for  a  family  consists,  on  the  ground 
floor,  of  two  rooms  and  a  kitchen  (including  part  of  cellar  and  attic), 
and  in  the  first  story  of  two  rooms,  two  attic  rooms  and  kitchen.  In 
house  E  15,  each  lodging  consists  of  two  rooms,  three  attic  rooms 
and  kitchen.  The  rent  of  a  lodging  on  the  ground  floor  of  house  E  14 
is  47.6  cents  per  week;  on  the  upper  floor  59|  cents  per  week.  In  house 
E  15  each  lodging  rents  at  71.4  cents  per  week.  The  lodgings,  there- 
fore, average  (including  garden  and  out-house)  $29.75  per  year.  The 
firm  are  constantly  increasing  the  number  of  these  dwelling  houses. 
They  have  also  erected  a  bath-house  and  a  coffee  and  soup  house,  at 
which,  as  I  have  said  before,  the  workmen  can  obtain  coffee  and  soup 
(pea  and  bean  soup)  at  5  cents  a  day,  the  firm  contributing  2 J  cents  per 
day  for  each  workman  who  becomes  a  regular  boarder  at  the  establish- 
ment. At  the  bath-house  bathing  is  free,  and  no  deduction  from  the 
wages  of  a  workman  is  made  for  the  time  occupied  by  him  in  bathing. 
An  association  has  been  formed,  mutually  by  the  firm  and  the  workmen, 
for  the  support  of  the  sick  workmen  in  this  manner :  Each  workman 
who  becomes  a  member  contributes  1  per  cent,  of  his  wages  and  the 
firm  pays  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  paid  by  the  workmen.  In 
case  of  sickness  the  workman  obtains  out  of  the  funds  of  the  society 
a  reasonable  sum  for  the  care  and  support  of  himself  and  family,  and 
in  case  of  death  a  certain  amount  is  paid  to  the  family  for  burial  ex- 
penses. Besides  this  relief  association  there  is  an  association  for  the 
support  of  invalids  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of  deceased  workmen. 
This  association  was  formed  by  a  donation  of  the  firm  of  $35,700.  It 
has  been  in  existence  only  a  few  years,  but  it  is  believed  that  out  of  its 
resources  the  families  of  all  invalid  or  deceased  workmen  of  the  firm 
can  be  effectually  assisted  in  supporting  themselves. 

(C.)  GENERAL   TRADES. 
MECHANICS  AND  WORKMEN  ENGAGED   IN   THEIR  WORK  AT   HOME. 

I  include  among  the  designation  of  mechanics,  potters,  tinners,  cop- 
persmiths, locksmiths,  watch-makers,  wagoners,  rope-makers,  d^'ers, 
bookbinders,  tanners,  coopers,  millers,  bakers,  tailors,  shoemakers,  car- 
penters, bricklayers,  &c.  All  these  pursuits  are  followed  in  Germany 
by  master  mechanics,  that  is  to  say,  persons  who  have  established  a 
shop  or  business  of  their  own,  and  T^ho  either  work  at  their  trade  alone 
or  have  journeymen  as  assistants,  or  who,  if  their  trade  is  sufiiciently 
large,  merely  superintend  the  work  of  their  journeymen.  These  jour- 
neymen are  employed  by  the  week  or  month,  seldom  by  the  day,  and 
the  employment  may  be  terminated  by  either  i^arty  upon  a  week  or  two 


EH 


H.  EX.  .:>V   ,  2,  48. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  235 

weeks'  previous  notice.  In  some  branches  of  industry  these  workmen 
work  by  the  piece  at  their  own  houses ;  in  many  others  they  receive 
regular  wages.  The  practice  of  boarding  and  lodging  mechanical  work- 
men is  less  in  vogue  now  than  it  used  to  be.  It  may  be  assumed  that 
one-third  of  the  workmen  employed  in  these  vocations  are  apprentices. 
Most  of  these  receive  no  i^ay,  but  board  in  the  family  of  the  master.  In 
Bome  of  the  large  and  thrifty  cities  apprentices  are  sometimes  paid  wages 
during  the  latter  years  of  their  apprenticeship  (which  is  ordinarily  three 
years).  In  such  cases  the  wages  paid  range  from  95  cents  to  $2.80  per 
week.  The  great  variety  of  occupations  makes  it  very  difficult  to  give 
an  estimate  of  the  average  wages  paid.  Wages  in  a  majority  of  branches 
have  not  risen  since  1878.  In  the  building  trade,  for  example,  the  prices 
paid  per  day  during  the  building  season,  range  about  as  follows  :  Brick- 
layers, 60  to  71  cents  ;  joiners,  (50  or  65  to  71  cents  ;  carpenters,  54  to  65 
cents;  tenders,  38  to  48  cents. 

The  work  embraces  eleven  hours  per  day,  to  wit,  from  6  a.  m.  to  7 
p.  m.,  with  two  hours  for  meals  and  rest.  In  the  potteries  and  brick- 
yards the  men  work  by  the  piece,  and  can  earn  during  the  summer 
months  from  60  to  71  cents  per  day ;  in  winter  about  48  cents. 

cigar-makers'  wages* 

Cigar-makers  invariably  work  by  the  hundred,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  work  is  done  by  the  workmen  at  their  homes.  The  amount  paid  for 
the  work  (the  workman  himself  paying  his  assistants)  varies  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  tobacco  worked  up,  as  follows  : 

(1)  For  cigars  sold  by  the  manufticturer  at  $8.33  to  $8.57,  that  is,  a 
cigar  selling  at  retail  at  1^  cents  a  piece,  $1.55  to  $1.67  per  thousand. 
(2)  For  cigars  sold  by  the  manufacturer,  at  $1.07  to  $1.19,  $1.79  to 
$1.90  per  thousand.  (3)  For  better  brands,  $2.02,  $2.14  to  $2.86  per 
thousand,  according  to  quality.  A  skillful  workman,  after  paying  his 
assistants,  may  thus  make  $3.57  net  per  week,  but  $2.86  may  be  called 
a  week's  average  wages.  Where  the  workman  is  assisted  by  his  wife, 
and  maybe  one  or  two  grown  or  half-grown  children,  which  is  often  the 
case,  he  can,  of  course,  increase  his  income  to  $4.76  to  $5.71  per  week. 

The  inland  tax  on  tobacco  of  all  qualities  is  5^  cents  per  pound,  the 
duty  on  imported  tobacco  is  10^  cents  per  pound.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  tax,  as  well  as  the  duty,  weigh  most  heavily  on  the  inferior  kinds  of 
tobacco  and  cigars,  in  consequence  of  which  the  cigar  industry  has  been 
much  depressed  of  late,  and  wages  and  profits  have  become  very  unsatis- 
factory. This  fact  will  be  easily  understood  when  it  is  borne  in  mind 
that  perhaps  90  per  cent,  of  all  cigars  consumed  in  Germany  are  sold  at 
retail  at  less  than  2  cents,  and  that  at  that  remarkably  low  figure  the 
German  consumer — the  very  army  of  workmen  of  whom  this  report 
treats — demands  a  well-made  cigar  of  good  home  tobacco.  Therentof  the 
cigar-maker,  if  he  lives  in  a  smaller  town,  or  at  some  distance  from  a 
town  or  city,  ordinarily  ranges  from  $21.42  to  $28.56  per  year;  in  larger 
cities,  of  course,  rents  are  much  higher. 

BOOT  AND  SHOE  FACTORIES  IN  GERMANY  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  many  respects  the  condition  of  certain  branches  of  industry  dif- 
fers very  widely  from  that  prevailing  in  the  United  States.  Let  us  take 
an  example.  The  great  boot  and  shoe  factories  of  the  United  States 
supply,  as  I  have  been  informed  by  a  competent  gentleman  acquainted 
with  the  American  as  well  as  the  German  boot  and  shoe  trade,  about 


236  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

90  pfr  cent,  of  the  entire  consumjition  of  boots  and  shoes  in  the  home 
market.  In  every  city  and  town  of  the  United  States  one  may  see 
imnierons  shoe  stores  tilled  witli  the  ])roducts  of  the  Boston,  Lynn,  Nevr 
York,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago  factories,  while  the  old  time  shoemaker 
is  almost  a  tradition.  In  Germany  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  shoe 
store  is  the  exception,  while  the  shoemaker's  sijju  may  be  seen  in  every 
street.  Indeed,  the  gentleman  referred  to  informs  me  that  of  about 
1(K),0()(),()()0  of  i)airs  of  boots  and  shoes  consumed  in  Germany  ])er  year 
not  more  than  0,000,000  are  factory  made,  04  per  cent,  being  still  the  pro- 
duct of  the  master  shoemaker.  Is  not  here  a  great  field  for  American 
euter])rise  ? 

A  master  shoemaker  living  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  this  city  told  me 
that  there  was  no  i)erceptible  ditference  in  the  wages  paid  in  1878  and 
now,  and  that  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  had  also  remained  about 
stationary.  To  my  questions,  whether  there  were  different  grades  of 
shoemakers,  as  to  the  extent  of  their  business,  as  well  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  work,  he  said  that  there  were ;  that  the  master,  who  had  a  good  run 
of  custom,  usually  kept  a  sort  of  shop  or  store  with  a  show-window  to 
exhibit  his  work,  and  maybe  one  or  two  workmen  inside  to  make  the 
current  repairs,  but  that  he  gave  out  most  of  his  new  work  to  journey- 
men who  worked  at  tlieii'  homes  by  the  pair ;  the  small  master,  on  the 
other  hand,  usually  employed  but  one  or  two  hands,  Avho  worked  with 
him  in  his  shop. 

I  reduce  the  figures  given  in  German  money  to  American  money. 

shoemakers'  wages. 

Question.  Has  the  former  any  material  advantages  over  the  latter  ? — Answer.  Yes  ; 
his  reputation  and  good  location  brings  him  the  better  classes  of  customers  ;  he  has 
a  titting-room,  he  can  buy  his  leather  at  wholesale,  and  he  gets  ^6  and  Iji?  for  boots  or 
bhoes  which  I  make  just  as  durable  and  good  for  $4.50.  The  price  of  leather  is  some- 
what lower  now  than  it  was  in  1^78.  I  pay  60'to  70  cents  per  pound  for  sheep  leather 
and  4?)  to  50  cents  for  sole  leather. 

Question.  How  much  can  a  workman  earn  per  week  who  Avorks  at  home  by  the 
pair  ? — Answer.  From  $:<.50  to  $4.75.  They  are  generally  better  workmen  than  those 
who  work  in  the  master's  shop.     The  latter  earn  from  $.i.00  to  $3.50  jter  week. 

Quest iou.  What  are  the  necessary  expenses  of  a  single  workman  working  in  the 
shop  witii  a  master,  and  how  much  can  ho  save  out  of  his  Avages  ? — Answer.  I  think 
a  workman  who  lodges  at  his  master's  house,  as  many  do,  can  get  along  ou  25  cents  a 
day,  as  follows:  Two  small  glasses  of  beer  per  day,  4^  cents;  coffee  and  bread  twice 
a  day,  4-^  cents  ;  one  cigar,  1  cent ;  dinner  at  master's  house,  10|  cents  ;  sausage  and 
bread  (.supper),  4^  cents;  total,  25  cents.  On  Sundays  he  may  spend  a  little  more, 
say  oO  cents.  Tlio  calculation  then  would  stand  as  follows:  Receipts:  Wages,  say 
$:5.21  i)er  week,  fifty-two  weeks,  $16().92.  Expenditures:  Board,  three  hundred  and 
thirteen  days,  at  25  cents,  $78.25;  board,  fifty-two  Sundays,  $15. (iO;  clothing  per 
year,  $17.:J7;  incidental  expenses,  $2;  total,  $113.22.  Which  shows  that  ho  may^ 
make  a  saving  of  $53.70  per  year. 

DIRECT   TAXATION   IN  PRUSSIA. 

By  a  recent  act  of  the  Prussian  Landtag,  all  persons  whose  annual 
incoMM^,  falls  below  $285.00  per  year  have  been  released  from  the  iiay- 
ment  of  all  direct  taxes,  so  that  in  the  ICingdom  of  Prussia  almost  all 
worknjen  who  are  not  property  owners,  are  entirely  free  from  taxation, 
except  so  far  as  they  may,  with  the  balance  of  the  population,  as  con- 
sumers, helj)  to  pay  the  taxes  which  the  manufacturer  and  importer  has 
advanced  to  the  Government  in  the  shape  ot  manufacturers  taxes  and 
import  duties.  In  addition  to  tiiis  relief  recently  granted  to  the  Ger- 
man workman,  the  State  is  now  about  to  insure  them  against  accident 
and  to  provide  for  them  in  case  of  disability  by  sickness  or  old  age. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  237 

Both  these  bills  are  now  under  discussion  by  the  Eeichstag,  and  will 
undoubtedly  be  passed. 

C03OIEECE  AND   TRAFFIC. 

The  condition  of  the  persons  engaged  in  commerce  and  traffic  is  so 
varied  and  diversified  that  a  description  of  the  life,  emi)loymeiit,  and 
earnings  of  those  engaged  in  even  the  leading  branches  thereof  would 
transcend  altogether  the  scope  of  this  report.  It  de>ervesto  be  stated, 
however,  that  in  the  mercantile  business  an  apprenticeship  ranging 
from  two  to  four  years  is  still  universally  required,  except  from  sons  of 
the  better  families,  who  have  acquired,  as  is  olten  tbe  case,  a  collegiate 
education;  these  young  men,  having  usually  reached  an  age  of  seven- 
teen to  twenty  years,  enter  a  mercantile  house  as  •'  volunteers,"  demand- 
ing no  pay  and  not  unfrequently  paying  the  merchant  for  the  in-i  vilege  of 
becoming  conversant  with  mercantile  aflairs  under  his  guidance.  The 
regular  apprentices  usually  receive  board  and  lodging,  but  no  i)ay,  and 
are  required  to  work  very  hard,  and  from  early  morning  until  late  at 
night,  they  being  the  first  to  come  or  commence  and  the  last  to  go  or 
quit  work. 

"WAGES  ON  STATE  RAILROADS. 

Nearly  all  the  railroads  in  Prussia  are  now  owned  and  operated  by 
the  State.  The  persons  engaged  on  the  lines  are  all  uniloriued  and 
most  of  them  are  former  uuder-officers  of  the  arm}-.  The  mechanics 
employed  are,  of  course,  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  skilled  men  <»f  the 
different  branches  of  artisanship.  The  former  are  employed  by  the 
year  and  entitled  to  a  pension  for  themseives  in  case  of  disability  and 
for  their  family  in  case  of  death  ;  the  latter  are  ])aid  by  the  «la,v  or 
week  and  may  be  discharged  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Government.  The 
laborers  employed  in  loading  and  unloading  freight,  repairing  the  track, 
&c.,  are  paid  (per  day)  as  follows: 

Freight  men  at  station $0  52 

First  f'r<  igbt  man  (in  charge  of  a  gang) 57 

Track  men ;" '2 

First  track  man CO 

The  mechanics  receive  about  the  same  wages  as  are  current  in  the 
same  profession  in  the  neighborhood  in  which  they  are  employed,  which 
will  be  found  in  the  tables  hereto  annexed.  The  sahiry  of  the  '•  ofiicers" 
of  the  royal  railroads  centering  at  Frankfort-ou-the-Main  is  adjusted 
'in  the  following  manner: 

The  oihcers  receive  a  fixed  salary,  which  is  increased,  while  tlx'y  oc- 
cupy the  same  rank,  up  to  a  certain  maxin)um  amount,  according  to  the 
duration  of  the  service.  In  addition  to  this  tht\v  receive  a  snnill  inrther 
amount  as  a  substitute  for  or  to  equalize  rents.  This  amount  is  ad- 
justed according  to  the  value  of  rents  in  the  different  cities  or  towns  in 
which  the  officers  live.  In  inrther  addition  to  this,  and  by  wa.v  of  a 
stimulus  for  the  promi)t  and  circumspect  innformance  of  their  duty,  the 
Government  awards  to  those  to  whom  the  running,  care,  and  safi'tv  of 
trains  is  intrusted,  such  as  engineers,  firemen,  brakenien,  conductors, 
&c.,  certain  annual  premiums, adjusted  according  to  the  elhciency  and 
fidelit;y  of  each  single  officer.  The  degree  of  ( fficicncy,  and  hence  the 
amount  of  premium  to  be  paid  to  each  individu.d  officer  is  determined 
by  the  board  of  directors,  ujjon  the  report  of  the  officers  immediately 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Hor  to  the  oflScer  to  be  rewarded.    These  remarks  will  explain  the 
wing  tables  of  salaries  paid : 

PAY  OF  TRAIN  OFFICERS. 


Bngineers . .  

Snpcriutendent  of  train 

Fieisht  officer 

Conductors 

Fiiomen 

Brakemen 


Salary. 


$285  60  to  $428  40 
249  90  to  3ei  30 
235  62  to 
1«5  64  to 
214  20  to 
164  22  to 


Rental  aid. 


249  90 
235  62 
285  60 
235  62 


$14  28  to  $19  04 
4  76  to  19  04 
4  76  to 
4  76  to 
4  76  to 
4  76  to 


19  04 
19  04 
19  04 
19  04 


Premioms. 


$71  40  to  $119  00 
71  40  to  110  00 
71  40  to 
47  60  to 
47  60  to 
47  60  to 


95  20 
71  40 
71  40 
71  40 


PAY  OF  TRACK  OFFICERS. 


Trackmaster 

Telegraph  gnard 
Track  guard 


Salary. 


$321  30  to  $464  10 
339  15  to  446  25 
342  80  to    178  50 


Rental  aid. 


$14  28  to  SIO  04 
14  28  to  19  04 
14  76  to  10  04 


PAY  OF  STATION  OFFICERS. 


Station  superintendent,  first-class 

Station  Buperintendent,  second-class 

Section  inspectors ) 

Assistant  section  inspectors i 

Telegraph  operators 

Waj^on-masters 

Freight  clerks  and  cashiers 


Salary. 


$499  80  to  $761  60 
428  40  to  490  80 

321  30  to  428  40 

249  90  to  321  30 

249  90  to  285  60 
571  20  to  761  60 


Rental  aid. 


$14  28  to  $42  84 
14  28  to  42  84 

14  28  to  42  84 

4  76  to  19  04 
4  76  to  19  04 
14  28  to  42  84 


DOMESTIC   SERVICE. 


I  have  already  stated  that  I  do  not  consider  the  estimate,  according 
to  which  about  2,500,000  of  people,  male  and  female,  are  engaged  in  do- 
mestic service  in  Germany,  as  exorbitant.  In  order  to  comprehend  this 
fact  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  in  Germany  at  least  two, 
if  not  three,  servants  are  employed  in  a  family,  where  an  American  fam- 
ily of  equal  station  in  life  employs  one.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact, 
that  work  is  done  faster  in  the  United  States,  owing  in  a  great  measure 
to  the  more  ])ractical  arrangement  of  houses,  kitchens,  ranges,  stoves,, 
&c.,  and  partly  because  there  does  not  exist  in  Germany  on  the  part  of 
men  and  women  of  limited  pretensions  to  education  any  aversion  to 
"  serving"  or  being  called  "servants." 

All  these  domestic  servants,  be  they  hostlers,  coachmen,  butlers,  ta- 
ble-servants, house-keepers,  maids,  nurses,  or  kitchen  girls,  live  with 
the  family  which  employs  them,  in  the  middle  clas.ses  in  the  same  hoase, 
in  the  higher  classes  partly  in  the  house  and  partly  in  outhouses. 
Wages  vary  very  much,  not  alone  according  to  the  occupations,  but  also 
according  to  the  places.  In  large  cities  the  scale  of  wages  is  much 
higher  than  in  country  towns.  The  wages  of  females  in  this  line  of  work, 
in  addition  to  board  and  lodging,  range  from  $14.28  to  $71.40,  and  those 
of  males  from  $23.80  to  $95.20  per  year. 

Owing  to  the  strong  current  of  emigration  from  this  class  of  people 
there  is  a  constant  improvement  in  their  condition,  treatment,  and  pay. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


239 


STRIKES. 

It  has  only  been  in  recent  years  that  workmen  have  organized  suf- 
ficiently in  Germany  to  influence  by  joint  action  in  any  manner  the 
amount  of  wages  to  be  paid  to  them.  Of  late  strikes,  organized  after  the 
English  and  American  methods,  are  not  of  infrequent  occurrence  in  the 
larger  cities,  and  I  have  found  to  my  astonishment  that  even  in  this 
country,  where  the  supply  of  labor  is  so  abundant,  these  strikes  have 
sometimes  been  successful.  In  pursuance  of  the  recent  circular  of  the 
Department  of  State  I  shall  more  fully  investigate  and  at  another  time 
report  upon  the  organization  of  workingmen's  unions  and  guilds  in  Gar- 
many. 

SUMMARY. 

In  summing  up  finally  the  results  of  my  investigation  of  the  condi- 
tions of  labor  in  Germany,  and  more  particularly  in  the  province  of 
Hesse  Nassau,  of  which  Frankfort  is  the  leading  commercial  city,  al- 
though Wiesbaden  is  the  seat  of  the  principal  government,  I  feel  jus- 
tified in  saying  that  while  the  general  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
the  working  classes  during  the  last  three  or  four  decades,  brought 
about  by  the  progress  of  intelligence  and  education,  by  the  increased 
facilities  of  travel  and  intercommunication,  by  a  constant  flow  of  emi- 
gration, carrying  oft'  the  surplus  force  of  the  country,  is  undeniable,  yet 
there  is  not  observable  any  material  change  in  their  condition  since  1878, 
except,  as  already  stated,  in  the  iron  and  coal  regions  of  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia, where  the  protection  afibrded  to  established  industries  by  an  in- 
creased tariff  has  had  the  effect  of  stimulating  enterprise  and  of  decid- 
edly improving  the  condition  of  both  the  manufacturer  and  the  work- 
men. 

In  conclusion,  I  beg  to  call  attention  to  the  statistical  tables  hereto 
annexed,  containing  a  statement  of  the  wages  paid  in  numerous  branches 
of  industry  not  specially  referred  to  in  this  report. 

FERDINAND  VOGELER, 

Consul-  General. 

United  States  Consulate-General, 

FranJcfort-on-tlie-Main,  June  13,  1884. 


1.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  hours  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 


Occupations. 

Lowest 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TKADES. 

Biicltlayere 

$2  40 

1  44 

2  40 

1  44 

2  65 
1  44 

3  75 
3  75 

1  44 

2  90 

$7  20 
3  74 
7  20 
3  74 
5  85 

3  74 

4  75 

4  75 
3  74 

5  20 

$4  64 
2  2S 

Hod-carriora 

Tenders 

2  ''6 

4  10 

Tenders 

2  26 

Slaters  

4  25 

Roofers 

4  25 

Tenders 

2  26 

Plumbers 

4  25 

Assistants .. 

2  00 

Carpenters 

2  64 
2  90 

6  80 
5  20 

3  60 

Gas-flttera 

4  25 

240  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  2)er  iccck  of  sixty  hours  in  Franlfort-on-thc-Main — Coutinued. 


Occupations. 


OTHEE  TKADES. 


BaTjera   

Blaclisraitlis 

Strikers  (iisaally  boys).. 

BooUbiudcrs. 

Briclc-makcrs 

Brewtrs 

Biitcbera    

Brass-founders 

Cabiuet.  makers 

Conrcetioncrs 

Cigui  -makers 

Coopers    .. 

Drivers : 

Diaymen  and  teamsters. 

Cnb'aud  carriage 

Street  railway  /. 

StrfCt-r.iilvray  conductors  ... 

Dyers 

Enpravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters  

Horse-slioers 

Laborers,  pollers,  &c 

Lit  hofira  pliers 

MiUwri'jrbta     

Nail-makers  (band) 

Potters 

Printers  

Satldlc  and  barness  makers  . 

Tanners, 

Tailors   ' .   

Tolegraitli  operators 

Tinsmiths 


Lowest 


2  40 
2  60 
2  38 
2  63 

2  10 


Highest. 


$1  00 
4  70 
1  50 
4  8:-) 

4  65 

5  75 
3  47 


2  85 


2  50 


4  75 
4  10 

3  57 

4  18 

2  85 


3  85 
7  50 

4  50 
3  80 

5  00 
3  50 
3  00 

10  00 
5  50 

3  25 

4  CO 
9  00 
4  25 
4  25 
3  35 
t 

3  75 


Average. 


$3  50 
3  49 

1  25 
3  65 

3  55 

5  25 

2  85 

4  25 

3  49 
3  15 

2  86 

3  25 

2  50 

2  88 

3  36 

3  40 
C  00 

4  00 
3  00 
3  90 

3  12 
2  50 

6  50 

4  50 

2  C2 

3  84 
6  00 
3  90 
3  90 
3  05 


t 


8  12 


*  Are  paid  by  the  trip  and  hour.  t  See  Railroads. 

11.  Factories,  mills,  &c. 

Wages  paid  per  xceclc  of  sixty  hours  in  factories  or  miUs  in  and  near  Fronlfort-on-the-Main.^ 
I  Tar-color  Works  of  Meisler,  Lucius  &Briining  at  H6chst-on-tho-Main.] 


Employment. 


Average. 


Mechanical  workshop  . 

Macli  ni!  rooms 

Biiil.b'r'.s  shop 

naiiiin'.Mlcp  rtraent... 

Ali..ariui'  r.iitoiy 

Aniline  i'.utnry   

Acid  f.ietoiv         

I'aekin;^  rooms 

Dye  rooms.   


General  average 
Paper  mills  


$4  70 

4  43 

3  74 

3  74 

3  74 

3  74 

3  76 

3  71 

3  08 

8  75 

3  12 

III.  Foundries,  machine-shops  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  per  weelc  of  sixty  hours  in  foundries,  machine- shops,  and  iron  works  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Germany. 


Employment. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$3  50 
3  30 

$5  75             $4  20 

5  40              4  05 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

IV.  Glass  workers. 


241 


There  are  no  glass  works  within  the  consular  district  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main.  From  the  statistics  carefully  collected  and  published  by  Paul 
Ballin,  of  Friedman,  I  learn  that  the  average  earnings  of  a  glass- worker 
are  $3.79  per  week. 

V.  Mines  and  mining. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  forty-eight  hourain  andin  ooime^itian  with  mvtieaiit  Rhenish  Prussia. 


Occupation. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$4  43 

$5  54 

$4  9S 

VI.  Railway  employ]&s. 

Wages  paid  to  railway  employes  (those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  engaged  on  th'i 
engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c),  Ik  Frankfort-on-the-Main  district. 


Occupations. 


Laborers : 

Freightmen  at  station per  olay 

First  freightmen  at  station do. .  - 

Trackmen do... 

Fir.'t  trackmen do . . . 

Train  officers : 

Engineers per  year. 

SuperintendeJit  of  train do. . . 

Freight  officer do. .. 

Conductors do... 

Fireuieu do . . . 

Brakemen do... 

Track  officers : 

Trackmaster per  year. 

Telegraph  guard do.. . 

Track  guard do. . . 

Station  officers : 

Station  superintendent first  class. 

Station  superintendent second  class. 

Section  inspector i 

Assistant  section  inspector 

Telegraph  operator 

Wagon-master 

Freight  clerks  and  cashiers 


Lowest. 


$371  28 
326  06 
311  78 
238  00 
266  66 
216  58 

335  58 
353  43 
147  56 

514  08 
442  68 

335  58 

2.-54  66 
254  66 
585  48 


Highest. 


$566  44 
459  24 
364  14 
826  06 
376  04 
326  04 

483  14 
465  29 
197  54 

804  44 
542  74 

471  24 

340  34 
304  64 
804  44 


Aveiage. 


.57 
52 
60 

468  81 
437  65 
337  96 
282  03 
321  35 
271  31 

409  36 
409  36 
172  60 

659  27 
492  21 


297  50 
279  65 
694  96- 


IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  weeJcin  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Frankfort-on-thc- 

Main. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


IK  STORES. 

Clerks  (male) 

Clerks  (female) 

IN  OFFICES. 

Book-keepers 

Book-keepers'  assistants 

92  A— LAB 16 


?2  88 
1  92 


7  98 
2  88 


$7  98 
4  80 


15  96 

7  98 


$5  78 
3  36 


11  97 
5  78 


242  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

X.   HOUSDHOLD   WAGES. 
Wagea  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main.* 


Occupations. 


Lowest 


Highest. 


Average. 


Coachmen 

Male  hoase-servants.. 
Pemale  houae-servants 


$G0  00 
50  00 
15  00 


$100  00 
90  00 
30  00 


$80  00 
70  00 
25  00 


'Including  board  and  lodging. 

XI.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid,  per  day  to  agricultural  laborers  in  province  of  Hease-Nassau,  without  board 

and  lodging. 


Occapations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

Laborers  (field) : 

Male 

$0.34 
20 

$0.60 
24 

$0.47 

22 

XII.  Corporation  eiiployEs. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  tlie  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 


Occapations. 


Lowest 


Highest 


Average. 


Mayor 

Forest  inspector 

Secretary  of  the  city 

Kecorder 

Librarian 

Kegistiarof  births,  marriages,  and  deaths. 

Building  inspectors 

City  treasurer 

City  book-keeper 

City  auditors 

City  school  superintendent 

City  pardoner 

City  chief  of  fire  department 

City  tax  treasurer 

City  snperintendent  of  theaters 

Bookkeeper  of  city  pawn  office 

City  ma rlietm aster 

City  surveyor 

City  statistician 

City  assistant  statistician 

Superintendent  of  cemetery 

City  weighers 

City  overseer  of  the  poor 

City  tax  collectors 

City  janitors 

City  foresters 

City  watchmen 


$1, 056  00 


11, 128  00 


$336  00 
336  00 
28«  00 
216  00 


$480  00 
480  00 
360  00 
312  00 


*$2,856  00 

1,  200  00 

1,  'JOO  00 

1,200  00 

1, 128  00 

1, 128  00 

1,  092  00 

1,  104  00 

1, 104  00 

1,  032  00 

1,  032  00 

864  00 

864  00 

960  00 

720  00 

744  00 

648  00 

720  00 

744  00 

643  00 

600  00 

612  00 

612  00 

408  00 

408  00 

324  00 

276  00 


*And  dweUlng. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


243 


XIII.  Government  employes. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  employes  in  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusive  of  trades- 
men and  laborers,  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  province  of  Hesse-Nassau. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


President  of  province 

Counselors  of  president 

President  of  district 

President  of  royal  railroad  board 

President  of  oherlandgericht  (court) 

Judges  of  obei  landgeiich  t  (court) 

Secretary  of  oberlandgericht  (court) 

Prosecuting  attorney  of  oberlandgericht  (court) 

Assistant  prosecutinir  attorney  of  oberlandgericht  (court). 

President  of  landgericht  (court) 

Judges  of  landgericht  (court) 

Secretaries  of  landgericbt  (court) 

Prosecutiug  attorney  of  landgericht  (court) 

Assistant  prosecuting  attorney  of  landgericht  (court) 

Judges  of  amtsgericht  (court) 

Chief  of  police 

Police  director 

Police  commissioners 


$1,  000 


$1,440 


1,152 
500 


1,584 
1,056 


576 

500 


1,440 
792 


576 
'576 


1,440 


1,440 


*$5,  000 

*1, 220 

*2,  736 

*2,880 

3,360 

1,368 

660 

2,088 

7i0 

2,088 

1,000 

636 

1,368 

576 

1,000 

*3,,600 

1,920 

1,000 


'  And  suitable  dwelling. 


XIV.  Laborers  in  government  employ. 

Wages  paid  by  the  week  of  sixty  hour  sto  the  laborers  in  Government  employ  in  Frankfort- 

on-thO'Main. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

AreragA. 

Day  laborers 

$2  90 

$3  67 

$3  2g 

XV.  Printers  and  printing-offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  hours  to  printers  (com,po8itor8,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  ^c.)  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest 


Average. 


Type-setters 

Journeymen  printers. 


$3  25 
3  25 


$5  71 
4  50 


$4  50 
3  75 


244  LABOK    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

Prices  of  food  and  lodgings  in  the  district  of  Frankforf-an-the-Main,  Germany. 


Cities. 


Bockenheini 

Diez-on-the-Lahn 

Eschwege 

Frankfort-on-the-Main  . . . 

Fulda 

Gelnbausen 

Griesheim 

Hofgeismar 

Cassel 

Marburg 

Nied 

Rinteln 

SalmiinBter-on-the-Kinzig 

Scblierbach 

Wiesbadeu , 

Winkel-on-the-Ehine 

Average 


Victuals. 


3  3 
«  ft 


U  37 
3  82 

2  62 

3  82 
3  05 

3  05 

4  37 
2  62 
2  74 
2  83 

2  83 

3  26 
2  95 

2  74 

3  05 

4  80 


3  31 


0  a 

O   3 

42  Pi 

.^3 


$5  45 
4  37 

3  26 

4  80 

4  37 

5  02 
5  45 
3  72 

3  72 

4  37 

5  66 

4  37 

5  66 
4  37 

4  58 

5  45 


ID  S 


4  66 


72 


14 


15 


S- 


$0  12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
10 
13 
12 
14 
12 
8 
13 
9 
9 
13 
16 


12 


P; 


$0  24 
17 

20 

22 

22 

22 

22 

20 

19 

20 

22 

22 

22 

20 

19  I 

17  I 


Itents 
per  month. 


3  84 
3  60 

1  99 
3  60 

2  16 
2  88 
2  28 
2  88 


2  52 

3  60 


21 


2  83 


$4  32 
2  16 


9  60 
4  80 

3  00 

4  80 

2  52 

3  60 
3  24 
3  00 


3  12 

4  32 


4  04 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 

BE  POST  BT  CONSUL  LINCOLN. 

1.  Eates  of  wages. 

The  answers  to  this  question  will  be  found  in  the  tables  herewith  in- 
closed, as  far  as  it  was  possible  to  ascertain  them  here.  In  cases 
where  replies  are  not  given  the  request  for  information  has  been  re- 
fa  sed. 

2.  Cost  of  living. 


Tn  reply  to  this  question  I  submit  the  following  table  of  average  re- 
tail prices  of  the  articles  of  food  commonly  consumed  by  the  class  in 
question : 


Beef per  ponnd . 

Veal do . . . 

Mutton do . . . 

Pork,  fresh do . . . 

Ham,  smoked do . . . 

Butter. do... 

Cbe«8e do... 

Milk per  liter. 

Coffee,  roasted per  poiujd 

Coffee,  raw do . . . 

Rye  flour do... 

Wheat  flour do . . . 

Peas do... 

Beans do... 

Barley , ".  do . . . 

Rice do... 

Salt do... 

Potatoes do . . . 


17f 

16i 

I7f 

19 

42f 

5>9f 

19 

04 

33i 

•24i 

02i 

03f 

04i: 

04i 

0«i 

m 

Oli 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  245 

In  regard  to  rent,  tbe  price  of  rooms  in  a  large  building  inhabited  ex- 
clusively by  working  people  will  perhaps  give  au  approximate  idea. 

Here,  iu  the  house  referred  to,  rooms  are  charged  for  according  to 
size,  which  is  reckoned  i^er  window.  For  example,  a  room  with  two 
windows  costs $1.43  per  month;  a  larger  room,  with  three  windows,  $2.14 
l^er  month,  and  so  on. 

These  figures  can  be  taken  as  indicating  average  prevailing  prices. 

A   weaver's   STATEMENT. 

A  weaver  iu  one  of  the  cloth  mills  here,  whose  wages  amount  to  $3.57 
per  week,  a  married  man  with  one  child,  pays  $2.38  per  month  for  a 
large-sized  room,  $24  per  year  for  clothing  for  self  and  family,  and  the 
balance  of  his  earnings  for  living  expenses. 

3.  Past  and  present  wages. 

Inquiry  in  many  reliable  quarters  enables  me  to  assert  that  within 
the  last  ten  years  the  rate  of  wages  has  been  tending  toward  an  in- 
crease. The  conditions  prevailing  at  present  vary  very  little  from  those 
existing  in  1878,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  otherwise  than  owing  to  the  oper- 
ation of  the  present  protective  tariii",  which  went  into  effect  in  1880. 
It  is  undeniably  true  that  as  a  result  of  the  adoption  of  the  measure  re- 
ferred to  an  impulse  has  been  given  to  some  branches  of  industry,  nota- 
bly to  the  iron  and  steel  interests. 

The  wages  of  labor  being  dependent  in  a  measure  upon  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand,  it  can  be  easily  understood  that  iu  consequence  of  the  be- 
fore-mentioned fact,  wages  in  those  branches  are  somewhat  bettered. 

Still,  during  the  same  period,  the  purchasing  powt  r  of  money  has 
been  lessened  and,  according  to  the  best  obtainable  information,  the  rise 
in  wages  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  increased  cost  of  the  necessities  of 
life. 

4.  Habits  of  the  working  classes. 

Generally  speaking,  the  workingman  is  industrious,  frugal,  content 
with  his  lot,  and  is  able  to  satisfy  his  wants  from  what  he  earns.  His 
wife,  inured  to  poverty,  born  and  bred  to  hard  work,  as  well  as  to  the 
exercise  of  the  greatest  economy,  is  a  veritable  helpmeet  in  providing 
the  simple  home.  The  workman  is,  as  a  rule,  steady  and  trustworthy, 
though,  I  fear,  owing  in  a  great  measure  to  the  prevailing  conditions, 
not  saving. 

This  is  due  perhaps  to  the  small  amount  of  his  earnings  and  the 
slight  opportunity  afforded  him  of  bettering  his  condition  as  well  as  to 
the  character  of  the  population  in  general. 

He  is  also  hampered  no  doubt  pecuniarily  by  the  large  progeny  which 
marriage  among  people  of  his  class  seems  invariably  to  entail. 

Although  this  latter  qualification  may  be  true  of  the  same  class  in 
all  other  parts  of  the  world,  it  certainly  seems  to  me,  and  -I  have  no 
doubt  that  official  statistics  would  confirm  my  statement,  that  here  the 
fecundity  of  the  order  of  people  iu  question  is  something  marvelous. 

The  people  of  this  section  of  country  are  greatly  inclined  to  pleasure- 
seeking,  and  naturally  the  class  in  question  shares  this  disposition. 

The  evils  whicli  directly  affect  his  material  well-being  and  most  influ- 
uence  his  disposition  to  be  saving  are  consequent  upon  the  before-men- 
tioned characteristic. 


246  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

The  great  number  of  holidays  on  which  work  is  necessarily  abstained 
from  and  the  opportunity  for  indulgence  in  dissipation  thereby  afforded 
lessens  not  only  the  means  of  saving  but  the  desire  as  well.  The  direct 
loss  of  wages  involved  thereby  is  also  a  great  misfortune  to  many,  and 
in  the  course  of  the  year  amounts  to  a  considerable  sum. 

However,  the  frequency  and  number  of  these  resting  si^ells  and  op- 
portunities for  the  enjoyment  of  the  simple  amusements  prevailing  here 
tend  to  make  him  content  Avith  his  lot,  and  although  in  consequence 
thereof  the  "fretful  ambition"  which  would  tend  to  make  him  dissatis- 
lied  with  his  condition  and  spur  him  on  to  greater  effort  is  destroyed, 
it  is  equally  true  for  the  same  reasons  that  for  the  purjjoses  of  the  em- 
ployer he  is  a  better  workman,  and  for  the  state  a  better  citizen. 

The  circumstances  above  mentioned  as  intluencing  his  character  as 
to  saving  will  apply  with  equal  effect  as  to  his  habits  for  good  or  evil. 

It  is  a  truism  to  state  that  overindulgence  in  intoxicating  beverages 
is  the  greatest  enemy  of  this  class  the  world  over,  and  that  the  evil  is 
felt  here  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  causes  before  mentioned. 

However,  owing  either  to  the  nature  and  quality  of  what  is  consumed 
here,  or  perhaps  to  the  law-abiding  spirit  of  the  people,  the  evil  referred 
to  does  not  lead  to  the  per})etration  of  the  same  amount  of  crime  as  in 
some  other  lands.  The  gieatest  misfortune  resulting  therefrom  is  the 
squandering  of  earnings  and  the  necessary  loss  of  wages,  owing  to  un- 
fitness for  work  consequent  upon  dissipation. 

5.  Feeling  between  employer  and  employ:^. 

In  general  a  friendly  feeling  exists  between  the  capitalist  and  work- 
ingman,  which,  without  being  patriarchal  on  the  one  side,  is  seldom  dis- 
trustful on  the  other. 

As  a  matter  of  course  the  influence  of  this  state  of  things  is  conducive 
to  the  well-being  of  the  community  in  general  and  of  the  classes  imme- 
diately concerned  in  particular. 

6.  Organized  condition  of  labor. 

In  this  section  of  country  no  trades  unions,  as  we  know  them  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  exist,  nor  are  there  any  organizations  of  capital. 

The  feeling  of  antagonism  and  inborn  antipathy  between  employ^ 
and  employer,  which  in  some  countries  appears  to  prevail,  is  unknown 
here. 

Why  such  is  the  case  it  is  difficult  to  say ;  it  seems  hardly  to  be  ac- 
counted for  on  the  ground  of  superior  intelligence  of  the  classes  in 
question  here,  nor  can  it  be  due  to  any  especial  advantages  enjoyed  by 
the  laboring  classes  in  this  country  over  those  in  other  lands. 

It  seems  to  me  to  be  due  rather  to  the  law-abi<ling  sjiirit  of  the  people 
in  general,  the  result  of,  in  my  o]>inion,  the  general  military  training  of 
the  peoi)le,  and  the  somewliat  paternal  relations  existing  between  the 
governing  classes  and  those  governed. 

Whatever  view  one  may  take  of  the  existing  laws  as  to  the  military 
service,  &c.,  from  a  ])olitico-economic  standi)oint,  they  undoubtedly  op- 
erate to  the  welfare  of  the  peoi)l(;  in  one  sense,  in  that  they  create  one 
interest  in  which  every  i)erson  feels  a  share  and  inculcate  a  respect  for 
for  law  and  authority  at  a  time  in  a  man's  life  when  it  is  a])t  to  abide. 

The  ])aternal  features  of  this  Government  are  j)robably  largely  de- 
pendent upon  this  great  military  organization. 

In  a  country  where  every  man  is  a  soldier  and  whose  ruler  is  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


247 


actual  head  of  the  army,  the  Government  must  necessarily  do  what  it 
can  for  the  welfare  of  the  great  mass  constituting  the  same. 

Here  the  laws  regulating  military  service  work  very  democratically, 
leveling  many  distinctions,  and  create  at  least  one  interest  in  which 
employer  and  workman  may  participate  on  an  equal  footing. 

INSURANCE   AND   ACCIDENT   LAWS. 

At  the  l.ist  session  of  the  Reichstag  a  law  was  passed  makiug  the 
insurance  of  the  workman  against  accident  obligatory  upon  the  em- 
ployer. 

For  a  long  number  of  years  there  has  been  in  existence  a  law  creat- 
ing a  compulsory  fund  for  the  relief  of  sick  and  disabled  workmen. 

According  to  the  provisions  of  this  law  the  cajntalist  is  compelled  to 
contribute  one-half  of  the  amount  paid  in  by  the  workmen  each  week. 

The  workman  is  forced  to  pay  5  pfennige  i)er  week  upon  every  three 
marks  earned  (1  cent  on  every  71  cents).  In  case  of  sickness  the  work- 
man, for  the  first  fortnight's  time,  is  entitled  to  no  pecuniary  relief,  but 
receives  free  medical  and  surgical  advice,  drugs,  &c.  Should  the  ill- 
ness be  prolonged  over  two  weeks'  time  the  incapacitated  workman  is 
entitled  to  receive  from  this  fund  an  amount  per  week  equal  to  one- 
half  of  his  weekly  earnings  at  the  time  he  was  taken  sick. 

This  amount  he  continues  to  draw  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six 
months'  time  if  necessary,  after  which  date  his  right  to  assistance 
ceases. 

One  might  suppose  this  arrangement  would  be  taken  advantage  of  to 
the  injury  of  the  capitalist,  but  as  far  as  I  can  ascertain  such  is  not  the 
case  here. 

T  inclose  herewith  a  table  which  explains  itself,  showing  the  prac- 
tical working  of  this  "  fund  "  in  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Burtscheid  : 

Summary  of  the  receipts  and  dinhursements  of  the  fund  for  the  reiUf  of  factory  liands  and 

laborers  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Class  I. 


Number  of  members . 

Receipts : 

Paid  by  members 
Contributions  of 

employers 

Interest  and  other 

receipts 


8,140 


;$17,  270  14 
8,  635  07 
2,  658  33 


Total  receipts. . 

Disbursements ; 

Paid  for  relief  . . . 

Doctors  and  sur- 
geons' bills  and 
other  bxjieuses. 

Cost  of  manage- 
ment  

Invalid  pensions. 

Total  disburse- 
ments  


28,  563  54 


13,  444  64 


Class  II. 


Class 

in. 


Class 
IV. 


Class 
V. 


Class 
VL 


1,690 


2,603 


$4,  826  47   $5,  829  29 

2,413  23     2,914  64 

1 
615  93         845  23 


7,855  63     9,589  16 


330 


900 


$314  14  $1,  487 


2,466 


104  71 
245  45 


495  98 
174  09 


664  30   2, 158  03 


I 
3,  946  43     4, 155  59 


79       816  07 


2,  532  57     3,  515  58|      287  18:      869  16 


1,  025  42         289  29         368  50         98  96|       268  95 
2, 128  29     1. 353  51         262  51         11  42i 


26,  623  89 


Excess  of  receipts 
over  expenditures . . 

Excess  of  expendi- 
tures over  receipts . 

Resources : 

January  1,  1883. . 
January  1,  1884.. 


8,121  80     8.302  18'      484  35;  1,654  18 


1,286  98       179  951       203  85 


W,  967  66 

1,  655  89 

562  75 


Class 
VII. 


1,160 


if2, 149  16 

1,  074  58 

778  24 


7, 186  30     4,  001  98; 


3,  SRi  97 

1  994  11 

342  45 


5,  920  53 


1.  265  77 


55,027  23;  12,649  69,  16,666  72|  5,681  47'  3,889  05'  7,158  63 
56,  921  22j  12,  383  .52    17,  953  70    5,  860  441  4, 092  89|  8, 425  39 


1.717  93 


17,  289 

$36,  844  82 
17,  294  10 
5, 880  02 


60,  018  94 


20,  942  07 


175  77,      2,569  34 
34  27 1      3,  790  00 


4,843  30l     56,250  23 


4,  876  20 
1, 107  49 


16,  72S  11  117,  79«  90 
15,901  73  121,528  88 


248 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Summary  of  the  raodpte  and  disbursements  of  the  fund  for  the  rclbf  of  fact  or  n  hnndu  and 

laborers  at  Burtacheid. 


Description 


"Vnmber  of  employfes. 
Num\>erot  employers. 


Factory 
hands. 


3,130 
47 


General 
trades. 


121 
76 


Heceipts: 

Sum  paid  I>y  employes i  $6,  834  58 

Sum  i>ai(l  l»y  employi-rs >....  3,404  97 

Interest  and  otlior  rocoipts 8,  384  63 


Total  receipts 18,604  18 


Disbursements : 

Cost  of  maDa<;ement 

Money  assist auce  rendered. 

Phy.sicians'  cbargcs 

Medicines  and  curatives 


Total 


ivesoai  ces : 

January  1,  1883 
January  1,  1884. 


375  56 

5,880  10 
1,223  SO 
2,0';  8  87 


$301  6<< 

150  84 

8  90 


9,  564  33 


20,  266  21 
29,  068  07 


4GI  51 


42  00 

313  57 

52  84 

65  l(i 


473  57 


181  18 
163  10 


7.    STRIKKfS    AND   COURTS   OF   ARBITRATION. 

In  cousequeuce  ol'  the  relatioii  between  employer  aud  employe,  as  be- 
fore indicated,  strikes  are  of  very  seldom  occnrreuce,  aud  when  they  do 
occur  prove  of  short  duration.  For  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
the  parties  mentioned  there  exists  a  so-called  "  Geweibe-(jfericht,"  con- 
sisting of  twelve  judges,  all  of  wliom  must  be  employers  taken  from 
<lififereiit  branches  of  industry,  aud  a  clerk,  who  is  learned  in  the  law. 
Three  of  the  above  named  sitting  at  one  time  constitute  a  competent 
tribunal  for  the  purposes  of  arbitration,  but  where  an  agreement  cannot 
be  effected  seven  judges  must  decide  the  matter  in  dispute.  When  the 
amount  in  dispute  does  not  exceed  100  francs  the  judgment  of  this  court 
is  final ;  in  other  cases  an  appeal  lies  to  the  so  called  "  Handels-Gericht." 
Cases  can  be  brought  before  this  tribunal  without  the  payment  of  any 
eosts,  and  the  parties  concerne<l  appear  personally  without  the  inter 
vention  of  any  attorney.  This  excellent  institution  is  one  of  the  founda- 
tions of  Napoleon  I,  which  was  retained  after  the  province  became 
Prussian,  and  has  proved  a  competent  means  of  settling  differences  am- 
icably between  the  classes  in  question. 

8,  Freedom  in  food  purchases. 

No  restrictions  of  any  kind  are  imposed  bytbe  employer  as  to  where 
their  employes  shall  spend  their  earnings,  either  as  regards  the  neces- 
saries of  life  or  anything  else. 

The  laborer  is  paid  his  wages  weekly,  aud  in  the  current  money  of  the 
realm,  subject  only  in  this  city  to  the  discount  of  5  pfennige,  equal  to  1 
cent  on  every  71  cent«  earned,  which  is  paid  into  the  "relief  fund" 
already  descril)ed. 

9.    Co  OPERATIVE    SOCIETIES. 


This  question  has  been  partly  answered  already  in  the  replies  given 
to  the  foregoing  interrogatories. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  249 

•  JO.  General  condition  of  the  working  classes. 

The  general  condition  of  the  workingmau  here,  to  a  casual  observer, 
certainly  seems  a  wretched  one,  taking-  into  consideration  the  long  hours 
of  work,  the  low  wages,  the  slight  opportunity  afforded  for  saving,  and 
the  small  chance  of  bettering  his  condition. 

His  moral  and  i^hysical  condition  cannot,  however,  be  said  to  be  bad, 
and  the  influences  which  surround  him  on  the  whole  are  good. 

As  has  been  seen  already,  a  relief  fund  is  established  for  his  aid  in 
time  of  sickness.  Savings  banks  well  and  honestly  conducted  encourage 
him  to  lay  aside  something  for  fu  ture  necessities.  A  law  recently  passed 
compels  his  employer  to  insure  him  against  accident,  and  the  compul- 
sory educational  law  has  furnished  him  in  his  youth  with  the  means  of 
employing  his  mental  faculties  to  some  extent. 

Then,  too,  the  family  ties  are  strong  with  this  class,  and  if  children  are 
accounted  as  a  poor  man's  blessing  the  laboring  man  in  this  vicinity  is 
well  off"  indeed. 

At  the  completion  of  his  fourteenth  year  one  of  the  class  referred  to 
begins  work,  and  marries  generally  between  the  time  he  is  twenty  seven 
and  thirty  years  of  age. 

On  the  average  each  family  counts  four  or  five  children,  and  it  is  very 
seldom  that  one  finds  families  consisting  of  only  one  or  two  offspring. 

In  the  case  of  a  workman,  married,  in  a  needle  factory  here  earning 
$4.28  a  week,  for  seventy  hours'  work,  $2.38  is  paid  per  month  for  rent, 
$17  to  $19  during  the  year  for  clothing,  71  cents  taxes,  and  the  rest  for 
ordinary  living  purposes. 

A  ''spinner''  in  a  cloth  mill  here,  thirtj'-nine  years  of  age,  married, 
with  three  children,  a  daughter  of  eleven  years,  two  boys  of  eight  and 
six  respectively,  earns  on  the  average  $4.40  by  piece-work  weekly  in 
sixty-nine  hours. 

Out  of  his  earnings,  he  pays  $2.C2  per  month  for  rent  of  two  rooms, 
$12  per  month  for  living  expenses,  food,  drink,  fuel,  lights;  $1.90  per 
month  for  clothing,  and  71  cents  per  year  for  taxes. 

His  daily  fare  consists  of :  Breakfast,  coffee,  with  black  bread  and 
butter  and  a  little  white  bread;  dinner,  a  good  soup  of  meat,  potatoes 
or  some  other  vegetable— a  small  piece  of  meat  with  potatoes  and  occa- 
sionally another  vegetable;  in  the  afternoon,  coffee,  with  bread  and 
butter,  and  for  supper  bread  and  butter  or  potatoes.  As  it  will  be  seen, 
he  is  able  to  save  nothing. 

Cases  similar  to  the  foregoing  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely  with 
like  results. 

As  a  rule  the  workman  spends  all  he  earns  in  the  support  of  himself 
and  family,  and  regulates  his  domestic  economy  according  to  the  wages 
paid  him. 

11.  Safety  of  employes. 

Such  regulations  as  are  here  referred  to  are  generally  matters  of 
government  or  police  control,  and  vary  according  to  circumstances.  As 
a  means  of  escape  in  case  of  fire,  the  factories  here  are  compelled  to  be 
furnished  with  iron  stair-cases  running  on  the  exterior  of  the  building 
from  the  uppermost  story  to  the  ground. 

In  the  cases  of  mines,  government  inspectors  see  to  it  that  all  neces- 
sary precautions  are  taken  against  accident. 

The  greater  proportion  of    the  employers  about  here  insure  their 


250  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

workmeu  agaiust  accident,  on  their  own  account,  and,  as  before-men- 
tioned, the  state  has  recently  made  the  same  compulsory. 

12.  Political  rights  enjoyed  by  the  workingman. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  his  i:)olitical  rights  are  limited  by  his  pecuniary 
means,  or  rather  lack  of  means. 

The  privilege  of  voting  for  different  public  officers  is  dependent  upon 
the  payment  of  certain  taxes  to  city  or  state. 

Inasmuch  as  but  few  workmen  pay  a  tax  to  the  state,  they  have 
but  little  voice  in  shaping  the  legislation  of  the  country. 

Only  those  i)ersons  who  are  rated  higher  than  the  second  division  in 
the  so-called  "Classen-steuer"  are  compelled  to  pay  state  taxes.  The 
great  mass  of  the  workingmen  pay  only  a  "communal"  tax. 

13.  Causes  leading  to  emigration. 

The  emigration  from  this  immediate  vicinity  is  not  large  compared 
with  that  from  the  agricultural  districts  of  the  country.  Here,  undoubt- 
edly, as  in  all  sections  of  the  land,  the  comjiulsory  military  laws  influ- 
ence some  to  leave  their  homes. 

The  principal  cause  of  emigration,  however,  at  this  point  I  should 
think  rather  to  be  due  to  lack  of  employment,  owing  to  periods  of  over- 
production and  consequent  temporary  stagnation,  and  to  the  ever-pres- 
ent excess  of  supply  of  labor  over  the  demand. 

Many  are  drawn  over  the  sea  by  relatives  and  friends  who  have  gone 
before,  whose  place  of  residence  influences  the  emigrant  in  his  choice 
of  one. 

The  great  mass  leaving  here  is  composed  of  laboring  men  from  the 
agricultural  districts.  As  to  trades,  &c.,  I  cannot  learn  that  any  one 
branch  is  represented  more  than  another. 

Female  labor. 

1 .  Number  of  women  and  children  employed  in  your  district  in  indi- 
vidual pursuits: 

In  this  city  there  are  employed  in — 

Cloth  mills 4,000 

Cigar  factories 1 ,  l(iO 

Needle  factories 6r)0 

Card  factories 42 

Carton  factories BO 

Total 5,1):52 

2.  Minimum,  maximum,  and  average  wages. 

Minimnm $1  43 

Maximam 2  86 

Average 2  14 

3.  Hours  of  labor. 
Id  general  ten  and  a  half  hours  per  day. 


labor  in  europe germany.  251 

4.  Moral  and  physical  condition  of  employes. 

Generally  speaking,  good,  the  working-women  living  in  the  country 
about  the  city  being  particularly  healthy  and  strong,  and  many  of  them 
continue  their  employment  after  marriage. 

5.  Means  provided  for  improvement. 

For  those  women  living  at  a  distance  from  the  city,  and  who  return  to 
their  homes  on  Saturday  night,  the  employers  have  instituted  a  sort  of 
lodging  house,  where  they  can  obtain  decent  beds  at  a  reasonable  price, 
and  where  they  can  employ  their  spare  time  in  obtaining  a  knowledge 
of  cooking  and  other  handiwork  pertaining  to  the  housewife. 

6.  Means  provided  for  safety  in  case  of  accident. 

The  same  as  provided  in  the  case  of  male  operatives. 

7.  Provisions  in  regard  to  sanitary  measures. 

The  same  as  in  the  case  of  men  ;  the  provisions  of  the  "  relief  fund,** 
as  before  given,  apply  with  equal  effect  to  male  and  female. 

8.  Wages  during  the  past  five  years. 

The  tendency  is  rather  toward  an  increase  in  the  rate  paid  for  female 
labor,  as  in  the  case  of  men.  The  employment  of  women  has  supplanted 
that  of  men  in  some  branches,  notably  since  the  introduction  of  the 
"  power-loom,"  and  this  has  aff'ected  the  wages  of  men.  Still  the  money 
earned  by  the  women  ordinarily  is  turned  into  the  support  of  the  fam- 
ily, so  it  works  no  great  evil. 

9.  Education  among  the  women  employi&s. 

Owing  to  the  compulsory-educational  law,  which  compels  parents  to 
send  their  children  to  school  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen,  these 
operatives  can  nearly  all  read  and  write. 

Their  moral  and  physical  condition  is  in  the  main  good. 

Children  of  female  oj^eratives,  before  they  are  old  enough  to  attend 
school,  are  taken  care  of  during  the  working  hours  in  sort  of  "  nurseries" 
for  a  very  small  sum  per  day. 

After  the  completion  of  the  sixth  year  both  boys  and  girls  must  at- 
tend school,  which,  in  all  cases  where  the  parents  cannot  afford  to  pay 
anything,  is  not  only  free,  but  books  as  well,  and  everything  pertaining 
necessary  to  their  course  of  instruction. 

Boys  are  taught  gymnastics  and  girls  knitting,  sewing,  &c.,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  branches  of  study. 

GEO.  F.  LINCOLN, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  September  6,  1884. 


252 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


I.  General  trades. 

.    Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occapations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDIKG  TRADES. 

$2  86 

2  14 

$3  57 
2  14 
2  57 
2  14 
2  86 
2  86 
2  14 
2  86 
2  14 
2  S6 

2  86 

71 

3  57 
2  14 
2  86 
2  14 

71 
71 

2  86 

3  57 
3  57 

71 

2  14 

3  57 
71 

2  14 
2  14 
2  86 

2  62 

3  57 
3  57 
2  86 
2  14 

2  86 

3  57 

1  42 
3  57 

2  14 
2  14 

$4  28 
2  86 
4  28 

2  86 

3  57 
3  57 

2  86 

3  57 

2  86 

3  57 

Slaters     .             

EooflTS 

Gas-fitters 

3  57 

OTHER  TBADE8. 

*2  14 
4  76 

2  86 

3  57 

2  86 
*2  14 
*2  14 

3  57 

4  28 

5  00 
3  57 
2  86 
5  00 

*2  14 

2  86 

2  86 

3  57 

2  86 

4  28 

5  00 

3  57 

2  86 

3  57 
5  00 
2  14 

4  28 
2  86 

5  00 



Distillers  

Drivers : 

Cab,  carriage 

Millwrifrhts      .  

Kail-makers  (hand) 

Pot  ters 

2  14 

Printers 

2  86 
2  86 
2  86 
2  86 
2  86 

5  66 

3  57 

4  28 
4  28 
3  57 

Tanuers 

T-ailors  

Tinsmiths 

3.6T 



'With  board. 


II.  Factories,  mills,  &c. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  woolen  mills  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occupations. 


Head  raiser... 
Under  raiser.. 
"VVasher-off. . . 
Teazle  setter. 

Stoker   

Engineer 

Miller 

Ueart  miller.. 

IJrusher 

Head  pressor . 

Preoser 

Head  cutter. . 
Cutter 

Cutter  (lad)... 
Hea<l  burler.. 

Burler 

Head  tenterer 


ATerage. 

$3  09 

1  43 

3  09 

1  90 

4  f>4 

5  00 

2  38 

4  28 

2  14 

3  93 

1  14 

5  00 

2  14 

1  19 

2  38 

1  43 

3  33 

OccnpationSc 

Tenterer 

Head  stumper 

Stumper 

Hi-ad  dyer 

Dyer..  I 

Sizer  

AV'^arper 

Winder 

Timer 

Fcttler 

Willeyer 

Spinner 

Piecer 

Feeder  

Foreman 

Power-loom  weaver 

Hand-loom  weaver 


Average. 


$1  79 
3  09 
2  14 
5  00 
2  62 
^  JS 

2  14 
1  43 

5  OO 

3  57 
1  67 
3  57 
1  19 
1  67 

6  «) 
3  93 
5  00 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


253 


III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  iti  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occnpations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Machinist . 

Molder 

Helper 


$3  57 
4  28 
2  86 


$7  14 
5  71 
3  57 


VI.  EAILWAY  EMPLOYl^S. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  (those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c.)  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occnpations. 


Engines-drivers 

Firemen 

Conductor 

Gnard 

Division  superintendent. 
Linemen 


Average. 


4  76 

5  71 

4  28 

5  24 
3  33 


Occupations. 


Laborers 

Switchmen  . . 
Brakemen  . . . 
Train-maker. 
Ticket-seller. 
Cafohier 


Average. 


$3  33 
3  81 
3  09 

5  00 

6  66 
5  24 


IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Clerks,  salesmen. 
Glerkfl,  female* . . . 


$1  43 
71 


$4  28 
2  14 


*  "With  hoard  and  lodging. 

XV.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  toeek  to  printers  (compositors, pressmen,  proof-readers, 

4'C.)  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Proof-reader 

$5  00 

Compositor 

$3  57 
3  57 

$5  00 
5  00 

Pressmen 

ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  BALLOU. 
number  of  work-people  in  ALSACE. 

In  the  year  1880  employmeut  was  furnished  to  90,-682  people  in  the 
manufactories,  workshops,  &c.,  of  Alsace,  each  of  which  gave  employment 
to  over  five  people,  and  in  the  same  year  86,037  people  found  work  in  the 
smaller  workshops  and  in  various  trades,  industries,  &c.,  exclusive  of 
those  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  giving  a  total  of  177,320  work- 


254  LABOR    IN    EUr.OPE GERMANY. 

ing  men  and  women  engaged  in  labor  by  the  different  industries  and 
trades.  Of  this  number  90,083  were  males  and  32,529  females.  At 
present  employment  is  given  to  a  larger  number  than  in  1880.  The 
industries  of  Alsace  have,  in  the  main,  prospered  of  late,  and  this  is 
particularly  the  case  with  the  cotton  factories. 

Working  people  consist  of  two  classes,  those  who  are  bm'u  resi- 
dents and  who  follow  the  occupation  of  their  parents  before  them,  and 
those  who  come  here  in  busy  times  seeking  employment,  which,  when 
obtained,  is  always  recompensed  by  better  wages  than  can  be  obtained 
in  other  sections  of  Germany,  which  can  readily  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  following  statements,  showing  the  wages  i)aid  to  working  men  and 
women  in  Alsace  at  the  present  time,  with  those  paid  working  people 
in  other  sections  of  Germany : 

THE  OLD  AND  THE  MODERN  WORKMEN. 

In  former  times — up  to  the  French  Revolution  of  1789 — the  division 
of  the  burghership  into  guilds  was  a  powerful  bulwark  against  the  im- 
poverishment arfd  the  demoralization  of  the  working  classes.  There 
was  a  sort  of  familiar  bond  between  master,  workman,  and  apprentice ; 
they  belonged  to  a  class;  they  had  common  interests  and  a  solid  esprit 
de  corps;  a  spirit  of  brotherhood  exerted  a  wholesome  restraint  pro- 
motive of  a  certain  respectability.  Yet  this  system,  which  has  regu- 
lated the  relations  between  master  and  workingmen  for  so  many  cen- 
turies, has  outlived  its  usefulness,  and  has  been  swept  away  by  the 
hurricane  of  modern  liberal  ideas.  It  hindered  the  develojiment  of 
industry  on  a  large  scale.  Better  roads  increased  the  means  of  com- 
munication, and  soon  steamboats  and  railroads  shortened  distances  to 
an  undreamed  of  degree.  Steam  power  and  machinery  in  a  great  many 
branches  supplanted  craft.  Obscure  villages  and  towns  rose  sometimes 
rapidly  to  renown  and  prosperity  through  the  excellency  of  their 
fabrics.  Yet,  though  many  an  artisan  of  the  old  school,  i)roud  of  his 
skill  and  dexterity,  sunk  to  the  level  of  almost  a  laborer,  it  must  be 
owned  that  the  condition  of  working  jjeople  of  sober  habits,  journey- 
men as  well  as  laborers,  is  not  worse  than  before.  But  the  subverting 
politico-social  notions  that  are  current  among  those  classes  in  most 
parts  of  Central  Europe,  inordinate  longing  after  enjoyment,  an  undue 
love  of  dress  and  luxury,  with  some  want  of  temperance  in  the  use  of 
spirituous  liquors,  the  envy  of  their  superiors,  the  spirit  of  indiscipline, 
all  characteristics  of  our  epoch  and  not  shared  by  the  working  people 
alone,  unbalance  their  minds  and  render  them  unhappy,  dissatisfied, 
and  nnruly.  And,  indeed,  m  many  parts  of  Central  Europe  the  harsh- 
ness of  circumstances  is  such  that  in  most  cases  the  journeyman  me- 
chanic, and,  more  still,  the  la))orer,  only  lives  from  hand  to  mouth, 
happy  even  if  he  succeeds  in  that.  He  hardly  ever  can  lay  up 
sufficient  of  bis  earnings  to  have  ever  so  little  a  hoivrd  for  old  age  or 
for  his  family.  When  he  dies  he  leaves,  if  not  debts,  in  nearl}-  every 
case  want  and  deprivation. 

In  Alsace,  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhine, 
the  picture  is  perhajjs  somewhat  less  (lark.  In  this  district  manufact- 
uring industry  was  started  under  good  auspices  and  has  taken  a  de- 
velopment rarely  surpassed.  Few  (countries,  compared  with  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants,  have  so  many  varied  and  flourishing  industries. 
This  success  is  mainly  due  to  the  capable  men  who  introduced  manu- 
facturing industries  into  Alsace  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  and  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  255 

first  half  of  this.     They  establisbed  their  mauufactories  iu  the  very- 
best  manner  and  nscd  the  most  perfect  machinery  then  extant. 

They  knew,  moreover,  how  to  conciliate  their  interest  with  that  of  the 
numerous  men  and  women  they  employed,  and  they  treated  them  with 
great  kindness.  Discipline,  of  course,  there  is,  and  must  be,  but  the 
operatives  have  the  feeling  that  their  employers  take  no  undue  advan- 
tage of  them,  and  they  therefore  respect  them. 

The  Alsatian  working  population  are  perfectly  aware  of  the  intel- 
lectual superiority  of  those  who  succeeded  in  starting  and  raising  the 
different  industries  of  Alsace  to  such  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  and 
therefore  they  yield  a  ready  and  willing  obedience  to  masters  who,  on 
their  hand,  show  practical  sympathy  and  kindness  to  their  workmen 
and  their  families.  That  spirit  of  envy  which  throws  such  a  dark 
shadow  on  the  relations  between  employers  and  employed  in  other  parts 
of  Central  Europe  does  not  exist  in  Alsace. 

These  satisfactory  relations  explain  also  why  socialism,  which  un- 
balances the  minds  of  the  working  classes,  whilst  it  keeps  the  better 
situated  classes  of  Europe,  as  it  were,  iu  a  constant  uncomfortable  state 
of  suspense,  never  took  root  in  Alsace.  The  workmen  know  too  well 
that  their  own  personal  interest  is  intimately  connected  and  dependent 
on  the  general  prosperity  of  industry.  They  know  that  in  order  to  in 
sure  the  success  of  industry  in  general,  as  well  as  their  own  well  being, 
there  must  be  a  strong  scientific  organization  under  the  direction  of  com- 
petent men  of  intellect  and  manifold  knowledge,  and  that  a  mere  work 
man,  or  an  association  of  workmen,  could  not  but  fail  producing  the 
desired  effect.  Thus  their  good  sense  saves  them,  as  well  as  their  em- 
ployers, much  trouble  and  unpleasantness,  as  well  as  loss  of  time  and 
money. 

STRIKES. 

In  the  year  1870  there  was  a  general  strike  among  the  working 
classes  in  Alsace;  this  happened  a  few  weeks  before  the  commencement 
of  the  Franco-German  war.  It  was  aroused  by  the  Government  of  Na- 
poleon III,  and  was  purely  political  and  religious.  The  social  question 
was  not  brought  into  consideration.  It  lasted  only  two  weeks,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  strikers  resuming  work  at  the  former  wages. 

Since  Alsace-Lorraine  has  been  a  part  of  the  German  Empire  there 
have  been  no  strikes. 

HABITS   OF   THE    WORKING    CLASSES. 

As  is  everywhere  the  case,  Alsace  contains  good  and  bad  workmen  ; 
some  spend  their  earnings  iu  the  wine  and  beer  houses,  thinking  only  of 
the  pleasure  so  obtained,  recklessly  squandering  their  hard-earned 
wages  and  iu  many  instances  spending  the  mouej'  which  is  sadly  needed 
at  home  to  support  wife  and  children.  This  is,  I  am  informed,  rather 
increasing  than  decreasing,  the  low  price  of  spirituous  liquors  being  a 
strong  inducement;  but  in  this  respect  Alsace  is  no  better  or  worse 
than  the  other  large  manufacturing  centers  of  Germany.  Workmen 
who  lead  a  quiet,  sober,  and  industrious  life,  can  and  do  get  along  very 
comfortably,  as  their  wants  are  few,  and  in  cases  where  husband  and 
wife  are  not  blessed  with  too  many  children  to  provide  for,  and  when 
they  are  both  able  to  work,  they  are  able,  by  strict  economy,  to  lay 
something  aside  for  old  age. 

Nevertheless,  when  compared  to  the  condition  of  the  working  people 
m  the  United  States,  the  balance  is  by  far  in  favor  of  the  latter,  as  the 


256  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

following  figures  will  suflQcieutly  render  apparent.  The  Journeyman 
with  family  iu  the  United  States,  if  sober  and  steady,  wheu  he  intelli- 
gently applies  his  earnings,  is  able  to  lay  up  something  for  old  age, 
and  w^ithout  very  great  effort  will  succeed  in  becoming  owner  of  a  com- 
fortable house;  while  even  in  Alsace,  the  average  workman  finds  it 
hard  to  make  both  ends  meet,  and  he  can  barely,  i.  e.,  only  with  great 
effort,  keep  above  water. 

WORKING  HOURS. 

Work  begins  at  0  o'clock  in  the  morning,  an  intermission  of  half  au 
hour  is  allowed  at  8  o'clock  for  breakfast.  The  work  is  resumed  at  half 
past  8  and  continues  until  noon.  From  12  to  1  is  the  regular  dinner 
hour.  From  1  the  work  goes  on  until  7,  with  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  in- 
termission for  a  short  meal  at  4  o'clock.  Many  workmen  have  the  bad 
habit  of  taking  in  the  early  morning,  on  their  way  to  the  shop  or  the 
factory,  a  small  glass  of  brandy,  which  costs  2  cents. 

MEALS. 

Breakfast  consists  generally  of  coffee  and  bread;  sometimes  of  bread 
and  a  bit  of  cheese  and  no  coffee.  Masons  and  laboring  men  often  eat 
bread  and  one  or  two  raw  onions  with  salt.  Dinner  is  usually  composed 
as  follows:  Soup,  sometimes,  but  not  generally  or  regularly:  better 
situated  mechanics  have  beef  soup  twice  or  three  times  a  week;  gener- 
ally soup  made  of  water,  slices  of  bread,  slices  of  onions  and  a  little 
butter;  sometimes  vegetable  soup.  When  the  meals  are  brought  to 
them  in  the  shop  or  factory  by  their  wife  or  a  child,  soup  is  not  conven- 
ient and  they  have  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes,  cabbage,  or  carrots, 
boiled  or  stewed,  either  with  or  without  beef,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Married  journeymen  seldom  eat  meat  more  than  twice  or 
three  times  a  w^eek.  Laborers  eat  meat  (boiled  beef)  only  on  Sundays, 
but  even  on  that  day  not  regularly.  Farinaceous  food,  such  as  dump- 
lings, macaroni,  &c.,  are  much  liked,  and  in  winter  rice  is  a  staple  arti- 
cle of  consumi)tion,  also  barley,  peas,  beans,  and  lentils,  but  these  latter 
more  seldom,  the  })rices  being  higher. 

All  Alsatians  eat  more  bread  than  the  other  Germans  and  the  Eng- 
lish speaking  nations.  Bread,  therefore,  and  mostly  wheateu  bread  of 
good  quality,  is  the  principal  article  of  food  at  every  meal.  Sometimes, 
in  cases  of  need,  bread  and  potatoes  are  the  only  sustenance  of  the  poor. 
At  4  o'clock  p.  m.  it  is  customary  for  workmen  to  eat  a  large  i)iece  of 
bread.  Some  drink  also  half  a  pint  of  beer,  costing  2  cents,  but  this  is 
uot  allowed  in  many  shops.  Supper  is  taken  at  home  at  8  o'clock, 
and  consists  either  of  soup  (without  meat),  for  instance,  i)otatoe-soup,  or 
of  boiled  potatoes  eaten  with  salad,  or  with  a  sort  of  cheese,  called 
"white  cheese,"  bought  on  market  days  only  of  peasants  and  made  of 
sour  milk.  It  is  seasoned  just  before  being  served  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, caraway  seeds,  and  chopped  chives — a  very  j^alatable  dish.  Some- 
times sausages  and  bread,  or  cheese  and  bread. 

Women  and  children  take  very  often  coffee  and  bread  for  supper,  the 
same  as  for  breakfast. 

HOW   A   STRASBURG    PLASTERER   LIVES. 

The  following  interview  held  by  nie  with  a  plasterer  of  Strasburg 
will,  perhaps,  better  explain  the  condition  of  the  average  tradesmen  of 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


257 


Alsace.  It  applies  equally  well  to  masons,  stone-cutters,  bricklayers, 
carpenters,  &c.,  as  the  wages  vary  but  little  and  the  mode  of  living  be- 
ing the  same : 

Q.  How  old  are  you  ?— A.  I  am  thirty-nine  years  of  age. 

Q.  What  18  your  bu-siuess? — A.  I  am  a  plasterer. 

Q.  Have  you  a  family  ? — A.  Yes  ;  a  wife  and  five  children  (the  oldest  thirteen  and 
a  half  years,  the  youngest  one  and  a  quarter  years  of  age). 

Q.  What  wages  fto  you  get  a  day  ? — A.  Eighfy-three  cents. 

Q.  How  many  hours  per  day  are  you  required  to  work  ? — A.  Eleven  hours  ;  in  sum- 
mer from  6  a.  m.  to  12  m.,  and  from  2  to  7  p.  m. ;  in  winter  from  7  a.  m.  to  12  m.,  and 
from  2  to  8  p.  m. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  meals.  Give  number  of  meals  a  (lay. — A. 
Our  first  breakfast  is  taken  before  work  commences;  the  second  breakfast  or  luncheon 
between  9  and  10  o'clock;  we  are  allowed  one-fourth  of  an  hour  for  that ;  wo  take 
dinner  at  12  o'clock  and  can  rest  until  2  o'clock.  We  take  suj)per  after  the  day's 
work  is  finished. 

Q.  Can  you  support  your  family  on  such  wages,  and  does  your  wife  earn  any- 
thing?—A.  lean  support  my  family,  although  with  great  difficulty;  but  my  wife 
earns  about  28  cents  per  day.     She  is  a  laundress,  and  my  oldest  daughter  helps  her. 

Q.  What  do  the  united  earnings  of  you  and  your  family  amount  to  in  a  year? — A. 
If  wo  are  healthy,  about  S357.1.5. 

Q.  What  are  your  yearly  expenses  ? — A.  Rent  of  four  rooms  in  a  back  street  fourth 
story,  |;45.2.5;  clothing,  $47.02;  food,  |190.48;  fuel,  $:i8.10;  beer,  three-fourths  of 
which  is  outside  the  house,  $11.90;  schooling  for  two  children,  $9.52  ;  contingent  ex- 
penses, ,$9.52.     Total,  $352.39. 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  do  your  meals  consist? — A.  Our  breakfast  consists  of  rolls 
and  coffee ;  dinner  consists  of  soup,  vegetables,  potatoes  and  three  times  meat  per 
week. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  save  any  portion  of  your  wages  T  —A.  No ;  the  children  cost  too 
much. 

COST   OF  LIVING  IN  ALSACE. 

The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  principal  cities  of  Alsace 
are  as  follows: 


Articles. 


Wheat  bread :  I 

Pirst  quality per  ponnd . . 

Second  quality  .-. do 

Mixed  biead  (rye  and  wheat)  do 

Brown  bread do 

Beef: 

Sirloin do 

Ordinary do 

Mutton do 

Veal do 

Pork do 

Bacon do 

Flour do 

Cheese  (skim  milk) do 

Potatoes  do 

Kice do  . . 

Eggs  per  dozen . . 

Butter  (fresh) per  pound . . 

Milk per  quart.. 

Sugar : 

First  quality per  pound.. 

Second  quality do . 

Salt do. 

Petroleum per  quart. . 


Price. 


04) 
03i 
03 
02^ 

40 
18 
23 
18 
18 
20 
08 
06 
02 
10 
24 
25 
08 

10 
09 
03 
07 


Articles. 


Fowls per  pair. 

G eese per  pound. 

Ducks  do . . . 

Cabbage  ....do... 

Turnips    do... 

Carrots do . . . 

Cauliflower do. . . 

Cherries do. .. 

Strawberries do . . . 

Gooseberries do . . . 

Currants do... 

Macaroni do . . . 

Oat  nioal do... 

Pearl  barley do... 

Dried  peas  and  beans do... 

Coflffe do... 

Candles do . . . 

Soap do. .. 

Tea do... 

Common  table  wine: 

White per  quart. 

Eed do... 

Beer do . . . 


Price. 


$0  10  to 

03  to 
07  to 
10  to 

04  to 

03  to 


$0  75 
24 
26 
02 
02 
02 
05 
06 
20 
07 
12 
14 
08 
05 
06 
80 
17 
10 
00 

18 
16 
06 


The  working  classes  get  good  sound  beef  for  soup  costing  10  cents  a 
pound.  There  is  much  fat  and  cartilage  about  it  and  it  has  not  such  a 
good  appearance  as  the  first  quality  of  beef.  Horseflesh  is  eaten  by 
some  and  can  be  had  for  7  or  8  cents  a  pound.  It  enters  largfly 
into  the  composition,  together  with  beef  and  pork,  of  sausages.  These 
sausages  are  nevertheless  very  popular,  although  every  one  is  aware 
that  they  contain  horseflesh  more  or  less. 
92  A— LAB 17 


258 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


UNMARRIED  JOURNEYMEN. 


UDmarried  jonrnej'men  can  get  well  prepared  dinners  cleanly  served 
at  "popnlar  restaurants"  (Yolkskiiche),  established  by  philanthropic 
societies  for  providing  %Yholesonie  food  at  the  cost  price  to  the  working 
classes,  at  the  following  rates  per  portion: 


Articles. 


Bread  (a  largo  piece) 

Beefsoiip  

Vegetables , 


Articles. 

Price. 

Meat 

Cents. 
4, 

Wine 

...per  glass.. 
do  .. 

2 
2 

CHILDREN. 

Children  are  required  to  attend  school  from  the  sixth  to  the  thirteenth 
year  iuclusivTe,  and  therefore  cannot  be  of  much  help,  but  in  cases  where 
the  parents  are  employed  in  the  textile  industries  they  are  often  obliged 
to  work  after  school  is  dismissed,  or  at  times  of  school  vacations.  The 
school  taxes  are  as  follows:  40,  30,  20,  10  cents  each  month,  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  parents. 

Some  parents  take  pride  in  paying  the  full  tax  of  30  or  40  cents  a 
month.  Others,  by  applying  to  the  municipal  authorities,  who,  after 
inquiring  into  the  circumstances  of  the  applicants,  if  finding  them 
worthy,  the  tax  is  reduced,  or  entirely  remitted  if  the  family  be  found 
really  indigent. 

HOUSE   RENT. 

This  item  of  expense  in  a  working  man's  life  varies  considerably  in 
Alsace.  In  the  city  of  Strasburg  a  family  of  from  four  to  eight  persons 
can  find  homes  according  to  their  means  and  necessities,  in  back  streets, 
up  three  or  four  flights  of  stairs,  at  a  rental  of  from  $6  to  $8  per  quarter. 
Back  rooms  can  sometimes  be  obtained  a  trifle  cheaper;  it  depends  much, 
however,  upon  the  location.  In  some  streets  from  three  to  five  rooms 
can  be  had  on  the  second  floor  at  a  rental  of  $9  to  $11  per  quarter. 
Workmen  having  steady  employment  in  a  factory  or  workshop  for  con- 
venience sake  obtain  rooms  in  the  inmmediate  vicinity  of  their  place  of 
work,  if  i)ossible,  often  paying  more  than  they  can  really  afitbrd  on  that 
account;  while  others,  such  as  masons,  bricklayers,  carpenters,  &c., 
sometimes  have  rooms  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  where  good  homes 
can  be  had  at  a  nominal  figure,  say  from  $40  to  $G0  a  year,  and  where 
a  small  garden  spot  is  included  where  vegetables  can  be  grown.  Such, 
however,  are  very  seldom  to  be  had. 

I  have  visited  several  of  these  workingmen's  homes  in  the  city  of 
Strasburg,  and  although  situated  in  narrow,  not  over-clean  streets,  and 
generally  on  the  third  or  fourth  floor  of  a  tenement  house,  where  all 
surroundings  were  of  the  poorest  descri])tion,  I  invariably  found  them, 
although  my  visit  was  entirely  unexpected,  neat  and  tidj^  in  appearance, 
and  totally  at  variance  with  what  one  would  expect  from  the  outside 
surroundings. 

In  the  city  of  Mulhausen  rents  are  about  the  same  as  in  Strassburg; 
in  narrow,  dirty,  ill-smelling  streets,  families,  from  six  to  a  dozen  people, 
are  crowded  into  lodgings  of  three  or  four  rooms  including  the  kitchen, 
which  is  invariably  poorly  adapted  to  the  purpose.  For  these  lodgings 
they  must  jjay  from  $G  to  $10  per  quarter. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  259^ 

In  the  year  1853  a  society  was  formed  in  the  city  of  Mulhausen,  its 
members  being  composed  of  the  proprietors  of  the  cotton  mills,  one  of 
the  principal  movers  in  the  enterprise  being  Mr.  Jean  Dollfus,  who  de- 
voted a  great  part  of  his  life  in  endeavoring  to  better  the  condition, 
materially  and  morally,  of  the  working  people  of  Alsace. 

Mr.  Engle  Dollfus,  also,  was  yery  active  in  all  enterprises  calculated 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  working  classes,  and  by  his  death, 
which  occurred  last  year,  the  working  people  lost  a  friend  indeed,  and  one 
whose  place  it  would  be  hard  to  fill.  The  object  of  this  society,  which 
has  been  perfectly  realised,  was  to  build  houses  for  family  use,  only  one 
family  in  a  house,  granting  them  long  time  to  pay  for  them,  and  selling 
them  at  the  actual  cost  price,  including  interest,  which  according  to  a 
rule  of  the  society  must  not  exceed  8  per  cent,  on  the  investment.  The 
sales  were  made  on  these  conditions :  Good  order  and  cleanliness  al- 
waj's  to  be  maintained ;  houses  cannot  be  sold  by  purchasers  until 
they  have  been  owned  by  them  ten  years ;  no  part  of  the  i^remises  to 
be  rented  to  another  fanjily.  Sales  were  made  by  a  first  payment  of 
from  $50  to  $60  down,  which  is  carried  to  the  credit  of  the  purchaser; 
the  remainder  is  paid  by  reguhir  installments,  at  the  rate  of  from  $4  to 
$5  per  month.  They  generally  become  owners  of  their  houses  in  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  years. 

Nine  hundred  and  ninety-six  houses  built  by  this  society  have,  up  to 
this  time,  become  the  property  of  workingmen.  These  houses  consist 
of  from  five  to  se\eu  rooms,  including  kitchen  and  cellar.  A  small 
plot  of  land  is  always  in  front  of  the  house  and  is  utilized  in  various 
ways.  In  this  way  many  people  have  been  able  to  j)rovide  themselves 
and  families  with  good  substantial-built  houses,  who  under  former  cir- 
cumstances could  not  have  done  so. 

The  following  shows  the  average  percentage  of  expense  in  a  mechanic's 
household:  Food,  60  per  cent. ;  clothing,  17;  fuel,  3^;  light,  1^;  rent,  7; 
furniture,!;  sundries,  10;  total  100. 

For  households  having  to  dispose  of  from  $600  to  $1,200  a  year,  it  is 
admitted  that  they  spend:  For  food,  50  percent.;  clothing,  20;  fuel, 
4;  light,  2;  rent,  11;  furniture,  2;  sundries,  11;  total  100. 

The  expenses  for  food  in  a  workiugman's  family  may  be  averaged  in 
alike  manner:  Bread  and  flour,  35  percent.;  milk,  butter,  and  lard, 
18;  meat,  15;  vegetables  and  fruit,  16;  fermented  beverages,  8;  spices 
and  condiments,  8 ;  total,  100. 

AID   SOCIETIES. 

There  are  numerous  mechanics'  aid  societies  in  Alsace.  The  members 
pay  from  6  to  10  cents  a  week,  and  in  case  of  sickness  and  incapacity  for 
labor  they  receive  from  35  to  50  cents  a  day,  gratuitous  medical  assist- 
ance, and  a  reduction  of  20  per  cent,  on  the  price  of  medicine. 

In  case  of  death  the  widow  receives  about  $30.  There  are  similar 
societies  for  women.  So-called  maternal  societies,  which  furnish  linen 
and  necessaries  to  women  having  their  third  child.  Nearly  every  factory 
in  Alsace  has  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  operatives  who  may  become 
unable  to  work  through  disability  from  sickness  or  other  causes. 

In  case  of  sickness  the  physician  and  medicine  are  paid  out  of  the 
fund.  The  following  method  in  vogue  in  one  of  the  large  textile  factories 
here  will  illustrate  the  general  manner  in  which  they  are  conducted.  A 
fund  is  established,  to  which  all  workmen  contribute;  its  purpose  is  to 
assure  to  all  members:  (1)  In  case  of  illness,  medical  and  i)harmaceutic 
aid,  free  of  exj^ense;  (2)  daily  a  certain  sum  in  case  of  inability  to  work, 


260  LABOR  IN'  EUROPE GERMANY. 

caused  by  sickness;  (3)  payment  of  funeral  expenses  in  case  of  denth. 
The  amount  of  the  contributions  is  regulated  by  the  wages  earned.  The 
operatives  are  divided  into  three  classes: 

The  tirst-cUiss  pays  $2.85  each  year;  the  second-class,  $1.95;  the  third- 
class,  GO  cents. 

The  books  are  kept  by  one  of  the  clerks  iu  the  office.  This  metliod  is 
found  to  be  very  satisiaclory.  The  owners  have  access  to  the  bool<s  of 
the  fund,  and  understand  ])erfectly  its  condition,  an<l  in  case  it  is  (ex- 
hausted or  over(h-awn  always  subscribe  enough  to  make  good  the  de licit; 
this  however  is  very  seldom  necessary. 

Owing  to  certain  peculiar  knvs  there  are  many  impediments  to  mar- 
riage among  the  working  classes;  for  instance,  a  workman  born  in  on-e  of 
the  communities  cannot  without  formal  authorization  marry  a  female  who 
is  not  a  native  of  the  same  i)lace,  and  if  the  laborer  does  not  puiehase 
the  right  of  citizenshii)  for  his  wife  and  children  the  alliance  is  considered 
null  and  void  by  the  community.  From  this  state  of  affairs  result  nmny 
illegal  marriages  and  thousands  of  illegitimate  births.  The  French  C'ode 
is  siill  in  use  in  Alsace,  and  does  not  remove  these  difficulties.  There 
are,  however,  two  charitable  organizations,  one  Protestant  and  one 
Catholic,  their  object  being  to  regulate  the  condition  of  the  illicit 
households  by  furnishing  them  free  of  ex})ense  with  the  means  of  ob- 
taining the  documents  necessary  for  the  lawful  celebration  of  marriages. 
Since  these  societies  have  been  established  the  difficulties  have  gre.itly 
diminished,  so  much  so  that  instead  of  legitimizing  about  hve  hundred 
children  each  year,  ])rior  to  18G7,last  year  only  about  one  hundred  were 
legitimize  by  this  means. 

CO-OPERATIVE    ASSOCIATIONS. 

The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  where 
they  choose.  There  are  no  co-operative  associations  iu  Alsace.  In  the 
year  1870  a  co  operative  society  was  organized  in  connection  with  a 
large  cotton  factory  ;  it  was,  however,  found  impracticjible,  owing  to  the 
dislike  among  the  operatives  to  patronize  it,  ami  it  remained  iu  exist- 
ence but  a  few  months  when  it  was  abandoned.  Since  then  there  has 
been  none  established,  as  far  as  I  am  able  to  learn. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

Alsace  is  still  under  French  law  (the  Code  Napoleon),  and  the  politi- 
cal rights  of  the  workingman  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  millionaire,  or 
as  those  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

Every  Alsatian  citizen  is  a  voter,  and  eligible.  The  division  of  voters 
into  classes  of  different  degrees  does  not  exist  in  this  distri(;t.  The  tend- 
ency of  Cxov^ernment  is  quite  favorable  to  the  interests  of  the  working 
classes.  The  Imperial  Government  in  Berlin  and  the  lieiidistagare  dis- 
cussing measures  lor  ameliorating  their  condition,  and  those  measures 
will  also  be  for  the  benefit  of  Alsace  Lorraine. 

ACCIDENTS. 

Accidents  are  very  rare  indeed,  the  utmost  precaution  being  taken 
against  them.  There  is  an  association  for  the  i)revention  of  accidents 
in  Mulhausen,  in  which  twenty-five  firms  are  represented.  They  have 
printed  and  jjlaced  in  a  consj)icuous  place  in  the  various  departments 
rules  to  be  followed  by  the  employes  lor  the  management  of  the  differ- 
ent machines,  and  a  violation  of  auy  of  these  regulations  is  severely 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  261 

punished.    The  following  are  samples  of  some  of  them  observed  in  the 
cotton  mills: 

Self-acting  looms. — The  looms  must  not  be  set  in  motion  by  any  person  but  tiio  con- 
ductor himself.  If  he  is  absent  the  piecer  may  do  it.  Before  mo\ing  the  loom, 
the  conductor  must  call  out  iu  a  loud  voice,  "attention."  While  the  machine 
IS  in  motion  it  is  expressly  forbidden  to  every  workman  :  (1)  Toclean  the  movement, 
the  interior,  or  the  carriage;  (2)  to  take  the  coA'er  of  the  gearing  off;  (3)  to  enter 
the  space  between  the  cylinders  and  the  carriage.  The  cleaning  of  the  bobbins 
must  be  done  only  v/hen  the  carriage  is  about  three-fourths  outside  of  its  case,  or 
stand.  It  is  also  exiiressly  forbidden  to  place  a  ladder  against  the  transmitter.  If  a 
straj)  is  out  of  its  place,  the  piecer  must  take  a  pole  furnished  with  a  hook  to  replace  it. 

Tritnxmiltrr. —It  is  expressly  forbidden  to  clean  the  transmitter,  while  in  motiou, 
with  cloths  held  in  the  hands.  The  beams  and  pulleys  must  be  cleaned  by  means  of 
abrush  with  alonghandle.  Also,  wheels,  supports  and  cushions  mustonly  becleaned 
when  the  machine  is  not  in  motion.  During  the  hours  of  rest  no  workmen  are  al- 
lowed to  go  near  the  transmitter  unless  authorized  by  the  overseer. 

Sjyiiirllc  frames. — It  is  expressly  forbidden,  while  the  machine  is  in  motion,  to  clean 
the  beams  moving  the  si)indles  and  bobbins.  These  parts  must  be  cleaned  by  brooms. 
In  cleaning  the  si>ir:dles,  the  small  boards  which  cover  them  must  be  lifted  one  after 
the  other.  If  the  movement  is  cleaned,  the  wheels  and  straps  must  hrst  be  taken  off. 
It  is  also  forbidden  to  change  the  pinion  or  any  part  of  the  gearing.  If  the  foreman 
intends  any  change  in  the  direction  of  the  pinion  he  must  first  give  notice  to  the  bob- 
bin-winders. 

Cardtrs. — While  the  cards  are  in  motion  every  workman  is  strictly  forbidden  to 
clean  any  part  of  the  card  by  means  of  cloths  held  in  his  hands,  or  to  stand  between 
the  comber  and  lireaker.  In  order  to  take  the  grease  or  dust  off  from  pulleys,  covers, 
(fee,  he  nmst  take  a  long-handled  brush.  The  putting  into  motion,  the  stopping  of 
the  cards,  and  the  greasing  of  the  machine  must  be  made  by  the  sharpeners.  Work- 
men are  positively  forbidden  to  touch  the  straps. 

FIRES. 

Fires  of  any  magnitude  are  very  rare.  The  buildings  are  constructed 
very  solidly,  and  are  seldom  more  than  three  stories  in  height.  Cot- 
ton, woolen,  and  silk  mills  are  generally  from  two  to  three  stories,  and 
often  the  different  departments  are  in  separate  structures.  Keservoirs 
capable  of  holding  a  laige  quantity  of  water  are  constructed  upon  the 
top  Hoor.  The  water  in  these  reservoirs  is  reserved  for  fire  purposes 
only.  Hydrants  are  in  each  department,  always  connected  with  hose, 
ready  for  immediate  use.  Fire  escapes  are  always  constructed  on  the 
outside  of  the  building  and  extend  neatly  to  the  ground.  During  the 
nigiit  watchmen  patrol  the  buildings.  Some  extensive  concerns  have 
a  i)aid  corps  of  firemen,  in  connection  with  good  fire  apparatus.  These 
firiMueu  have  no  other  duties  than  to  kee])  a  sharp  lookout  for  fires  and 
extinguish  tliem  when  discovered.  All  departments  are  connected  by 
electricity  with  the  headquarters  of  the  fire  brigade. 

In  these  large  mills  fires  occur  at  times,  but  they  are  invariably  ex- 
tinguished with  a  small  amount  of  damage.  Such  a  complete  organi- 
zation is  naturally  quite  expensive,  but  not  as  much  so  as  it  would  be 
in  the  United  States,  as  the  wages  paid  are  smaller.  Extensive  estab- 
lishments where  such  a  system  as  above  described  is  in  use,  prefer  it  to 
carrying  heavy  insurance,  claiming  that  it  is  in  the  end  more  profitable. 

FEMALE  LABOR. 

Females  are  not  given  employment  in  the  public  offices  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  and  very  seldom  are  they  employed  as  clerks,  copyists,  «&;c., 
in  private  offices.  They  are,  however,  largely  engaged  as  cashiers  and 
saleswomen  in  stores  of  every  description. 

The  working  hours  are  generally  from  7  in  the  forenoon  until  12,  and 
from  2  in  the  afternoon  until  the  closing  of  the  establishment  in  the 


262 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


evening.  On  Sundays  tbey  are  generally  required  to  work  from  2 
p.  m.  until  7  in  the  evening.  A  few  establishments  remain  closed  all 
day  on  Sundays.  They  are  all  large  establishments  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  male  or  female  superintendent.  They  are  apparantly  al- 
lowed more  liberties  than  the  saleswomen  in  dry-goods  and  tancy-goods 
stores  in  the  United  States.  When  not  engaged  in  attending  upon 
customers  tliey  are  allowed  to  sit  down,  and  are  generally  engaged  in 
knitting  stockings  or  with  some  article  of  sewing  or  fancy  work.  They 
are,  however,  exceedingly  polite  and  attentive  to  customers.  They  have 
half  a  day  free  every  two  weeks. 

Household  servants  are  very  plenty,  the  supply  always  exceeding  the 
demand.  They  are  kept  hard  at  work  all  the  time,  and  must  do  all 
sorts  of  drudgery  ;  they  are,  in  fact,  maids  of  all  work. 

The  wives,  daughters,  and  servants  of  those  engaged  in  agriculture 
work  very  hard  indeed ;  they  sow  and  reap,  working  side  by  side  with 
the  males,  and  their  row  is  hoed  as  well  and  quickly  as  a  man  can  do 
it.  They  toil  early  and  late.  No  work  appears  too  hard  for  them 
within  the  possibilities,  and  the  men  evidently  think  that  all  things  are 
possible  with  them,  for  they  are  certainlj^  allowed  to  do  a  man's  work. 
The  wages  received  by  females  in  their  different  occupations  will  be 
found  under  the  appropriate  head, 

EMIGRATION. 

The  emigration  from  Alsace-Lorraine  to  the  United  States  has  not 
been  very  large,  and  has  been  mostly  confined  to  peasants  who  have 
suffered  from  a  succession  of  bad  crops.  Many  of  these  have  been  suc- 
cessful, and  their  examjile  incited  relatives  and  friends  to  do  likewise. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

For  much  of  the  information  embodied  in  this  report  I  am  indebted 
to  the  courtesies  of  Messrs.  Dollfus,  Mieg  &  Co.,  of  Mulhausen;  .De 
Bary,  Merian  &  Sons,  of  Gebweiler;  Pinel  &  Urner,  of  Markirch,  and 
Theodor  Kriiger,  esq.,  of  Strasburg,  for  which  I  desire  to  return  my 
best  thanks  for  the  many  kindnesses  they  have  extended  to  me  in  the 
past  and  the  iiresent. 

FEANK.  M.  BALLOW, 

Go7istU. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Kehl,  June  21,  1884. 


I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  iveejc  of  sixty  hours  in  Sirasburg. 


Occupatious. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Bricklayers 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$3  15 

2  86 

3  15 

2  86 

3  57 
2  23 
428 

4  28 
2  8IJ 

$5  15 
3  57 
5  15 
3  57 
C  20 
2  8G 

$4  15 
3  21 

Hod-caniors 

4  15 

3  21 

4  88 

2  54 

Slaters  

Hoofers 

Tenders 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  Strasburg — Continued. 


263 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Bun-DiKG  TRADES — Continued 

Plumbers ^ 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gasfitters 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Biickmakers 

Brewers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Cijrar-makers ^ 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseehoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithographers 

Kail-makers  (hand)  1 

Potters 


$4  00 

2  86 

3  80 

4  28 


3  48 
3  10 
3  57 

3  40 

4  57 

5  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  57 
3  36 
3  23 
3  48 
3  86 

3  70 

4  15 

3  70 

6  00 

4  28 

3  57 

4  15 

3  57 

4  28 

3  00 

4  57 
3  85 
3  28 


$4  27 


4  00 


.$4  13 


5  70 

4  75 

5  90 

5  09 

4  28 

3  88 

3  57 

3  33 

5  70 

4  63 

5  34 

4  95 

5  83 

4  91 

4  40 

4  20 

5  70 

5  13 

4  10 

3  66 

3  62 

3  55 

4  34 

4  25 

6  15 

5  21 

6  45 

5  01 

4  90 

4  52 

4  10 

3  83 

7  85 

6  06 

5  43 

4  21 

7  43 

6  00 

3  64 


II.  Factories,  mills,  &c. 

Workmen  employed  iu  a  large  taunery  at  Barr  receive  per  day  of 
twelve  hours  the  followiug  wages  : 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Whitners 

$0  76 
67 
63 
50 

$0  96 
76 
70 
55 

$0  86 

71 

66 

Common  laborers 

52 

AVorkmeu  employed  iu  the  chemical  factories  at  Mulhauseu  receive 
per  day  of  eleveu  hours  :  Lowest,  45  cents ;  highest,  65  cents ;  average, 
55  ceuts. 

The  wall-paper  manufactories  of  Tiirkheim  and  Eixheira  i)ay  the  fol- 
lowing wages  per  day  of  eleven  hours :  Foreman,  $1 ;  printers,  92  cents ; 
engravers,  85  cents ;  engineers,  80  cents  ;  laboriug  men,  50  cents. 

The  wages  paid  to  the  operatives  in  the  cotton  mills  vary  somewhat. 
Mulhauseu  pays  the  highest  wages,  Colmar  and  Miiuster  less,  while  the 
mills  in  the  Vogesen  Valleys  pay  the  lowest  wages,  and  require  the 
operatives  to  work  from  thirteen  to  fourteen  hours  per  day,  while  in 
Mulhauseu  they  work  only  eleven  hours,  and  in  Colmar  and  Miinster 
twelve  hours  constitute  a  day's  labor 


264 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


The  following  tables  will  show  the  wages  paid  to  the  operatives  iu  the 
cotton  mills  at  the  present  time  : 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  faclories  or  mill 3  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 


Occnpations. 


COTTON   WEAVING. 

Ovprspei  8 

Foi  cmen 

Dressers,  men 

Warpei  s,  women 

Reelei  s,  women , 

Weavers,  men  

Weavers,  women 

Bobbin-winders,  children 

COTTON  BPINKINQ. 

Foremen  to  spinning 

Overseers ~. . . 

Triiders  of  steam  engines 

Packer  of  spindles 

Firemen 

Watcbmen 

Groasers , 

CoD'lnctors  of  self-acting  looms 

Sliarpeuers  of  cards 

Ef-aters,  men 

Canli-rR,  men 

Tenders  of  spindle  frames 

Drivers 

Cleansers  of  cards 

Laboiing  men 

Strippers,  men 

Tiers,  men 

Draw-frame  tenders,  girls 

Combers,  girls 

Tenders  of  beaters  

Beaters,  women   

Tenders  of  cards  

Bobbin-winders,  children 

COTTON  PBINTINO. 

Engravers 

Print  ers  on  rollers 

Color-mixers 

Printers  on  wood 

Printers'  assistants 

Appreiitices 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$6  00 

$6  95 

$6  48 

5  «58 

6  20 

5  94 

5.66 

6  00 

5  83 

3  30 

3  72 

3  51 

3  12 

3  4^ 

3  30 

2  76 

3  42 

3  09 

2  40 

3  12 

2  76 

1  80 

2  04 

1  92 

0  00 

7  20 

6  60 

6  00 

6  80 

6  40 

6  00 

6  .10 

6  25 

4  80 

6  00 

5  40 

4  80 

5  10 

4  95 

4  80 

5  10 

4  95 

4  30 

5  10 

4  70 

3  90 

5  10 

4  50 

4  10 

4  SO 

4  45 

4  38 

4  50 

4  43 

3  48 

4  32 

3  90 

2  88 

3  90 

3  3!> 

3  00 

3  60 

3  30 

2  70 

3  90 

3  30 

2  30 

3  00 

2  65 

2  .52 

2  64 

2  58 

2  34 

2  58 

2  46 

2  31 

2  40 

2  37 

2  34 

2  34 

2  34 

1  80 

2  40 

2  10 

1  92 

2  04 

1  98 

1  80 

2  10 

1  95 

1  68 

1  80 

1  74 

6  90 

4  63 

4  68 

4  08 

2  54 

2  00 

■ 

WOOLEN  MILL  IN  ALSACE. 


Ocoapations. 

Average. 

Occnpations . 

Average. 

Wool  and  cloth  dyer  overseers,  men 

Second  hands,  men 

$8  50 

3  50 
a  80 

2  30 
8  60 

4  00 
7  20 
4  60 
4  70 

3  80 

4  50 

$3  30 
3  30 

Overlookers,  men 

5  30 

Common  hands,  men 

4  10 

Wool  canling,  men 

3  00 

Second  hands,  men 

Wool-sortins  overseers,  women 

4  60 

Spinning  overseers,  men 

2  80 

Spinu''is,  men 

1  Wool  picking  overseers,  women 

8  10 

Weaviiitr  ovorseei's,  men 

2  00 

Second  hands,  men 

2  00 

Weavers,  men 

1  90 

RIBBON  FACTORY.' 


Overseers 

Weavers,  men  . .. 
Weavers,  women 

Dyers  

Warper* 


Folders . . . 
Preparers 
Smoothers 
Rcelors  . . . 


$3  54 
2  82 
2  70 
2  60 


•Average  wages  paid  per  week  in  a  ribbon  factory  at  Gcbweiler. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


265 


III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  sixty  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-tcorlcs  in  Stras- 

burg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

$4  50 

$7  20 
6  12 
6  00 
5  40 
4  52 
4  20 

$5  85 

4  20 

5  10 

IV.  Glass-workers. 

There  are  two  extensive  manufactories  of  watcb  and  spectacle  glasses, 
also  an  extensive  manufactory  of  chemical  apparatus  (glass)  and  hollow 
crystal  ware;  they  all,  however,  retused  to  give  me  any  information  in 
regard  to  the  wages  paid  their  emi)loy6s. 

VI.  Railway  employ:6s. 

Wages  jtaid  per  iveek  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <^'C.)  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 


Occupations. 

Lorrest. 

Highest 

Average. 

$5  40 

3  70 
6  90 

4  67 
4  12 
4  26 
4  26 
3  15 
2  70 
2  86 

$6  05 

5  10 
9  CO 

6  05 
5  10 
5  36 
5  36 
4  00 

3  38 

4  00 

$5  72 

4  40 

8  25 

5  36 

4  61 

4  81 

4  81 

3  57 

3  04 

3  46 

The  earnings  of  the  baggagemen  depenil  upon  the  number  of  pieces  of  baggage  thev  handle  each 
day  ;  they  are  entitled  to  50  pfennigs,  or  12  cents,  for  evei'y  piece  of  baegage  they  bundle.  In  the  smaller 
railway  stations,  where  bag'iagemen  do  not  earn  much,  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  passengers, 
they  gut  an  additional  pay  of  20  cents  per  day. 

IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  month  in  stores  (tvholesale  or  retail),  to  males 

and  females,  in  Strashurg. 

Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

BANKS. 

$48  GO 
43  10 

23  00 
21  00 

37  50 
35  7C 
48  60 

24  00 
23  00 
17  40 

14  50 

15  00 
5  00 

13  50 
5  00 

$120  20 
73  50 
62  50 
38  10 

60  50 
42  10 
60  00 
42  10 

37  40 

38  10 
30  00 

28  60 
10  00 

24  60 
9  50 

$84  40 

58  30 

42  75 

Clerks 

29  50 

DRT  GOODS  6T0BE8. 

49  00 

38  90 

54  30 

33  05 

30  20 

27  75 

22  25 

FANCY  ARTICLES. 

21  80 

7  50 

LADIES'  FUKXT8HING8,   PEKFUMKRT,   ETC. 

19  05 

7  25 

266  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

X.   HOUSBHOLD  WAGES. 
Wages  paid  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

per  quarter.  - 

$9  50 

14  30 

8  35 

14  30 

38 

33 

,38 

$14  30 

18  40 

13  20 

3t  50 

47 

43 

47 

$11  90 

do 

16  35 

Cliambermaids 

do  .. 

do  .. 

10  77 
24  40 

per  day . . 

42 

do 

38 

do  ... 

42 

XI.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers   and  household  {country)   servants   in    Alsace-Lor- 
raine. 


Occnpationa. 


Farm  laborers per  year. 

Servant  {rirls do. .. 

Day  laboieis per  day. 

Day  labori^r  during  harvest do. .. 

Do do... 

Wino  pressera do... 


Wages. 


*$67  30 
*30 
t40 
too 
t80 
§50 


*  And  board  and  lodging, 
t  With  board. 


t  Without  board. 

§  With  board  and  one  gallon  of  wine  per  day. 


XII.  Corporation  employes. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Strasburg,  Alsace. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.  |  Average. 


Clerks  in  the  registry  office 

Octroi  employes 

City  gardeners  for  the  public  parks 

Their  helpers    

Overseers  of  streetdeaning 

Street-cleaners,  men 

Street-cleaners,  women 

Drivers  of  water-carts 

Overseeis* 

Laborerft* 

Men  in  the  Strasburg  water-work  department 

Men  who  regulate  the  supply  of  water 

Street-lamp  lighters 

Day  laborers,  such  as  pavers,  &c 


$7  60 
5  80 


$12  25 
11  50 

4  70 
3  15 

5  70 
3  10 

2  30 

3  10 
C  60 

4  00 
4  60 
4  00 

2  85 

3  30 


$9  92 
8  65 


*  For  laying  gas  and  water  pipes. 

XIII.  Go\':ernivient  employ^i^s. 

Wages  jjai    per   month  to  employes  i7i  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusive  of 
tradesmen  and  laborers,  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Clerks i  $41  60 

Copyists  35  70 

Messengers 30  80 

Policemen I  31  20 

Gendarmes 32  40 

Foro.stors  (lodging  free) i  23  00 

Tax  assessors    I  26  80 

Postmen 15  20 

Customhouse  employ 68 36  20 


Highest.  Average. 


$63  30 
45  C6 
40  20 
33  75 

35  70 
30  00 

36  00 
20  15 
42  10 


$52  45 
40  68 
35  50 
32  47 
34  05 
26  50 
31  40 
17  67 
39  15 


Tradesmen  and  laborers  employed  by  Government  receive  the  same  wages  in  Alsace-Lorraine  aa 
when  employed  by  private  individuals. 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE GERMANY.  267 

XV.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statmient  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers,  compositor  a,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  ^-c,  in  Strasiurg, 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Proof-readers. 
Compositors.. 

Feeders , 

Folders 


$7  20 
6  40 
2  79 
2  04 


BARMEN. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  SOHOENLE. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

Soon  after  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  iustitutions  iu  the  European 
couutries,  the  condition  of  the  modern  state  Governments,  and  the 
changed  money  transactions  in  the  commercial  world,  led  gradually  to 
a  scientific  and  methodical  investigation  of  economical  affairs.  Thi? 
attempt  disclosed  a  vast  and  interesting  field  for  the  research  of  ths 
most  important  questions  concerning  the  commercial  and  trade  inter- 
course between  the  different  nations,  the  diversified  iudustries,  and  the 
relation  of  the  now  free  workingman  to  his  employer,  and  the  status  of 
the  laboriug  classes  in  general.  The  discussions  on  these  economic 
questions  have  step  by  step  shaped  themselves  into  a  regular  and  scien- 
tific system,  and  it  now  ranks  as  the  science  of  national  economy.  It 
soon  found  its  way  from  the  scientific  sphere  down  to  the  workingmen's 
circles,  whence  it  emerged  as  the  great  labor  problem,  so  that  to-day  the 
almost  overshadowing  question  in  all  civilized  countries  turns  on  the 
experiment  and  application  of  an  adequate  adjustment  of  a  reasonable 
share  of  remuneration  to  the  laborer  for  his  labor,  with  due  regard  to 
the  interests  of  the  employer.  Science  has  not  yet  found  a  solid  basis 
for  a  geueral  and  fixed  rule  of  the  movements  of  wages,  and  by  the 
X>eculiar  nature  of  the  subject-matter  such  a  rule  will  very  likely  never 
be  established.  All  definitions  of  a  maximum  and  minimum  scale  of 
wages  have  proved  gratuitous  and  infeasible.  Leaving,  however,  this 
interesting  topic  to  the  examination  of  economical  writers,  and  turning 
to  the  professed  object  of  the  circular,  I  shall  arrange  and  systematize 
the  report  in  strict  compliance  therewith,  and  endeavor  to  present  a 
compact  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  i)resent  state  of  labor  in  this 
consular  district,  and,  to  some  extent,  throughout  Germany. 

MALE   LABOR. 

Following  the  instructions  and  directions  laid  down  in  the  circular 
I  shall  take  up  the  several  questions  in  their  succession  and  append 
the  responses  thereto. 

RATES   OF   WAGES. 

As  to  this  interrogatory  the  tables  annexed  to  this  report,  will  fur- 
nish all  the  information  attainable  on  this  subject.  The  material  and 
data  for  these  tables  have  been  carefully  compiled,  and  are  based  on 
personal  inquiries  in  the  different  factories  and  on  interviews  with  rep- 


268  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

resentative  and  trustworthy  workingraen.  They  embrace  not  only  the 
rates  of  wages  ruling  iu  this  consular  district,  but  also  the  average 
wages  paid  iu  Prussia  and  iu  the  whole  German  Empire.  The.se  tables 
present,  therefore,  a  special  as  well  as  general  view  of  the  several  feat- 
ures of  the  German  labor  market. 

THE   COST   OF  LIVING   TO   THE   LABORING   CLASSES. 

Food. — As  a  rule,  the  laboring  classes  in  this  district  subsist  on  a 
comparatively  meager  and  scant  diet,  live  in  small  and  badly  ventilated 
tenement  houses,  and  their  clothing  is  coarse  and  of  an  inferior  mate- 
rial. 

On  week  days  their  breakfast  generally  consists  of  coffee  of  a  very 
poor  quality  and  of  potato  and  brown  bread,  their  dinner  of  beans  or 
peas  cooked  iu  fat,  or  of  potato  and  flour  cakes,  or  of  potatoes  with  a 
fat,  and  ouion  sauce,  sometimes  of  barley  soup  and  fish,  or  common  sau- 
sage, or  of  "  Panhaas,"  a  dish  prepared  of  buckwheat  flour  and  sausage 
broth  or  other  fiitty  substances.  At  5  o'clock  p.  m.  there  are  vespers, 
consisting  of  coffee  and  bread  and  butter  or  goose-fat;  and  for  supper 
coffee,  and  potatoes  fried  iu  rape-seed  oil,  are  usually  dished  up.  On 
Sundays  the  bill  of  fare  is  generally  of  better  quality  and  greater 
variety.  The  breakfast  on  Sundays  consists  of  coffee  and  white  bread; 
at  10  o'clock  a.  ra.  sausages  and  bread  and  brandy  are  served  for 
luncheon.  For  dinner  beef  soup,  beef  meat,  and  potatoes;  for  vespers, 
coffee  and  white  bread;  and  for  supper  generally  potato  cakes  are 
dished  up. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  common  laborer's  family  enjoys  the  luxury  of 
meat  only  once  a  week,  generally  on  Sundays.  On  holidays  the  bill  of 
fare  is  generally  the  same  as  on  Sundays. 

Clothes. — The  clothing  of  a  laborer's  family  is  of  cheap  and  ordinary 
material,  and  made  almost  without  reference  to  taste  and  fashion.  The 
clothes  for  the  children  are  generally'  patched  up  from  remnants  of  their 
parents'  clothes.  On  week  days  women  and  children  frequently  are 
wearing  wooden  shoes,  and  in  summer  they  go  barefooted.  The  cost  of 
a  laborer's  family,  consisting  of  man,  wife,  and  three  children,  for  cloth- 
ing of  every  kind,  averages  from  $35  to  $40  a  year. 

Rents. — Workingmen's  families  usually  live  in  tenement  houses,  and 
occupy  two  rooms  and  a  portion  of  a  common  cellar.  The  number  of 
families  varies  from  8  to  12.  The  rooms  are  generally  low  and  not  very 
spacious.  Eent  is  paid  either  monthly  or  tri  monthly,  and  averages 
from  $28  to  $34  a  year.  Contracts  for  rent  are  generally  made  for  a 
year,  with  the  condition  that  notice  to  quit  has  to  be  served  by  either 
party  six  months  prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  contract. 

The  household  furniture  is  restricted  to  the  most  indispensable  ar- 
ticles; of  comfort  such  as  the  average  American  workingman's  family 
enjoys,  the  German  workingman's  iamily  has  not  the  faintest  idea. 

Table  A  presents  a  statement  of  the  average  retail  prices  for  the  nec- 
essaries of  life  and  living  in  this  district. 

Table  B  shows  the  average  ])rices  paid  by  laborers  for  rent,  fuel,  and 
light  in  the  i)rincipal  cities  of  this  consular  district. 

Table  C  exhibits  the  retail  prices  for  food  and  light  in  Prussia  aud 
the  German  Empire  in  1882. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT   WAGES  AND  PRICES. 

When  the  last  labor  report  in  1878  was  prepared,  business  was  dull 
and  a  generaldepression  was  heavily  weighing  on  all  industrial  branches; 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


269 


a  great  stringency  existed  in  tbe  money  market,  wages  bad  touched  bot- 
tom, and  thousands  of  hi  borers  were  loitering  in  forced  idleness.  Since 
1881  business  had  slowly  recovered,  money  became  easier,  and  wages 
rose  gradually,  and  at  the  present  time  almost  all  workingmen  are  em- 
ployed, if  not  at  full  tiine  and  uninterruptedly  during  the  whole  year, 
at  least  to  such  an  extent  as  to  enable  them  to  keep  privation  from  their 
doors,  and  tbe  price  jjaid  for  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life  has  also  de- 
clined, so  that  a  greater  number  of  articles  of  food  is  uow  within  the 
purchasing  power  of  the  laboring  classes. 

Tbe  following  table  points  out  the  fluctuations  of  wages  and  the  price 
of  the  necessaries  of  life  within  the  jieriod  of  187G-1884  : 

EATES  OF  WAGES. 


Occapation. 


EHENISH  PKUSSIA. 


Tenders 

Cabiur-t  makers 

LocksniitUs 

Tailois  

■Machinists - 

Faetoiv  operatives : 

Skilled 

Day  laborers  . . . 

Day  gard(Shers 

Day  taim  hands  .... 


WESTPHALIA. 


Builders  

Tenders 

Locksmiths . 
Machinists.. 


Increase, 


Per  cent. 


6J 
12 

22 
131 
20 
20 


Decrease. 


Per  cent 


Hours  of 
labor. 


FOOD  PRICES. 


Articles. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

Articles. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

ItllENISH  PRUSSIA. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

'f 

20 

WESTPHALIA— Continued. 
Brovm  bread 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 
16 

Butter 

30 

Potatoes 

4 

Beef 

8 

20 
20 
30 

Milk 

8 

Eg}:^ 

g 

Potatoes 

20 

Veal 

Beef 

8 
12 

5 
10 

Wheat 

20 
30 
3J 

20 
25 

12 
16 

30 

Eye 

Pork 

Bacon 

Rye 

30 

One. half  bed 

Wheat 

20 

Peas 

g 

Dwelliugs : 

Lodging : 

Oue-half  bed 

18 
16i 

12 
10 

Two  rooms 

WESTPHALIA. 

Dwellin^is : 

_  Wages  and  prices  that  have  remained  stationary  within  the  above  period  are  not  especially  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  tables. 

THE   HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 


The  mode  of  living  of  the  large  class  of  working  people  in  Barmen 
and  vicinity  is  rather  irregular  and  unsettled  on  account  of  the  frequent 


270  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

stoppages  and  interruptions,  and  tlieir  habits  and  customs  are  not  very 
commendable.  They  are  comparatively  regardless  of  their  future,  and 
quarrelsome  and  turbulent,  and  not  much  disposed  to  saving.  The  male 
laborers  spend  an  unusual  amount  of  their  wages  for  beer,  brandy,  and 
tobacco.  The  constant  increase  of  drinking  saloons  and  dancing  halls 
in  Germany  during  the  last  fifteen  years  has  exercised  an  evil  influence 
on  the  greater  part  of  the  laborers,  and  developed  an  alarming  disposi- 
tion to  run  into  excesses  and  recklessness.  The  large  number  of  button- 
makers  and  boss-braid  weavers  especially  are  in  the  habit  of  keeping 
up  the  so-called  "blue  Monday"-,  that  is,  they  generally  pass  the  sec- 
ond day  in  the  week  in  beer-houses,  whisky-shops,  and  dancing  halls, 
and  are  bound  to  have  their  frolic,  considering  this  day,  as  far  as  recrea- 
tion is  concerned,  a  kind  of  supplement  to  tlie  Sunday.  If  the  wives 
of  theworkiugmenare  good  housekeepers  and  inclined  to  saving,  house- 
hold affairs  will  alwaj'S  be  straightened  up  and  regulated  again  as  much 
as  possible  ;  but  whenever  the  wives  are  also  greedy  after  enjoyment, 
heedless  and  imjirovideut,  then  everything  is  out  of  joint  and  goes  to 
naught,  and  privation  and  misery  and  domestic  quarrels  are  the  rule  of 
the  day,  and  final  ruin  of  the  family  is  sure  to  follow.  When  the  main 
supporter  of  the  family  dies,  the  widow  and  children,  as  a  rule,  fall  back 
on  the  municipal  poor  fund  and  private  charitable  institutions  This 
class  of  people  is  a  severe  tax  on  all  the  towns  and  cities  in  Westpha- 
lia and  Rhenish  Prussia,  which  are,  in  consequence,  heavily  burdened 
by  poor  rates,  the  municipal  assessments  within  this  consular*  district 
ranging  from  six  to  seven  times  the  amount  of  the  imperial  or  govern- 
ment taxes.  It  should,  however,  not  pass  unnoticed  that  whenever  the 
workingman  is  regularly  employed,  the  old  German  characteristics,  pa- 
tience, steadiness,  faithfulness,  and  industry,  come  favorably  to  light, 
and  the  employer  may  in  almost  all  cases  rely  upon  the  fidelity  and  trust- 
worthiness of  the  employ^.  The  German  workingman  still  retains  good 
qualities  and  commendable  accomplishments,  and  may,  on  the  whole,  be 
rated  as  a  good  and  reliable  worker. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYE  AND  EMPLOYEE. 

A  fixed  distinction  of  rank  in  Germany  being  interposed  as  a  barrier 
between  employer  and  employ^,  their  mutual  relations  are  somewhat 
strained  and  not  of  a  cordial  and  familiar  character.  The  employe  is 
made  to  feel  his  inferior  rank  and  his  dependence,  on  almost  all  occasions. 
Workingmen  rank  as  a  class  and  move  in  a  low  and  gloomy  atmosphere. 
It  is  only  of  rare  occurrence  that  a  workingman  or  the  son  of  a  working- 
man  is  able  to  climb  up  to  a  higher  social  scale,  through  lucky  circum- 
stances or  through  intelligence.  Very  seldom  he  can  rise  in  his  calling. 
De  can  scarcely  cherish  any  ambition.  It  is  therefore  but  natural  that 
the  "workingman  is  either  dull,  reckless,  and  supine,  or  is  disposed  to 
follow  the  teachings  of  the  Socialists  and  throw  himself  into  their  em- 
braces. In  this  connection  it  is,  however,  proper  to  state  that  the  doc- 
trines of  Socialism  and  Communism  do  not  elevate  the  laborer  to  a  higher 
scale  of  proficiency  and  morality;  on  the  contrary',  they  are  ai)t  to  drag 
him  down  and  excite  an  inclination  to  excesses.  The  laboring  classes 
frequently  resort  to  brute  force,  and  for  an  American  it  is  painful  to 
notice  that  the  German  laborer,  as  a  rnle,  possesses  but  a  very  vague 
idea  of  i)olitical  tolerance.  If  not  restrained  by  the  police  or  other  pre- 
cautionary measures,  they  will  break  n\)  any  political  meeting  or  cause 
such  a  disorder  and  disturbance  as  to  give  the  attendant  police  commis- 
sioner a  chance  to  suspend  the  proceedings  and  close  the  meeting-room. 


LABOR   IN   EUROPE GERMANY.  271 

To  be  sure,  their  political  education  is  still  in  its  most  elementary  con- 
dition, and  in  that  respect  they  are  much  inferior  to  their  American 
brethren.  The  absence  of  reciprocal  feeling  between  employer  and  em- 
ploy6  does  not,  as  a  matter  of  course,  inure  either  to  the  benefit  of  the 
employer  nor  to  the  prosperity  of  the  community. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

Concerning  the  German  labor  associations  it  may  fitly  be  remarked 
that  the  English  "trades  unions"  were  not  only  their  precursors  but  at 
the  same  time  their  models.  These  associations,  in  juxtaposition  to  the 
''  Labor  party,"  which  is  based  on  the  principles  of  Socialism,  were  or- 
ganized in  the  year  1869  by  Max  Hirsch,  Franz  Dunker,  and  Schulze- 
Delitzsch.  Their  principal  object  is  to  protect,  through  the  medium  of 
association,  the  interests  of  the  working  classes  against  their  employers, 
and  to  aid  and  further  the  business  of  the  small  traders.  Like  the 
English  trades  unions,  these  associations  are  non-political  in  their  na- 
ture. To  be  sure,  a  great  number  of  the  members  of  these  associations 
belong  to  the  liberal  and  progressive  parties ;  the  bulk,  however,  are 
followers  of  the  Socialists.  Their  programme  may  be  summarized  as 
follows :  They  aid  and  protect  each  other  by  providing  for  the  sick,  in- 
valid, old,  and  disabled  members  from  their  common  funds,  and  by  de- 
fraying the  funeral  expenses  for  their  dead  from  the  same  funds ;  by 
su])porting  those  members  who,  on  account  of  lock-outs  or  strikes,  are 
out  of  employment ,  by  compiling  labor  statistics  and  establishing  in- 
telligence bureaus  for  those  seeking  employment;  by  representation  of 
their  members  against  the  employers,  the  general  public,  and  the  of- 
ficial authorities;  by  starting  and  organizing  so-called  productive  asso- 
ciations, and  by  a  coalition  of  the  several  societies  to  a  central  society. 
The  several  local  and  district  associations  are  subject  to  the  control  of 
the  general  council  that  manages  and  superintends  the  business  of 
these  associations,  and  that  has  to  see  to  it  that  no  strikes  are  to  be  in- 
itiated without  its  consent  and  without  a  previous  attemi)t  at  a  settle- 
ment of  disagreements.  All  these  difiterent  workingmeu's  associations 
are  represented  and  centralized  in  the  "  Union  of  the  German  Work- 
ingmeu's Associations."  The  financial  means  come  from  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  members.  During  the  year  1873  the  receipts  amounted  to 
283,687  marks,  and  for  the  support  of  the  sick  and  for  the  funeral  ex- 
penses 227,627  marks  were  expended,  and  the  funds  for  the  invalids 
amounted  to  129,000  marks.  In  1874  the  "  Union  "  embraced  357  local 
associations,  with  22,000  members,  and  the  funds  in  the  treasury  for  the 
support  of  the  sick  and  for  the  funeral  expenses  amounted  to  128,341 
marks. 

miners'  leagues. 

In  this  connection  the  so-called  "Knappschaften,"  a  union  league  of 
miners  employed  on  a  certain  mine  or  in  a  whole  mining  district,  may 
be  properly  mentioned.  These  leagues  enjoyed  in  former  years  corpo- 
rate rights  and  many  privileges;  for  instance,  exemption  from  military 
duty,  from  personal  taxes,  &c.  Since  the  passage  of  the  imperial  trade 
statute  of  June  21,  1869,  the  miners  are  subject  to  the  same  regulations 
concerning  the  relation  to  their  employers  as  the  operatives  in  factories. 
These  miners  have  their  mutual  aid  societies,  the  object  of  which  is  the 
security  of  the  miners  against  the  dangers  of  their  calling  and  other  de- 
rangements of  their  occupation.  By  the  new  mining  laws  of  Prussia,  Ba- 
varia, and  Wiirtemberg  it  is  made  obligatory  for  the  miners  to  join  these 


272  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

aid  societies,  and  for  the  mining  operators  to  contribute  an  amount  to 
these  aid  funds  wliich  averages  from  half  to  the  full  amount  of  that  which 
the  miners  have  to  contribute.  A  directory,  jointly  elected  by  the  mine- 
owners  and  the  miners,  administer  these  funds.  The  societies  provide 
for  medical  attendance  and  medicines  to  their  members,  nurse  thdrsick, 
contribute  to  funeral  expenses,  secure  i)ensious  to  invalids  for  life,  and 
support  the  widows  and  orphans  of  their  deceased  meml)ers  until  these 
orjihans  have  reached  the  fourteenth  year.  The  number  of  these  miners' 
mutual  aid  societies  in  Prussia  amounted  in  1874  to  87,  with  a  member- 
ship of  204,397,  and  the  capital  stock  of  these  87  societies  amounted  to 
18,787,371  marks.  The  receipts  reached  11,500,788  marks,  of  which  o5 
per  cent,  were  raised  by  the  miners  and  4.3  per  cent,  by  the  mine- 
owners,  and  the  expenditures  amounted  to  10,382,10!)  marks,  of  which 
34  i)er  cent,  went  to  the  sick-lund  and  57  per  cent,  to  the  aid  fund.  Ac- 
cording to  statistics  recently  comi)iled  these  miners'  societies  contain 
over  100,000  members.  The  most  imjjortant  of  tliese  societies  are  the 
"  Maerkische  Miners'  Society,"  at  Cothum,  and  the  ''  Miners'  Society  '' 
at  Essen.  These  two  societies  embrace  nearly  95,000  members.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  general  miners'  societies  there  are,  on  some  mines,  se[)a- 
rate  societies,  and  on  several  mines  the  miners  are  insured  in  private 
accident  insurance  companies.  The  general  accident  insurance  bank 
at  Leipsic  is  j)rincipally  engaged  in  this  s|)ecial  insurance  business. 

Industries  in  which  workingmen  are  entitled  to  shares  arising  from 
profit  and  loss  did  not  strike  root  in  Germany  and  there  are  but  few  of 
them.  This  mode  of  doing  business  is  prevailing  more  in  England, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  The  labor  associations  are  resting  on  a  le- 
gitimate basis,  as,  by  the  adoi)tion  oi  theimi)erial  trade  statute,  all  exist- 
ing laws  which  prohibited  any  and  all  coalitions  and  combinations  of 
laborers  in  tl»e  different  German  states  have  been  abolished. 

Under  the  above  heading  it  n)ay,  however,  be  remarked  that  the 
manufacturers  in  Barmen,  Elberfehl,  and  Crefeld  have  recently  organ- 
ized a  mutual  union  in  order  to  neutralize  and  i)revent  the  irefjueut 
stealing  of  goods  in  their  fa<;tories  by  the  operatives.  This  i)ilfering 
Lad  grown  to  such  an  alarming  extetit  in  the  last  few  years  that  the 
manufacturers  had  to  resort  to  such  a  j^rotective  society. 

STRIKES. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  in  spite  of  comparatively  low  wages  and  the 
many  hardships  the  German  laborers  have  to  undergo,  strikes  are  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  generally  not  of  a  very  serious  t;haracter.  For  a  num- 
ber of  years  no  great  and  i)rolonged  strikes  or  any  labor  troubles  have 
taken  place.  This  jileasing  evenness  an<l  gratifying  equilibrium  in  the 
temper  of  the  German  laborers  and  their  evident  leluetance  to  resort  to 
strikes  may  be  attributed,  to  a  ^reat  extent,  to  that  powerful  system  of 
•co-oi)eration  which  acts  as  a  mediatory  agency  between  labor  and  cap- 
ital and  exercises  a  mitigating  and  pacifying  influence  on  the  laborers 
in  general,  and  gives  them  a  leeling  of  content  and  easiness,  being  fully 
assured  that  their  interests  are  eagrnly  watched  and  studiously  taken 
<jare  of  by  the  rei)resentatives  ot  the  c(M)perative  system,  and  fu  inly  re- 
lying on  the  solidarity  of  that  widesi)read  labor  (M)  operation.  In  Bar- 
men and  Elberfehl,  the  two  largest  manufacturing  cities  in  Germany, 
no  strikes  have  occurred  for  a  long  time,  and  never  assumed  general 
and  alarming  ))roportions. 

In  the  Westi)halian  mining  region  stiikes  take  place oftener,  but  they 
are  generally  settled  within  a  short  time,  as  the  wine  owners  are  usually 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  273 

inclined  to  comply  with  the  just  and  reasonable  demands  of  the  miners 
whenever  bronglit  to  the  notice  of  the  former.  Since  the  years  1H70 
and  1871  there  has  not  occurred  any  extensive  strike  in  the  mining 
region.  The  German  workingman,  as  a  rule,  is  not  so  much  disposed 
to  resort  to  strikes  as  the  English  and  American  "v^orkingman;  the 
former  is  more  patient  and  enduring  and  not  so  independent, 

FOOD   PURCHASES. 

In  accordance  with  the  imperial  trade  statute,  passed  June  21,  18G9, 
the  working  people  throughout  the  whole  German  Empire  are  at  lib- 
erty to  purchase  their  necessaries  of  life  where\er  they  choose.  The 
truck  system  which  i)revaile<l  in  many  German  states  had  been  abol- 
ished by  the  above  enactment,  and  the  same  law  madeitobligatory  for  the 
employers  to  pay  their  employes  in  the  German  imperial  currency.  The 
laiiorers,  as  a  rule,  are  paid  every  week.  Kail  road  emi)loye8  and  the 
miners  in  the  Westphalian  mining  district,  and  the  operatives  in  some 
large  factories  in  Barmen  are,  however,  paid  every  two  weeks. 

CO  OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

These  societies  may  be  classified  in  Germany  under  the  heading  ot 
"credit  societies,"  aided  and  su])plemented  by  ])eople's  and  trade  bank 
institutions,  of  "ptoductive  associations"  and  of  "consumption  asso- 
ciations." 

Credit  associations. — The  credit  associations  came  in  vogue  in  Ger- 
many since  about  thirty  years,  and  have  made  great  progress  since  that 
time.  The  leading  ])urpose  of  these  credit  associations  proceeds  from 
the  idea  that  credit  may  be  made  obtainable  by  association,  that  asso- 
ciations of  artisans  may  be  placed  in  a  position  to  borrow  the  necessary 
capital  for  their  mutual  benefit  and  interests  so  as  to  enable  them  to 
become  ultimately  independent  producers.  Thus  these  associations  ac- 
quire and  accumulate  principally  the  small  capital  of  traders  and  the 
earnings  of  laborers  in  banking  institutions  which  are  based  on  the 
solidarity  of  their  members.  The  capital  stock  of  these  associations 
consists  in  loans,  in  small  shares,  and  the  subscription  fees  by  their 
members.  Shares  are  to  be  proportioned  to  the  number  of  members 
aud  of  equal  amounts,  and  each  member  is  entitled  to  but  one  share, 
and  gains  aud  losses  are  distributed  every  year  in  proportion  to  the 
money  paid  in.  These  associations  are  governed  and  supervised  in 
accordance  with  the  imperial  law  of  May  19,  1.S71. 

According  to  statistics  published  in  1873  there  were  in  existence 
in  Prussia  8;}4  credit  associations,  with  a  membership  of  399,741,  and 
the  advances  granted  to  them  had  reached  the  sum  of  1,340,199,045 
marks.  From  tabulated  statements  of  187G  it  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  previous  year  80G  credit  societies  sent  their  balance-sheets  to  the 
"national  union"  of  the  different  co  oi)erative  societies.  From  these 
balance  sheets  it  appears  that  these  806  contained  at  the  close  of 
the  year  1875  431,210  members,  and  that  their  advances  during 
that  year  amounted  to  1,525,389,219  marks.  The  amount  of  ca[)ital 
owned  by  members  of  these  80G  societies  was,  including  reserves, 
970,608,311  marks,  and  of  the  credits  238,sl3,422  marks.  Loans  on 
mortgages  decreased  considerabJy,  while  there  was  a  large  increase 
of  active  capital  aud  cash  deposits  during  that  year.  The  losses  in 
1870  were  less  than  in  1875.  During  that  year  eighteen  societies  closed 
up  their  affairs,  fourteen  of  them  being  declared  bankrupt,  and  the 
92  A— LAB 18 


274  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

balance  failed  through  speculations  or  the  dishonesty  of  their  managers. 
In  the  year  1877,  929  credit  societies,  with  a  membership  of  nearly 
470,000,  reported  balances,  showing  aggregate  advances  for  the  year 
amounting  to  1,600,000  marks.  The  issues  on  account  current  during 
the  year  to  515,988,700  marks,  and  the  receipts  to  497,603,970  marks, 
leaving  outstanding  134,463,963  marks.  The  total  transactions  for  the 
year  exceeded  by  about  25,000,000  marks  those  of  1876.  The  deposited 
funds  amounted  at  the  close  of  the  year  to  about  351,000,000  marks. 

Productive  associations. — Productive  associations,  or  unions  for  the 
production  and  sale  of  finished  w^ares.  These  associations  are  sub- 
divided in  three  classes : 

1.  Those  that  procure  the  raw  material  for  the  goods  to  be  manufact- 
ured in  common  and  in  wholesale,  and  sell  their  fabrics  in  turn  to  their 
members. 

2.  Those  that  by  putting  up  and  using  machines  in  common  simplify 
and  facilitate  production. 

3.  A  number  of  producers  unite  and  rent  a  common  magazine  for  the 
sale  of  their  products.  Of  the  first  named  societies  there  were  in  exist- 
ence in  1873, 11,  with  a  membership  of  693,  and  a  capital  stock  of  157,987 
marks.  The  second  class  numbered  about  100  associations,  and  em- 
braced principally  agriculturists ;  and  the  third  class  contained  32. 
Thirty  of  these  productive  associations  exhibited  a  net  gain  of  171,164 
marks — that  is,  75  marks  to  a  member,  in  the  year  1874. 

Consumption  societies. — Consumption  associations,  or  unions  for  the 
purchase  and  sale  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Their  object  is  to  procure 
to  their  members,  for  the  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  advan- 
tages of  a  wholesale  business,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  sell  all  kinds  of  grocer- 
ies at  a  very  cheap  rate,  and  to  accumulate  from  the  proceeds  a  small  div- 
idend for  the  benefit  of  their  members.  These  associations  originated 
in  England,  and  were  transferred  to  Germany  about  1860  and  fostered 
and  aided  by  the  late  eminent  philanthroj)ist  and  economist,  Schulze- 
Delitzsch.  In  1863  there  were  already  in  existence  in  Berlin,  Hamburg, 
and  the  Rhenish  districts  about  200  such  societies.  This  number  liad 
increased  in  1873  to  973.  In  the  latter  year  189  societies  reported  to  the 
central  committee  the  results  of  their  business.  They  numbered  87,504 
members;  possessed  a  reserve  fund  of  353,064  marks.  The  shares  or 
balances  of  the  members — capital  owned  by  themselves — amounted  to 
2,414,127  marks,  as  against  2,06!>,779,  or  about  49  per  cent.,  of  loans  taken. 
With  these  means  they  had  realized  sales  amounting  to  21,882,408  marks, 
consequently  the  exchange  of  their  capital  stock  five  times  repeated. 
These  sales  resulted  in  a  net  gain  of  1,211,157  marks.  In  the  year  1877, 
202  societies  reported  their  balances  to  the  "  council  of  administration." 
The  nuuibei-  of  members  was  99,862 ;  they  had  a  reserve  fund  of  671 ,519 
marks;  their  balances  aiuoiinted  to  3,199,532  marks,  against  2,564,148 
marks  loans  taken.  The  sales  reached  the  sum  of  26,503,379  marks,  and 
resulted  likewise  in  a.  handsome  profit.  Almost  all  of  these  societies 
have  reduced  their  business  to  a  strictly  cash  basis.  Their  risks  being 
comparatively  small,  they  reduced  the  reserve  funds  by  degrees,  and  in 
course  of  time  experience  taught  the  German  co-ojxuative  socii'ties  tO' 
assume  gradually  the  shape  and  form  of  their  English  models.  While 
formerly,  by  reason  of  special  trade  relations,  the  sale  to  non- members 
was  almost  an  impossibility,  most  of  these  societies  consider  to-day  this 
sale  and  barter  as  an  important  means  of  agitation  and  as  a  medium  to 
promote  the  objects  of  the  societies.  While  formerly  the  most  impor- 
tant societies  sold  and  excJiauged  their  articles  at  the  cheapest  rates 
possible — that,  is,  at  cost  price,  with  the  addition  of  the  costs  of  admin- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  275 

istratiou — the  couvictiou  has  gained  firmer  ground  from  day  to  day  that 
the  imjiortance  of  these  societies  for  the  advancement  of  the  social 
questions  rests  just  in  the  accumulation  of  dividends,  so  that  societies, 
as  those  in  Breslau,  Munich,  and  other  cities,  have  likewise  been  con- 
verted to  the  practice  of  the  English  societies.  In  this  connection  the 
observation  might  not  be  out  of  place  that  these  societies,  in  imitation 
of  their  English  models,  have  founded  lecture-rooms  and  libraries  for 
the  benefit  of  their  members,  and  entered  into  close  connection  to  such 
societies  as  are  especially  devoted  to  similar  topics.  As  to  the  composi- 
tion of  the  membership  of  the  German  co-operative  societies,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  they  have  been  founded  almost  exclusively  by  workingmen, 
and  for  the  benefit  of  workingmen.  To  be  sure,  some  traders,  teachers, 
and  subordinate  officials  belong  to  these  societies ;  but  the  supreme  con- 
trol of  them  is  in  the  hands  of  the  working  classes. 

Building  societies. — Building  associations  could  never  strike  deep  root 
in  Germany,  and  the  few  in  existence  are  doing  but  a  limited  business. 
Many  of  these  associations  were  established  in  flush  times  and  could 
not  stand  the  financial  stringency  that  soon  followed  the  years  of  the 
"  French  milliards,"  and  had  to  go  into  liquidation.  The  greater  part 
of  these  societies  is  composed  of  laborers.  The  number  of  them  is  di- 
minishing year  after  year. 

Total  co-operative  societies. — All  these  co-operative  societies  are  concen- 
trated in  the  "  General  union  of  the  German  industrial  and  economical 
associations,  based  on  self-help."  The  number  of  these  societies  in  the 
German  Empire  in  the  year  1876,  officially  reporting  to  the  general  ad- 
ministration of  the  "Union,"  was  3,123,  of  which  1,827  were  credit,  622 
productive,  627  consumption,  and  50  building  associations.  Besides 
these  there  are  a  great  many  co-operative  societies  which  do  not  make 
any  report  to  the  central  office.  Adding  these  to  the  above  number,  the 
total  of  these  societies  will  reach  about  3,300,  with  a  membership  of 
1,100,000.  The  aggregate  transactions  of  these  societies  during  the  vear 
1876  are  estimated  at  200,000,000  marks,  or,  say,  $50,000,000.  At*^  the 
close  of  the  year  1880  the  number  of  these  societies  in  the  German  Em- 
pire amounted  to  over  3,500,  of  which  3,481  transmitted  their  balances 
to  headquarters.  Of  the  latter  there  were  1,889  credit,  898  productive, 
660  consumption,  or  provision  supplying,  and  34  building  societies.  The 
membership  is  estimated  at  1,200,000,  their  annual  transactions  at 
2,200,000  marks,  exceeding  $50,000,000.  The  accumulated  capital  of 
these  3,481  co- operative  societies,  invested  in  shares  and  reserve  funds, 
amounted  to  nearly  200,000,000  marks,  and  the  amount  of  interest  bear- 
ing loans  was  from  400,000,000  to  420,000,000  marks. 

For  the  benefit  of  these  co-operative  societies,  and  especially  of  the 
credit  societies,  the  "German  Association  Bank,"  with  a  capital  stock 
of  9,000,000  marks,  was  established  at  Berlin,  with  a  branch  hank  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  the  special  interest  of  the  South  German  socie- 
ties. By  the  imperial  law  passed  July  23,  1873,  they  are  authorized  to 
appear  in  court  and  institute  legal  proceedings  through  the  boards  of 
their  directors,  and  their  members  are  liable  for  any  and  all  obligations 
entered  into  by  these  societies,  the  statute  of  limitation  taking  place, 
however,  for  this  liability  in  case  of  retirement  of  members  or  dissolu- 
tion of  societies  after  the  lapse  of  two  years  instead  of  thirty  years,  as 
it  existed  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  above-named  law. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

The  numerous  laboring  classes  in  Germany,  and  especially  in  this  large 
manufacturing  district,  on  account  of  the  comparatively  small  wages 


276  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tliey  earn,  are  obliged  to  live  on  coarse  and  not  very  substantial  meals, 
au(l  in  narrow  and  generally  not  xery  healthy  rooms.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  will  not  be  amiss  to  state  that  some  industrial  establishments  in 
this  district,  and  especially  in  the  Westphalian  mining  region,  have 
erected  special  dwelling-houses  for  the  use  of  their  workmen,  which  are 
rented  to  them  at  somewhat  low  rates.  These  houses  are  generally  occu- 
jiied  by  two  families,  and  there  is  usually  a  separate  entrance,  placed  in 
oppositedirections,  foreach  family.  Each  family  occui)ies  tworooms  and, 
besides,  a  small  garret  room  and  a  i)ortion  of  tbe  cellar;  and  a  patch  of 
land,  generally  used  for  gardening  jmrposes,  is  attached  to  these  houses. 
As  a  rule,  the  renting  of  these  dwellings  is  made  obligatory  to  the  work- 
ingmen ;  that  is,  the  workingnien  are  required,  at  the  penalty  of  dis- 
missal, to  rent  such  dwellings,  in  case  they  are  vacant.  The  term  of 
giving  notice  to  quit  is  extended  to  two  weeks,  and  to  do  so  is  en- 
joined on  both  parties.  Referring  especially  to  the  mode  of  living 
and  the  food  of  the  miners,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  several  important 
mining  works  have  established  workingmen's  colonies,  and  erected 
buildings  for  the  use  of  the  mining  population.  These  buildings 
consist  generally  of  one  or  two  stories,  and  are  occupied  by  two  to 
four  families.  In  the  southern  and  northeastern  Westi)halian  mining 
districts  the  greater  part  of  the  miners  are  housed  in  the  neighboring 
towns  and  on  farms.  At  some  mines  there  are  established  consump- 
tion societies  which  retail  the  necessaries  of  life  to  the  mining  people 
at  cost  price.  There  are  also  large  sleeping-rooms  and  eating-houses 
to  be  found  at  some  mines.  The  rent  of  the  above-mentioned  dwellings 
varies  from  $24  to  $36  a  year,  and  is  generally  withhi'ld  from  the  weekly 
wages  in  fixed  rates.  Parenthetically  it  may  be  noted  that  board  and 
lodging  for  unmarried  workingmen  average  from  $1.81)  to  $2.50,  accord- 
ing to  pretensions  made.  At  the  lower  figure  they  can  claim  but  ono- 
halt  bed  and  besides  a  very  frugal  and  simi)le  dinner ;  and  lor  breakfast 
and  supper  they  receive  nothing  but  coffee,  butter,  and  bread.  At  the 
higher  rate  they  are  entitled  to  a  full  bed,  and  a  more  substantial  break- 
fast and  supper  are  served  to  them.  Meals  for  boarders  consist  gener- 
ally in  husk  products,  bacon,  sausages,  and  potatoes,  and  on  Wednes- 
days and  Sundays  beef  soup  and  soup  meat  are  dished  up. 

The  clothing  of  the  laboring  people  is  of  rongii  and  ])Oor  material,  and 
sits  rather  loosely  and  shapelessjy  on  their  bodies.  They  usually  wear 
their  clothes  until  they  are  shabby  and  ragged,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  are 
somewhat  indifferent  as  to  their  suits.  The  neat  and  gen(>rally  fasliion- 
able  dressof  an  American  workingman  would  ai)pear  an  article  of  luxury 
to  the  German  workingman.  The  chances  for  bettering  their  condition 
are  very  slim  ;  the  demand  is  generally  larger  than  the  supply,  and  if  a 
workingman  is  employed  without  any  interruption  throughout  the  year 
he  may  consider  that  good  luck.  In  view  of  the  small  earnings  and 
the  occasional  stoppages,  it  is  barely  j)ossible  for  a  man  with  a  family 
to  lay  something  np  for  old  age  or  sickness.  These  peoi)le  are  used  to 
toil  on  and  await  their  chances.  That  su<-h  a  sullen  and  gloomy  life  of 
the  laboring  classes,  with  hardly  any  prospect  of  ever  getting  out  of  it, 
is  no  special  and  encouraging  i)romoter  for  their  moral  condition  is  ob- 
vious; and  when  we  consider  the  fact  that  parents,  chihlren,  and  very 
frequently  male  and  female  boarders,  are  crowded  in  one  or  two  rooms 
and  occu])ying  very  often  but  one  large  bed,  or  at  best  two  beds,  it 
would  be  a  miracle  if  the  morals  of  the  i)eople  would  not  be  very  low ; 
and,  in  fact,  there  is  a  universal  complaint  in  this  district  that  in 
spite  of  all  charitable  and  philanthropical  efforts  the  morality  of  both 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


277 


soxes  amongst  the  laboiiiig  classes  is  alariniug,  and  casts  a  dark 
shadow  on  society  at  large.  It  is  said  that  3^  per  cent,  of  the  female 
laborers  in  Elberfeld  supplement  tlieir  weeky  earnings  by  prostitution. 
It  is  but  a  natural  sequence  that  these  people  are  gradually  deteriorating 
physically,  and  the  shallow  features,  the  narrow  chests,  and  the  gen- 
erally small  stature  of  both  men  and  women  must  strike  the  eyes  of 
eveti  a  superficial  observer. 

In  order  to  give  an  inside  view  into  the  household  affairs  of  a  Ger- 
man laborer's  family,  I  subjoin  herewith  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
weekly  expenses  to  be  incurred  by  such  a  family,  consisting  of  seven 
persons,  viz,  man,  wife,  and  five  children  respectively  of  the  age  of 
1  welve,  ten,  eight,  six,  and  two  years. 

EXPENSES  OF  A  LABORER'S  FAMILY. 

Approximate  estimate  of  the  tveekly  expenses  for  the  subsistence  of  a  laborer^s  family,  con- 
sisting of  seven  persons,  namely,  parents  and  five  children. 


Articles. 


Potntoes,  5G pounds,  at|centperpotiiicl 

Sansago-fat 

Bread,  21  pounds,  at2|  centsptr  pound 
Applc-lmttor.  J  j  pounds,  at  8  cents  per 
pound. 

Coal 

Lard  or  butter 

Petroleum 

Common  sausage 

Bacon 

Meat 

Flour 

Barley 

Beans 

Peas 

Vegetables 


Amount. 


Articles. 


Clothing. 

Shoes ! 

Kent 

Vinegar  

Salad  oil 

liape-seedoil 

Tobacco 

Brandy,  &c 

Soap  and  household  ware 

Taxes  

Sick-fund  and  incidentals 
School,  fees,  and  utensils. 
Sundrips 

Total 


Amount. 


$0  33 
12 
42 
01 
02 
07 
04 
10 
10 
04 
10 
06 
08 


3  57 


Three  dollars  and  fifty  seven  cents  are  the  average  weekly  earnings 
of  the  male  factory  operatives  in  this  district. 

Careful  estimates  as  to  the  monthly  expenses  for  rye  and  wheat  flour, 
potatoes,  beef  and  pork,  butter  and  milk  of  a  German  laborer's  family, 
consisting  of  three  to  four  persons,  averaged  in  the  year  1883  $8.95, 
and  in  the  year  1882  $9.84.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  owing  to  the  good 
harvests  in  the  last  few  years  in  Germany  the  price  of  the  necessaries 
has  gradually  decreased. 

From  the  above  statements  the  inference  may  easily  be  drawn  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  an  average  workingman  with  a  family  to  sup- 
port to  accumulate  any  savings  for  days  of  sickness  or  old  age,  and 
that  he  has  to  rely  on  the  "  shop  sick-funds  "  and  other  aid  associations  of 
which  he  may  be  a  member.  His  life  is  a  continual  struggle  for  his  and 
his  family's  subsistence,  and  almost  without  any  prospect  of  bettering 
his  lot  in  the  future.  When  he  left  the  school-room  he  had  to  begin  to 
labor,  and  has  to  continue  to  labor  to  his  end. 

SAFETY   OF-EMPLOY:6s   IN   MILLS   AND   FACTORIES. 


Imperial  statutes  prescribe  a  series  of  strict  regulations  for  the  safety 
of  the  work- people  in  factories,  mines,  mills,  on  railroads,  &c.,  and  mi- 
nnte  sanitary  measures  are  established  for  their  benefit.    The  overcrowd- 


278  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

iug  iu  factories  and  workshops  is  prohibited ;  they  must  be  well  veuti- 
lated  and  be  kept  iu  a  cleanly  state,  and  every  precaution  made  so  as  to 
render  all  gases,  vapors,  and  impurities  generated  iu  the  course  of  the 
mauufacturing  processes  harnjless,as  far  as  possible,  by  vapid  volatiliza- 
tion and  smoke-consumers.  In caseof  accident  the  impc^ikil hiwof  June 7, 
1871,  makes  the  owners  of  factories,  mills,  stoue-quairies,  and  of  mines, 
and  also  the  railroad  coriiorations,  respousibleto  their  employes  for  any 
injury  or  for  their  death,  if  caused  to  them  by  culpable  accident.  And 
the  Imperial  Government  has  carefully  prepared  the  so-called  "  accident 
insurance  bill,"  and  presses  its  adoption  in  the  lieichstag  with  unusual 
vigor.  It  provides  to  the  workingmeu  an  indemnification  in  the  shape 
of  an  annuity,  iu  case  their  health  or  life  had  been  injured  while  actually 
engaged  in  their  callings.  This  bill  will  undoubtedly  become  a  law 
during  the  present  session  of  the  Eeichstag,  and  it  will  very  likely  be 
so  framed  as  to  make  the  state  contribute  to  the  insurance  funds  the 
largest  proportion,  while  the  employers  and  employes  have  to  make  up 
the  balance  jointly.  In  fact  the  Government  is  doing  its  utmost  to  take 
the  initiative  steps  in  providing  for  the  laboring  man,  and  the  imperial 
chancellor,  von  Bismarck,  has  only  recently  in  the  Reichstag  proclaimed 
the  Socialist  principle  of  the  right  and  guarantee  of  labor  to  the  laborers 
iu  orde]'  to  combat  and  set  at  defiance  the  tempting  and  fascinating 
doctr  ines  of  the  Socialists. 

On  state  and  imperial  officials  a  pension  is  settled  in  conformity  to  the 
Imperial  pension  law  of  March  31,  1873.  According  to  this  law  a  pen- 
sion is  granted  to  a  Government  officer  after  the  service  of  at  least  ten 
years,  whenever  such  an  officer  becomes  unable  to  perform  his  duties  in 
consequence  of  physical  and  mental  disability ;  prior  to  the  exj^iration  of 
this  period  j)ension  is  granted  only  in  case  of  sickness,  or  in  consequence 
of  injuries  which  such  an  officer  may  have  sustained  in  the  performance 
of  his  official  duties.  Pension  after  the  completed  tenth  year  amounts 
to  twenty-eightieths,  and  advances  after  every  year  of  service  passed 
one-eightieth.  The  highest  amouut  is  put  down  at  sixty-eightieths  of 
the  annual  income  of  such  officer. 

The  relation  between  the  employed  aud  employer  is  not  based  on 
friendly  and  good  feeling.  The  employ^  is  deeply  impressed  with  the 
idea  that  in  all  likelihood  he  has  to  remain  iu  his  position  as  employed 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  during  that  time  be  dependent  on 
his  manual  labor.  This  state  of  things  permeates  the  whole  social  life 
in  Germany,  and  brings  about  the  separation  of  ranks.  Thus  the  work- 
ingmeu constitute  a  class  iu  the  community  and  occupy  the  lowest  rank 
in  social  life.  Their  sentiment  is,  therefore,  gloomy,  and  they  are  very 
frequently  embittered  and  generally  very  jealous  of  their  better-situated 
fellow-men.  Their  life  is  monotonous,  and  they  pass  their  days  in  a  state 
of  indifi'erence  and  supineness,  and  their  thoughts  run  commonly  into 
sensual  and  sexual  enjoyments,  as  they  are  precluded  from  the  more 
refined  amusements.  In  the  face  of  these  embarrassments  it  is  but 
natural  that  the  German  workingman  is  not,  on  the  whole,  as  alert  and 
sprightly,  and  does  not  feel  that  keen  sense  of  independence  and  self- 
reliance  in  life,  as  the  American  workingman. 

POLITICAL  RIGHTS. 

Nominally  the  workingmeu  enjoy  the  same  political  rights  as  all  other 
citizens  in  the  German  Empire,  but  the  low  scale  of  their  assessmeut, 
depriving  them  of  the  right  of  suiiiage  iu  municipal  elections,  the  so- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  279 

called  Socialist  law,  and  several  political  services  for  which  there  is  no 
compensation,  are  practical  and  virtual  barriers  to  their  political  rights. 
The  Socialist  law  affects  in  its  application  almost  exclusively  the  work- 
ing classes,  inasmuch  as  nine-tenths  of  the  Socialist  party  is  composed 
of  the  working  element.  The  number  of  Socialists  in  Barmen  and  Elber- 
feld  is  estimated  at  15,000  to  16,000,  and  at  the  elections  for  the  Eeich- 
stag  the  Socialists  poll  about  350,000  to  400,000  votes  in  the  whole 
Empire.  Said  law  was  passed  October  21,  1878,  and  has  been  but 
recently  extended  for  a  period  of  two  more  years.  Sure  enough,  it  is 
but  a  temporary  enactment,  but  arbitrary  and  exclusive  in  its  nature, 
and  practically  places  the  greater  part  of  the  German  workingmen  out- 
side of  the  pale  of  the  common  law,  aud,  in  fact,  reduces  them  to  politi- 
cal nonentities.  Its  principal  provisions  are  directed  against  the  agita- 
tion of  the  Socialists,  which  is  branded  as  being  in  contravention  and 
opposition  to  the  existing  Government.  It  puts  an  interdict  on  all  so- 
cieties and  associations  whose  apparent  object  is  the  overthrow  of  the 
existing  Government  and  the  undermining  of  social  order,  and  it  sub- 
jects other  societies  in  which  similar  tendencies  are  prevailing  to  the 
control  and  surveillance  of  the  police  authorities,  who  have  to  watch 
over  their  press  organs,  meetings,  contributions,  &c. 

Immediately  after  the  passage  ol"  this  law  all  meetings  of  the  Social- 
ists were  strictly  and  relentlessly  prohibited  by  the  police,  their  news- 
papers, journals,  aud  pamphlets  suppressed,  and  all  kinds  of  persecu- 
tions and  vexatious  instigated  against  them,  and  even  now  frequent 
domiciliary  visits  are  made  by  the  police  to  the  leaders  and  spokesmen 
of  the  Socialists,  and  their  correspondence  and  papers  found  in  their 
residences  are  seized  and  deposited  in  the  police  headquarters,  and  not 
unfrequently  legal  proceedings  are  instituted  against  such  persons. 
By  virtue  of  this  Socialist  law  the  so-called  "small  state  of  siege"  was 
decreed  against  the  cities  of  Berlin,  Hamburg,  and  Leipsic,  where  the 
number  of  Socialists  is  comparatively  very  large,  and  where  the  foci 
of  their  agitation  are  located.  By  reasons  of  this  decree  Socialists 
who  appear  to  be  dangerous  to,  or  are  denounced  as  enemies  of,  the 
Government  and  of  the  public  safety  and  order,  may  be  summarily  ex- 
pelled from  these  cities  within  twenty-four  hours.  In  spite  of  this  law 
the  Socialist  party  succeeds  at  every  imperial  or  state  election  to  send 
some  of  their  representatives  to  the  Reichstag  and  the  Prussian  House 
of  Deputies.  The  number  of  these  Socialist  deputies  being  limited  in 
both  legislative  branches,  their  direct  influence  on  legislation  in  impe- 
rial and  state  matters  is  not  of  great  importance.  Their  indirect  in- 
fluence, however,  is  keenly  felt  and  taken  into  due  account  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  bills  for  the  establishment  of  an  imperial  insurance 
company,  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  working  classes,  the  "accident 
insurance,"  and  "invalidity"  bills,  and  other  propositions  of  a  similar 
character  and  tendency,  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  underground  agita- 
tion, so  to  speak,  of  the  Socialists,  and,  at  the  last  resort,  to  the  labor 
element. 

The  working  people  contribute  a  considerable  share  to  local  and  Gov- 
ernment taxes,  the  assessment  for  both  being  applied  to  a  rather  low 
scale  of  income. 


280 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


TAXATION. 


The  following  tabic  shows  the  mode  of  taxation,  tLe  classification  of 
the  tax  payers,  their  shares  for  Goverumeut  and  municipal  taxes,  the 
percentage  of  Govern mt  nt  taxes,  as  well  as  the  i)ercentage  of  the  mini- 
mum income  of  the  tax  payers  : 


CLASS  TAX. 


Grade  of  taxation. 

Income  for  the  state 
assessment. 

Govern- 
ment tax. 

Mnnicip-'.l 
income  tax. 

Govern- 
ment tax. 

Minimum 
iucomoi 

1 

$99  96  to  $157  00 
157  00      214  20 
214  00      249  no 
249  90      28.-1  60 
285  60      321  30 
321  30      357  00 
357  00      392  70 
392  70      4L'8  40 
428  40      499  80 
499  80      .571  20 
571  20      642  60 
642  60      714  00 

$0. 714 

1.  428 

2.142 

2. 856 

4.284 

5.712 

7.140 

8.568 

9.996 

11.424 

14. 280 

17. 136 

$0.  952 

2.  380 

5.412 

9.  520 

14. 280 

21.420 

28.  oCO 

34. 272 

39.  984 

Per  cent. 

im 

IGOJ 

266* 

33.i 

3334 

375 

400 

400 

4  0 

Per  cent. 

2 

3 

4 

6 , 

6 

1.5l|| 

2.(:of 
3.81 
5 
6.663 

f 

8 

8 

8.73 

9 

9.33J 
9.14 
10. 

10 

11 

45.696  i    400 
57. 120  1    400 
68.544  1    400 

12 

10.  661 

INCOME  TAX. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

7 

S 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

10 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

33 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

M 


$714  00 
856  80 
999  60 
1, 142  40 
1,  285  20 
1,428  00 
1,713  60 

1,  999  20 
2, 284  80 

2,  570  40 
2,856  00 

3,  903  20 
4,474  40 

5,  045  60 
5,616  80 

6,  473  60 
7,330  40 
8, 187  20 
9,044  00 

10,472  00 
11,900  00 
13,328  00 
]4,7,')0  00 
17.012  00 
20,  468  00 
23,324  00 
26, 180  00 
29,  036  00 
34,  748  00 
40,  400  00 
49,  172  00 
57,  884  00 
72, 164  00 
86,444  00 


10, 

n, 

13, 
14, 

17, 
20, 
23, 
26, 
29, 
34, 
40, 
49, 
57, 
72 
86i 
100, 


$856  80 
999  60 
142  40 
285  20 
428  00 
713  60 
999  20 
284  80 
570  40 
856  00 
903  20 
474  40 
045  60 
016  80 
473  CO 
330  40 
187  20 
044  00 
472  00 
900  00 
328  00 
756  00 
612  00 
408  00 
324  00 
180  00 
0;i6  00 
748  00 
460  00 
172  00 
884  00 
164  00 
444  00 
724  00 


$21. 420 

25.  704 

29.  988 

34.  272 

38.  556 

42.840 

51.408 

59.  976 

68.  544 

77.112 

85.  680 

102.816 

119.952 

137.088 

154.224 

179.  928 

20,5.  632 

2.11.  336 

257.  040 

299.  8.«0 

342.  720 

385.  560 

428.  400 

516.  080 

599.  700 

685.  440 

771.120 

85G.  800 

1,  028. 160 

1, 199.  .520 

1,  4.50.  500 
1,713.600 

2,  142.  000 
2,  570.  800 


$85.  680 

400 

102.816 

400 

119.952 

400 

137.  088 

400 

154.224 

400 

171.  360 

400 

20.5.  632 

400 

239.  904 

400 

274.  170 

400 

308.  210 

400 

342.  720 

400 

409.  360 

400 

479.  808 

400 

5'J8.352 

4'^0 

616.896 

400 

719.712 

400 

822.  5J8 

400 

925.  344 

400 

1.  028. 160 

400 

1,1 99.  .520 

400 

1,  370.  880 

400 

1,542.240 

400 

1,713.600 

400 

2,  056.  320 

400 

2,399.04" 

400 

2.  .541.  760 

400 

3,  084.  480 

400 

3,  427.  200 

400 

4,112.640 

400 

4,  79.t.  080 

400 

5,  826.  240 

400 

6,854.400 

400 

8,  568.  000 

400 

10,281.600 

400 

12 
12 
12 
12 
13 
12 
12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
13 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 


At  every  additional  income  of  $14,280  the  grade  advances  to  a  higher 
number,  and  the  additional  tax  levied  amounts  to  $428.20. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  lowest  taxable  income 
per  annum  is  $99.96,  of  which  a  tax  of  71  cents  is  to  be  paid  to  the 
Government  and  of  95  cents  to  the  community.  In  addition  to  these 
taxes,  school  and  church  taxes  are  to  be  paid,  and  owners  of  houses 
have  to  pay  taxes  on  ground  and  buildings,  and  business  men  have  to 
pay  taxes  levied  on  trade  and  industries.  The  first  grade  in  the  "class 
tax"  embraces,  as  a  rule,  the  servant  girls,  common  day  laborers,  and 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  281 

ai)preiitices,  aud  the  three  next  grades  the  great  mass  of  factory  oi)era- 
tives.  Taxpayers  of  the  first  five  grades  in  tlie  ''clavss  tax"  are  de- 
prived of  their  active  and  ))assive  elective  franchise  for  municipal  offices; 
that  is,  the  greater  part  of  the  working  people  has  no  voice  in  the  local 
administration.  The  light  to  vote  for  members  to  the  Reichstag  and 
to  the  state  legislatures  is,  however,  granted  to  every  citizen  without 
reference  to  taxation.  At  state  elections  the  aggregate  number  of  vo- 
ters is  subdivided  in  three  classes  in  ])roportion  to  the  amount  of  taxes 
paid  by  them.  Each  class  elects  a  certain  nurabep  of  electors  and  these 
electors  vote  directly  for  the  deputies  in  a  similar  way  as  the  election 
for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President  takes  place  in  the  United 
States. 

EMIGRATION  AND   THE   CAUSES  THEREOF. 

Apart  from  political  considerations,  which  are  a  minor  motive  power 
for  the  emigration  of  the  working  people,  the  principal  causes  which 
lead  to  their  emigration  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  Spasmodic  and 
continual  struggle  for  a  meager  subsistence,  aud  the  consequent  natural 
desire  of  bettering  their  lot,  and  of  better  providing  for  themselves  and 
their  families  in  the  future;  the  constant  increase  of  the  population  in 
Germany  and  the  competition  continually  growing  sharper  and  more 
crowding  in  all  branches  of  business  incident  thereto;  the  wish  to 
swing  loose  from  the  dependent  and  gloomy  condition;  to  evade  the 
general  military  duty  ;  and,  to  a  great  extent,  the  influences  brought  to 
bear  on  those  at  home  by  friends  and  relatives  that  have  crossed  the 
ocean,  and  particularly  the  pecuniary  remittances  from  those  people  that 
have  preceded  them,  so  as  to  enable  the  destitute  at  home  to  join  their 
friends  and  countrymen.  Whenever  business  in  the  United  States  is 
prosperous  and  times  are  flush,  so  that  people  are  able  to  put  up  some 
savings,  the  flood  of  emigration  will  set  in  and  swell  the  march  of  the  cara- 
vans to  the  seaports.  As  a  general  matter,  emigrants  prefer  those  places 
and  regions  which  have  been  selected  by  their  friends  and  kindred  and 
such  tracts  of  laud  as  can  be  put  in  tilth  without  much  labor  and  ex- 
pense, and  which  promise  a  rich  yield.  They  are  apt  to  choose  a 
climate  which  corresponds  to  some  extent  to  that  in  their  native  coun- 
try. This  will  explain  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  emigrants 
are  settling  down  in  the  Northern  United  States,  and  but  a  small  num- 
ber selects  the  Southern  States.  Most  of  those  people  that  seek  their 
new  homes  across  the  ocean  come  from  the  workshops  and  factories, 
and  from  the  farm  lands.  They  are,  on  the  whole,  healthy,  industrious, 
and  frugal  persons,  contributing  their  share  of  manual  and  skilled  labor 
to  the  development  of  our  varied  industries,  and  applying  their  expe 
rieuce  and  callous  hands  to  the  enlargement  and  cultivation  of  our  ag- 
ricultural domain.  The  colonization  movement  which  has  been  inaugu- 
rated for  some  years  in  Germany,  whereby  the  flood  of  emigration  was 
intended  to  be  diverted  from  the  United  States  and  directed  to  coun- 
tries to  be  acquired  by  the  colonization  societies,  has  not  met  with  any 
perceptible  success,  and  it  seems  that  all  these  colonization  schemes 
will  prove  to  be  more  or  less  abortive,  and  that  the  tide  will  continue  to 
pour  into  the  United  States  as  heretofore.  When  the  German  once  bids 
farewell  to  the  fatherland  he  does  not  wish  to  remain  in  a  sort  of  de- 
pendence upon  his  mother  country, which  he  has  left  for  some  good  rea- 
sons, and  subject  himself  to  the  interests  of  colonization  societies.  With 
but  few  exceptions,  he  wishes  to  become  a  free  and  independent  man, 
and  for  this  reason,  as  a  rule,  selects  the  United  States  for  his  future 


282  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

domicile,  and  eagerly  awaits  the  time  when  he  may  avail  himself  of  the 
great  privilege  of  American  citizenship. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

There  is  scarcely  any  city  or  town  in  Germany,  with  the  exception  of 
Crefeld,  which  by  the  specialty  of  her  industry — the  leading  articles 
of  Barmen  are  braids,  bindings,  and  trimmings— is  in  a  position  to  em- 
ploy so  many  female  operatives.  We  find  them  in  almost  ever^-  indus- 
trial branch  in  this  city  and  vicinity ;  their  number,  including  children 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years,  is  ajjproximately  estimated  at  27,000  to 
28,000.  Table  D  shows  the  number  of  male  and  female  operatives  em- 
ployed in  tlie  different  industrial  branches  in  Barmen  and  Elberfeld. 
The  total  number  of  females  employed  in  the  different  branches  of  the 
textile  industry  in  Germany  amounts  to  316,547. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  in  such  occupations  as  require  more  physical 
strength,  as  braid  and  ribbon  making  and  dyeing,  they  are  replaced  by 
males.  It  is  a  siguiticaut  fact  that  manufacturers  are  apt  to  prefer 
female  operatives  to  male  oj)eratives  for  many  reasons ;  for  instance, 
they  appreciate  the  quiet  and  constant  performance  of  the  tasks  of  the 
females  very  highly,  and  also  their  docility,  adaptability,  and  discipline, 
and  above  all  do  they  prize  the  cheapness  of  female  labor,  by  which 
they  are  enabled  to  run  a  successful  race  on  the  world's  market  with 
their  foreign  competitors. 

FEMALE   WAGES. 

The  wages  of  the  female  factory  operatives  are  regulated  partly  by 
the  application  and  capacities  of  the  individuals,  partly  by  the  kind  of 
their  occupation  and  quality  of  their  performances.  For  instance,  the 
wages  of  girls  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years,  whose 
time  of  labor  is  fixed  by  statutory  laws  at  eight  hours  per  day,  vary 
from  73  cents  to  $1.20,  while  older  girls  and  women,  according  to  their 
performances,  may  earn  $1.45  to  $3.10  per  week.  Work  at  the  so-called 
fancy  articles  and  nouveautes  is  generally  better  paid  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season.  The  work  is  always  very  carefully  dealt  out  and  appor- 
tioned to  the  smallest  detail,  and  is  performed  by  the  individuals  accord- 
ing to  their  capacities. 

i!^kops  and  trades. — Girls  in  millinery  shops  earn  from  $85  to  $95  per 
annum,  board  and  lodging  in  addition,  exclusively,  from  $2.35  to  $2.50 
per  week,  and  if  they  work  for  their  own  account  their  earnings  gen- 
erally double.  Female  dressmakers  earn  from  $21.40  to  $28.00  per 
month  without  board;  with  board  and  lodging,  $1.45  to  $2.15  per  week; 
if  they  work  for  their  customers  in  families  they  earn  $2.40  to  $2.90 
per  week;  board  and  luncheon  iji  addition.  Girls  able  to  fit  and  repair 
costumes  earn  from  $238  to  $357  a  year  without  board,  and  first-class 
department  directrices  from  $400  to  $570  a  year. 

Commercial. — The  employment  of  female  clerks  in  counting-rooms  is 
not  in  great  vogue  hereabouts;  the  few  that  are  employed  in  subordinate 
positions  earn  from  $215  to  $290  a  year;  confidential  clerks  antl  book- 
keepers, from  $290  to  $430  a  year ;  female  clerks  in  stores  and  shops 
earn  from  $90  to  $115  and  in  addition  2  per  cent,  on  their  sales,  or  from 
$175  to  $215  without  the  aforesaid  gratification;  female  apprentices  in 
stores  are  paid  from  $2.40  to  $4.80  jier  month. 

Professional  and  personal. — This  includes  Government  officials  and 
clerks,  teachers,  artists,  chemists,  hotel  and  boarding-house  keepers, 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE— GERil ANY.  283 

journalists,  laundresses,  &c.  As  far  as  my  iulbrmat.ion  reaches,  as  a 
general  thing,  no  ladies  are  employe. I  in  Government  offices  iw  this 
city,  only  in  the  imperial  telegraph  (/A\ce  a  few  are  engaged.  These 
ladi3s  are  paid  from  $13.50  to  $15.50  a  month,  and  IJieir  hours  of  labor 
are  nine  per  day.  In  the  lower  classes  in  the  elementary  sclaoois  there 
are  some  ladies  employed.  These  female  teachers  are  paid,  in  villages 
and  towns,  from  $180  to  $215  a  year,  and  in  addition  they  have  free 
lodging  at  their  disposal.  In  cities  these  female  teachers  begin  with  a 
salary  of  $215  to  $240  a  year,  and  their  salaries  are  gradually  raised  to 
$325  to  $360,  and  in  addition  7^  per  cent,  of  their  salary  is  granted  to  them 
in  the  shape  of  indemnification  for  rent.  In  ladies'  high  schools  and 
female  boarding  schools  these  teachers  begin  with  a  salary  from  $290 
to  $340,  which  is  successively  raised  to  $430,  with  7^  per  cent,  indemnifi- 
cation for  rent  in  addition.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that 
male  as  well  as  female  teachers  are  exempt  from  municipal  taxes  and 
their  children  from  the  payment  of  the  tuition  fees. 

Laundresses  earn  from  48  to  60  cents  per  day,  and  their  number  is 
large,  especially  in  Elberfeld. 

Agriculture. — As  to  this  class  of  female  laborers  I  refer  to  table  for  the 
inforiuation  desired. 

Minim/. — The  table  furnishes  all  the  information  obtainable  as  to  fe- 
males employed  in  mines. 

All  other  pursuits. — Under,  this  heading  there  may  be  classified  all 
kinds  of  female  domestic  servants,  and  as  to  their  average  wages  I  refer 
to  the  table  annexed  below.  In  addition  to  the  regular  wages  these 
servants  receive  Christmas  presents  and  doticeurs  on  the  occasion  of 
fairs  held  in  towns  and  cities,  amounting  to  from  $9  to  $15,  according  to 
their  respective  positions,  and,  besides,  some  gratuities  and  "tippings" 
which  average  from  $4  to  $6  a  year.  Every  fortnight  they  are  gener- 
ally allowed  to  spend  a  half-day  for  their  recreation,  and  on  Sunday 
mornings  or  Sunday  evenings  they  have  a  recess  of  a  few  hours  to  at- 
tend divine  service. 

The  employers  are  bound  by  legislative  enactments,  in  case  of  sick- 
ness, to  furnish  medical  attendance  to  these  servants  for  the  period  of 
three  months.  The  employers  are,  however,  in  the  habit,  to  get  rid  of 
this  obligation,  of  paying  into  the  city  hospital  fund  a  contribution  of 
$1.25  to  $2  per  annum.  In  cases  of  sickness  female  servants  thus  pro- 
vided for  are  admitted  into  the  city  hospital,  where  they  receive  their 
medical  attendance.  The  employers  are  obliged  to  give  notice  to 
female  servants  six  weeks  prior  to  a  calendar  quarter  to  quit  service,  if 
no  special  arrangements  have  been  made,  and  vice  versa.  As  a  rule, 
notice  to  quit  service  is  given  three  mouths  ahead.  Whenever  diffi- 
culties or  disagreements  arise  between  emj^loyers  and  servants,  and 
cannot  be  settled  amicably,  the  police  authorities  attempt  to  mediate 
and  intercede,  and  if  not  successful,  the  difficulties  are  adjusted  by 
regular  court  proceedings.  A  settlement  effected  by  the  police  authori- 
ties is,  by  virtue  of  a  recent  decision  of  the  highest  imperial  court  at 
Leipsic,  equal  to  our  United  States  Supreme  Court,  not  obligatory. 

Servant  girls  out  of  emjiloyment  generally  board  with  women  that 
make  it  a  business  to  hire  out  such  servant  girls,  and  they  have  to  j)ay 
those  women  for  board  and  lodging  from  $1.20  to  $1.67  per  week.  When- 
ever such  a  woman  finds  out  and  secures  a  place  for  a  servant  the  latter 
has  to  pay  72  cents  to  that  woman  for  her  services.  Such  women  are 
under  the  control  of  the  police  authorities,  and  have  to  procure  a 
license  for  their  calling.  This  is  required  in  the  interest  of  morality, 
as  in  former  times  some  of  these  female  agents  not  unfrequently  hired 


284 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


out  innocent  and  inexperienced  jjirls  for  purposes  of  prostitution.  Thia 
practice  is,  however,  still  secretly  carried  on  in  spite  of  the  vigilance 
of  the  i)olice.  Tlie  moral  cbaiacter  of  the  German  servant  girls  is  <ien- 
erally  good,  and  far  sujierior  to  that  of  the  factory  girls.  The  servant 
girls  are  usually  good-natured,  industrious,  faithful,  and  much  attached 
to  the  families  they  live  with. 

AVERAGE  WAGES  PAID  TO  FEMALE  ADULTS. 

It  may  be  approximately  stated  that  the  minimum  wages  paid  to  fe- 
male adults  are  $1.45,  the  maximum  $2.90,  and  the  average  $2.17._i  ]>er 
week.  For  further  information  on  this  subject  I  refer  to  the  table 
below. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  rates  of  wages  paid  to  females  em- 
ployed in  different  branches  in  this  consular  district : 


Oocnpations. 


Honrs  of 

labor 
per  day. 


Lowest. 


Hig|)«st. 


Average. 


Remarks. 


Boole  keepers  

Clerks       

Saleswomen  

DresHinakers  

First-class  directresses 

Costmne-fitters 

Soanistresaes 

Milliuei  8  

Millmcrs'  apprentices 

Cravat-makers 

Principals  of  public  schools 

Teachers  of  public  schools 

Teachers  for  handiwork  ..-._ i 

Principal  nursosin  public  children's; 
homes.  j 

Nurses  in  hospitals  

Tele,;xrapli  operators 

Go  vei  ncsses ' 

How8ekeei)errt 

Cooks  

Chambermaids  

ftei  vants  for  y;eneral  housework 1 

Laundi  esses 

Kurso  fjirls    1 

Jnvenilo  servants ! 

Factory  girls 

Factor's    

Corset-makers 

Factors 

Quill  {Tirls 

Keelers 


$285  60 

214  20 

85  68 

190  40 

357  00 

238  00 

95  00 

85  80 

28  56 

85  80 

285  60 

190  40 


142  80 
191  00 

57  12 
142  80 
71  40 
71  40 
57  12 
49  98 
35  70 
57  12 
28  56 
23  80 
71  40 
166  60 
119  00 
166  60 
95  20 
95  20 


$428  40 
285  60 
107  10 
238  00 
476  00 
357  00 
142  80 
95  00 
35  70 
142  80 
357  00 

285  60 


190  40  : 

214  20  I 

i 

85  68  i 

178  50  i 

119  00  ! 

100  00  t 

85  68 

71  40 

57  12 

85  68 

35  70 

28  56 

142  80 

190  40 

166  60 

190  40 

142  80 

142  80 


$307  00 

249  90 

90  39 

214  20 

416  50 

297  50 

118  90 

90  40 

32  13 

114  30 

321  30 

238  00 


166  60 
202  10 

71  40 

160  65 

95  20 

85  70 

71  40 

60  69 

46  41 

71  40 

32  13 

26  18 

107  10 

178  50 

142  80 

178  50 

119  00 

119  00 


Free  board  and  lodging. 


Free  board  and  lodginj 


Allowance  of  7i  percent- 
of  income  for  rem. 

Allowance  of  7  J  per  cent, 
of  income  for  rent,  or 
free  rent. 


Free  board  and  lodging. 

Free  board  and  lodging. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


HOURS  OF  FEMALE  LABOR. 


In  compliance  with  the  imperial  statute  of  June  21,  1869,  manufact- 
nrera  are  not  permitted  to  employ  children  beh)w  twelve  years  in  their 
factories,  and  when  they  are  about  to  employ  children  above  twelve 
years  notice  must  be  given  to  the  police  authorities  i)rior  to  their  em- 
ployment, and  emi»Ioyers  are  compelled  to  keep  a  list  of  all  their  juve- 
nile laborers  Ir-Iow  the  fourteenth  year,  iind  all  children  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  years  are  only  to  be  engaged  under  the  condition  that  the  time 
of  labor  shall  not  exceed  six  hours  per  day,  so  that  these  juveniles  are 
enabled  to  iv(reive  a  school  education  of  at  least  three  houis  a  day. 
Girls  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  are  not  allowed  to  be  worked  more 
than  eight  hours  a  day.     The  girls  from  twelve  to  fourteen  and  also 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  285 

those  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  are  entitled  to  a  recess  of  lialf  an 
hour  every  forenoon  and  afternoon.  Girls  over  sixteen  years  have  to 
work  the  normal  time,  that  is,  irom  7  to  12  in  the  forenoon,  and  fiom  1^ 
to  8  in  the  afternoon.  To  insure  the  euforcement  of  these  regulations 
and  of  other  laws  lor  the  safety  and  protection  of  the  factoiy  opera- 
tives, Government  officials  and  the  local  police  are  charged  with  the 
inspection,  from  time  to  time,  of  the  various  establishments. 

MORAL  AND  PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS  OF  FEMALE  EMPLOYIES. 

I  am  pained  to  say  that  this  side  of  the  question  forms  a  dark  spot 
on  female  labor  in  this  district.  It  is  a  sad  spectacle  to  notice  that 
young,  innocent  girls  almost  inviiriably  will  be  stained  and  polluted  by 
the  foul  and  mischievous  surroundings  of  their  companions,  and  in  a 
Bhort  time  sink  down  to  their  level  of  immoralitj'.  Generally  speaking, 
it  is  characteristic  with  bad  and  ill  disposed  persons  to  corrupt  their 
fellow-beings,  and  this  tendency  especially  apjiears  to  pervade  the  at- 
mosphere of  these  female  employees.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and  has 
been  observed  time  and  again,  that  the  older  sister  employes  are  set- 
ting traps  for  their  innocent  partners  and  attemi)t  to  drag  them  down 
to  their  low  standard  of  indecency  and  impropriety,  and  do  not  rest 
until  the  poor  victims  have  lost  their  shame  and  innocence  and  con- 
duct themselves  as  frivolously  and  lasciviously  as  the  older  compan- 
ions are  in  the  habit  of  doing.  If  parents  object  to  the  loose  manners 
of  such  girls,  it  happens  frequently  that  they  leave  the  parental  roof 
and  rent  rooms  in  low  boarding-houses  for  $1.20  to  $1.4.')  per  week, 
where  they  can  carry  on  as  they  ])lease.  Such  girls,  of  coarse,  do  not 
think  of  saving  a  penny.  This  licentious  life  leads  them  not  uufre- 
quently  into  the  arras  of  prostitution.  It  is,  however,  to  be  observed 
that  these  free  and  easy  going  girls  are  very  often  the  best  and  most 
reliable  workers,  and  it  is  a  suggestive  fact  that  there  exists  a  certain 
*^point  cnionneur^'  amongst  the  workingmeu  to  marry  a  factory  girl 
whenever  the  fruit  of  tlieir  carnal  intercourse  begins  to  be  visible,  and 
this  fact  explains  the  comparatively  early  marriages  between  the  male 
and  female  working  classes,  and  also  the  small  number  of  illegitimate 
births  amongst  these  classes.  By  legislative  acts  no  man  is  i)ermitted 
to  enter  into  the  state  of  matrimony  before  he  has  passed  the  twentieth 
year.  The  minister  of  justice  is,  however,  authorized  to  grant  dispen- 
saticm  in  certain  cases.  In  addition  to  that  the  law  ])rescribes  that  the 
man  who  has  not  passed  through  all  tlie  stages  of  military  life,  that  is, 
"who  at  times  of  war  may  be  called  to  active  military  service,  has  to  give 
security  for  the  maintenance  of  his  family  while  he  is  in  active  service, 
so  that  such  a  family  may  not  become  a  burden  to  the  community  dur- 
ing that  period.  In  the  past  year  about  eighty  young  men  in  Barmen, 
of  whom  two  thirds  were  below  the  nineteenth  year,  submitted  their 
application  for  a  dispensation  to  the  minister  of  justice,  but  only  four 
obtained  the  desired  dispensation. 

MEANS   FOR   THE   IMPROVEMENT   OF  FEMALE  EMPLOYES. 

To  the  honor  of  a  good  many  employers  it  must  be  stated  that  they 
make  commendable  efforts  to  counteract  the  evil  influences  arising  from 
the  daily  intercourse  of  the  male  and  female  working  people  to  a  cer- 
tain degree,  inasmuch  as  they  endeavor  to  keep  the  sexes  separated  in 
the  factories,  have  separate  water-closets,  and  to  prevent  all  unneces- 
sary conversation  between  the  two  sexes  during  the  hours  of  labor.     In 


286  LAIJOR    IX    EUROPE GERMANY. 

most  of  the  factories  the  offenders  against  these  regulations  are  subject 
to  an  immediate  discharge.  And  the  proprietors  of  two  of  the  largest 
factories  in  Barmen  went  even  farther,  since  they  have  their  female  em- 
ployes, gratis,  educated  by  female  teachers,  after  the  hours  of  labor,  in 
female  handiwork,  in  reading  good  books,  and  in  teaching  them  the 
elements  of  the  household  ati'airs,  so  as  to  prepare  them  for  their  duties 
when  they  themselves  are  about  to  establish  their  own  household.  In 
this  connection  the  fact  should  not  be  concealed  that  the  daughters  of 
these  proprietors  devote  their  time  to  this  laudable  undertaking,  and 
the  results  of  this  Samaritan  work  have  been  very  gratifying  and  en- 
couraging. Many  girls  have  been  kept  on  the  path  of  virtue,  and  many 
have  become  good  and  reliable  wives  and  conscientious  mothers,  and 
many  a  fallen  girl  has  been  restored  to  society. 

At  this  juncture  mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  trade  and  indus- 
trial schools  for  young  Avomen  in  Berlin,  Munich,  Hamburg,  Leipsic, 
Xuremburg,  Stuttgart,  and  Darmstadt.  These  schools  are  especially 
devoted  to  the  preparation  of  young  women  for  clerical  work  and  book- 
keeping. 

SAFETY   OF  FEMALE   EMPL0Y:6S. 

Manufacturers  are  enjoined  to  put  up  the  most  suitable  safeguards 
and  the  most  approved  safety  appliances  in  their  factories,  and  especially 
to  provide  for  an  easy  egress.  The  doors  in  the  factories  must  be  wide 
and  open  to  the  outside,  and  there  must  be  some  extra  doors,  to  be  used 
in  case  of  fire  or  other  dangers.  Every  hoist  and  the  engine-house  must 
be  securely  fenced,  and  the  fencing  must  be  constantly  retained  in  good 
order. 

SANITARY  MEASURES  AND   CARE   OF   SICK  AND  DISABLED. 

Factories  must  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  healthy  state,  the  rooms  must 
be  spacious  and  well  ventilated  and  not  overcrowded,  and,  if  possible, 
separated  from  those  of  the  male  operatives.  Female  as  well  as  male 
operatives  have  to  join  the  aid  society  of  the  factory  in  which  they  are 
employed,  if  there  exists  one.  To  these  funds  employers  as  well  as 
emi)loyes  have  to  contribute  about  equal  rates.  In  case  of  sickness  such 
an  employ^  is  entitled  to  an  amount  wbich  is  equal  to  a  small  jjercentage 
of  the  semi-weekly  Avages.  If  there  does  not  exist  a  factory  fund,  the 
operatives  are  bound  to  make  contributions  either  to  a  municipal  deposit 
fund  for  sick  or  to  a  deposit  fund  under  the  control  of  a  workiugmen's 
union.  The  contributions  to  these  funds  amount  to  about  15  cents  per 
month  for  each  person.  The  i^rovisions  of  the  liability  law  are  appli- 
cable likewise  to  female  operatives. 

COMPETITION   OF  FEMALE  WITH  MALE  LABOR. 

Wages  for  females  liave  but  slightly  declined  during  the  last  five  j^ears, 
while  prices  for  the  necessaries  of  life  have  perce[)tibly  decreased. 
The  employment  of  women  presses  rather  heavily  on  the  male  labor  and 
consequently  on  the  wages  of  men.  In  most  of  the  tactories  the  male 
lace  and  braid  makers  have  been  recently  replaced  by  women,  and  only 
the  master  mechanics  retained.  Female  labor  being  considerably  cheaper 
than  male  labor,  manufacturers  find  it  to  their  interest  to  employ  females 
wherever  their  strength  is  sufficient  to  i)erform  a  certain  task,  and  male 
laborers  are  gratlually  driven  away  from  tlie  lighter  and  easier  jobs  and 
are  forced  to  remain  temporarily  idle. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


287 


EDUCATION,  ETC. 

It  may  hardly  be  expected  that  women  employed  in  factories  should 
feel  much  inclined  to  improve  their  school  education.  Their  children 
have  to  attend  the  elementary  schools  until  they  have  passed  the  four- 
teenth, year,  when  they  are  either  given  out  as  apprentices  or  have  to 
follow  their  parents  to  the  workshop.  That  the  information  of  these 
people  is  rather  limited  and  that  these  hard- worked  and  poorly-fed  per- 
sons are  not  much  given  to  studies,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at. 

As  a  rule,  husband  and  wife  continue  their  wonted  employment  after 
marriage,  so  that  not  much  time  can  be  devoted  to  the  care  of  their 
cLUclren.  As  several  families  usually  are  living  in  the  same  house,  the 
children  of  these  laboring  people  very  frequently  are  intrusted  to  the 
care  of  an  elderly  woman  who  keeps  a  kind  of  children's  nursery 
and  receives  for  her  services  a  small  remuneration.  To  be  sure,  this 
nursing  is  very  primitive  and  rather  deficient.  The  mortality  amongst 
the  children  of  the  working  classes  is  consequently  very  large,  as  under 
the  surrounding  circumstances  a  better  nursing  of  these  babies  can 
hardly  be  provided  for.  This  mortality  list  averages  from  30  to  40  per 
cent,  in  Barmen.  IMothers  employed  in  factories  nurse  their  babies  but 
for  a  short  time,  as,  by  law,  any  woman  is  permitted  to  take  up  her  work 
again  four  weeks  after  her  confinement.  There  are  some  mothers  who 
nurse  their  babies  for  a  few  months  longer,  which  can,  however,  be  done 
only  during  the  dinner  hour  and  in  the  evening  upon  their  return  from 
the  shop. 

It  is  but  a  natural  effect  of  this  deficient  home-training  that  the  work- 
ing classes  furnish  an  unusually  large  quota  of  boys  and  girls  for  the 
reform  schools  and  houses  of  correction. 

WOLFGANG  SCHOENLE, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Barmen,  June  17,  1884. 


I.  General  Trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  Barmen. 


Occupationa. 

Hours. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

66 
66 
66 
66 
66 
66 
66 
66 

66 
66 
66 
60 
84 
72 
66 
63 
63 
66 
66 
66 

$3  00 

2  60 

3  08 

2  85 

3  92 
3  09 
3  32 
3  57 

3  33 
3  57 

2  96 

3  57 

3  57 

4  76 
3  33 
3  57 
3  57 
3  09 
3  57 
3  57 

14  28 
3  80 
3  80 

3  33 
5  95 

4  28 
4  28 
4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

3  50 

5  00 
5  71 
5  71 

4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
4  46 
4  28 

$3  64 

3  20 

3  45 

3  09 

4  94 

3  68 

3  80 

Gas-fitters 

OTHER  TRADES. 

3  93 
3  81 

3  93 

3  23 

4  29 

4  61 

5  23 

3  80 

3  93 

3  93 

3  68 

4  02 

Coopers 

3  93 

288 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
Wagespaidper  week  in  Barmen — Coutinucd. 


Occupation. 


Other  trades— Continued. 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Dri^i^rs,  drasTnen,  teamsters,  &c  

Dyers    

i:r)<i  ravers 

Farriers 

Gartluners 

Hiitttra 

Horscshoers 

JcwekTS 

Laborers,  porters,  <tc 

Li  t  hojrrapliers 

llillwiiubts 

Kailmakers ■ 

Locksmiths  

llacliini'^ts 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanueis 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators  (revisers) 

Tinsmiths 

Barbers 

Hair-dri-ssers 

Chimney-sweeps 

Painters 

Bleachers 

Mechanics 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 

Printers 


Hours. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

66 

$3  80 

$4  99 

$4  40 

60 

4  90 

7  14 

6  07 

72 

3  57 

4  28 

3  92 

66 

3  80 

5  00 

5  49 

60 

4  2X 

5  70 

4  09 

63 

3  57 

5  00 

4  29 

66 

,  3  57 

4  76 

4  17 

63 

3  ^7 

4  76 

4  17 

C6 

3  80 

4  28 

4  04 

60 

4  0.'") 

5  23 

4  64 

72 

3  (19 

3  70 

3  40 

60 

4  28 

5  71 

5  00 

72 

3  57 

4  76 

4  17 

66 

3  57 

4  76 

4  17 

63 

3  i-0 

5  00 

4  40 

63 

4  28 

5  71 

4  99 

66 

3  09 

4  28 

3  69 

66 

3  f-'O 

4  76 

3  78 

72 

3  57 

5  00 

4  29 

60 

5  00 

8  00 

6  50 

66 

3  57 

4  76 

4  17 

78 

3  57 

4  76 

4  17 

70 

3  90 

5  71 

4  81 

66 

4  0} 

5  00 

4  52 

66 

3  57 

5  50 

4  54 

72 

4  28 

7  14 

5  71 

60 

4  28 

8  r.6 

6  42 

72 

4  28 

5  71 

5  00 

66 

4  28 

5  71 

5  00 

BaU'8  of  wages  paid  per  week  in  the  different  provinces  and  siatee  in  the  German  Empire  in 

1882. 


Province  or  state. 


Building 
trade. 


Retail 
trade. 


Manufact- 
uring. 


Tenders 

and 
laborers. 


Average. 


Silesia 

Brandenburg 

Poff^n 

Thurin^ian  states 

Pomeiania    

KiuLidomof  Saxony — 

West  Prussia 

East  Prussia 

Pi  evince  of  Saxony  ... 
M(>(  klenburg-Schwerin 

Biiir.s^vick 

Hanover 

Anhalt 

Arclidiikedom  Hesse... 

Bavaria 

Hesse-Nassau 

Wurtemberg 

Baden  . .   ..'. 

Rhenish  province 

Schleswiji-Holstein 

Westphalia 

Hanacatic  cities 

AlsacK  Lorraine 

German  Empire 


$3  21 
3  06 
3  66 
3  80 
3  64 

3  82 

4  17 


4  64 

3  91 

4  19 

3  93 

4  24 

3  }<6 

4  12 
4  64 
4  05 
4  43 
4  52 
4  48 
4  83 

4  56 

5  24 
5  36 
4  12 


f!2  48 
2  62 
2  90 

2  6:t 

3  00 
2  84 


3  09 
2  95 

2  90 

3  14 

2  99 

3  28 
3  33 
3  38 
3  33 
3  47 
3  56 
3  56 
3  45 
3  77 

3  80 

4  48 
3  11 


$2  .54 
2  76 
2  70 

2  85 

2  no 

2  92 
2  85 

2  86 

3  11 
3  09 
3  21 
3  09 
3  21 
3  45 
3  09 
3  57 
3  47 
3  58 
3  56 
3  45 
3  92 

3  76 

4  36 
3  26 


$1  45 
2  16 

1  99 

2  95 
2  24 
2  46 
2  07 

1  71 

2  40 
2  40 
2  47 
2  52 
2  52 
2  50 
2  45 
2  61 
2  86 
2  85 
2  80 
2  97 

2  85 

3  76 
3  33 
2  42 


$2  42 
2  80 
2  8S 
2  90 

2  !>6 

3  01 
3  (3 
3  07 
3  09 
3  14 
3  19 
3  21 
3  19 
3  37 
3  39 
3  39 
3  58 
3  03 
3  60 
3  68 

3  77 

4  14 
4  38 
3  23 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

II.  Factories,  mills,  &c. 

Wages  paid  per  xceek  0/66  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Barmen. 


289 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Hlghe.st. 


Average. 


"Weavers  of  braids 

Weavers  of  laces 

Weavers  of  triiuniinas 

Weavers  of  lancy  art  ides 

Foieuian  of  tlicso  branches 

Lnstei-yain  makers 

Foieiuan 

Dyers  of  turliey  red  and  piece  yam. 

Foreman 

Bleachers  of  cotton  yarn  (72  hours) .. 

Foreman 

Apprentice  

Dyers  of  cotton  yarn  (blacls)  

Dj-ers  of  cotton  yarn  (colored) 

Dyers  of  silk  goods 

Foreman  

Apprentice „ 


$3  80 
3  57 

3  80 

4  (JO 
C  42 

3  57 

6  42 

4  00 

7  20 


7  20 
1  00 


$5  70 
5  70 
5  70 
5  23 
8  57 

4  76 
7  60 

5  00 
10  00 

7  14 

10  70 

2  50 

4  28 

5  00 
5  71 

10  00 
2  14 


$4  75 


64 

75 

62 

50 

17 

01 

50 

8  60 

5  71 

8  GO 

1  96 

3  93: 

4  64 

5  00 
8  60 
1  57 


III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  avorks. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 

Hours. 

Lowcet. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Machinists 

63 
03 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
63 
C3 
63 
63 
54 
54 
54 
54 
66 
66 
48 

$4  28 
3  57 
3  57 
3  80 

3  33 
2  90 

2  90 

4  28 

3  10 

5  00 
5  71 
7  14 

11  42 
17  85 
7  14 
2  85 

4  28 
24  00 

$5  71 
4  76 
4  76 
4  76 
4  28 
4  00 

4  00 

5  71 

4  04 

7  14 

8  ,57 
11  42 
24  00 
40  00 
11  42 

3  57 

5  71 
60  00 

$5  00 
4  17 

Locksmiths 

Blicksniiths 

4  17 

Turners 

4  28 

Planers 

3  81 

Drillers 

3  45 

Olher  machine  lal)or6r8 

3  45 

Model-makers 

5  00 

Strikers .............. 

3  57 

Mechanics 

6  07 

Foreman 

7  14 

Clerk 

9  28 

(."onfidential  clerk 

17  71 

Engineers 

28  93 

Drawers 

Porters 

7  14 
3  21 

Fireman .' ............. 

5  00 

Director  of  establishment 

42  00 

V.  Mines  and  mining. 


Wages  paid  in  mines  and  mining  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 


Director  * per  annum 

Engineer* do 

Principalinspector* do 

Inspectors do  ... 

Colliers,  underground - per  month 

Smelt  work do  . . 

Hewer,  first  class do  .. 

Hewer,  second  class do  . . 

Filers do.. 

Day  laborers do  .. 

Boys do  .. 

Gas  and  water  fitters do  . . 

Foreman do  .. 

Carpenters do  . . 

Locksmiths do  . . 


Hours 
per 
day. 


'  Free  rent,  fuel,  and  light. 


Lowest. 


$1,190  00 

800  00 

642  60 

380  80 

28  56 

28  58 

21  42 

17  85 

14  28 

12  85 

5  71 

17  00 

21  42 

17  00 

16  66 


$1,  600  00 

1,  000  00 

800  00 

571  20 

32  13 

32  13 

28  56 

21  42 

17  85 

14  28 

9  52 

21  42 

30  00 

21  40 

21  18 


$1,  395  00 

9U0  00 

721  30 

476  00 

30  35 

30  35 

24  99 
19  64 
16  07 
13  57 

7  62 
19  21 

25  71 
19  20 
18  02 


i)2  A— LAB- 


-19 


290 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


Wages  paid  in  viines  and  mining  in  Barmen — Coutiuued. 


Occupation. 


jHonra 
per  j    Lowest. 


Average. 


Blacksmiths per  month 

Tinsmiths do  . . 

Coal  measurer  (overseer) do  . . 

Assistants do  .. 

Wagoners do  . . 

In  lead,  ore,  and  silver  inines. 

"Women do 

Book-keeper do 

Clerk do  .... 


56 
35  70 
28  56 


$18  92 
19  20 
32  13 
19  64 

28  90 


9  64 
42  85 
32  13 


VI.   EAILWAY  EMPLOY]fiS. 
Wages  on  street  railroads  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 


Director* per  annum.. 

Cashier* per  month . . 

Stable  boss* do 

Book.keepers* per  day. . 

Controllers do 

Conductors do 

Drivers do 

Hostlers do 

Stable  boy '. do 


Hours 
per  day. 


Lowest. 


.$1,  285  20 
40  00 
40  00 
95 
95 
72 
72 
59 
50 


Highest. '  Average. 


$50  00 

50  00 

1  10 

1  10 

77 

77 

68 

59 


$1,  285  20 

45  00 

45  00 

1  03 

1  03 

75 

75 

64 

£5 


*  Kent,  fuel,  and  light  free. 

Wages  paid  to  railway  employis  (those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  engaged  on 
the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c.)  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 


Station  inspectors* per  annum . 

Assistants do . . . 

Track  inspectors* do  . . 

Assistants do... 

Cashiers do... 

Telegraj  ih  operators do . . . 

Assistants do... 

Clerks do... 

Superintendents  of  transportation do . . . 

Assistants do . . . 

Clerks do... 

Weigh-masters do . . . 

Train-leaders do... 

Engine-drivers do... 

Stokers do... 

Conductors do... 

Brakemen do... 

Baggage-masters do . . . 

Caug-niasters do. .. 

Car  recorders do 

Switcbiuon do... 

Track  watchmen do . . . 

Poiters,  passenger  and  freight do. .. 

Shunters do... 

.Station  laborers do. . . 

Coal  heavers do. .. 

Night  watchmen do... 

Car  cleaners do . . . 

Shop  workmen. 

Tactors do . . . 

Foremen per  month 

Machinists per  day . 


Hours 

of 

Lowest. 

labor. 

P'rday. 

12 

$571  00 

12 

357  00 

12 

357  00 

12 

214  20 

12 

428  40 

12 

265  60 

12 

178  50 

12 

178  50 

9 

.571  00 

9 

357  00 

9 

285  60 

10 

285  00 

12 

285  60 

12 

428  40 

12 

178  50 

12 

178  50  , 

12 

166  60  ' 

12 

238  00 

12 

214  00  1 

12 

142  80 

12 

190  40 

12 

142  80  ! 

12 

178  50  ! 

12 

142  80 

12 

142  80  i 

12 

142  80 

12 

142  80 

12 

142  80 

1 

54 

499  80  ; 

CO 

27  00  i 

63 

3  00 

Highest.  Average. 


$714  00 
476  00 
500  00 
357  00 
642  60 
321  30 
214  20 
214  20 
714  00 
476  00 
357  00 
321  30 
321  30 
571  20 
285  60 
214  20 
190  40 
285  60 
261  80 
178  50 
261  80 
178  50 
214  20 
178  50 
178  50 
178  50 
178  80 
178  50 


714  00  I 

32  13  ! 

4  00  I 


642  50 
416  50 
428  50 
285  60 
535  50 
293  45 
196  35 
196  35 
642  50 
416  50 
321  00 
303  45 
303  45 
499  80 
232  05 
196  35 
178  50 
261  80 
237  90 
160  65 
226  10 
160  65 
190  35 
160  65 
160  65 
160  65 
160  65 
100  65 


556  90 
29  57 
3  50 


LABOR  IN  EUKOPE GERMANY. 


291 


Wages  paid  to  railway  employes,  ^c. — Contiuued. 


Occupations. 


Hours 

of      1  Lowest, 
labor. 


Average. 


Shop  workmen — Continued. 

Locksmiths per  day. 

Turners do . . . 

Cabinet-makers do. .. 

Carpenters do... 

Wheelwrights do... 

Black.smiths do... 

Strikers        do... 

Carvers  and  gilders do... 

Drillers do . . . 

Tinsmiths do... 

Saddlers  and  upholsters do  .. 

Tailors do... 

Coppersmiths do . . . 

Gas  and  water  fitters do. .. 

Shop  clerks do . . . 

Tenders do . . . 

Tender  overseer do. .. 

Planers do... 

Painters do... 

Varnishers do . . . 

Hammer  drivers do . . . 

Stokers do... 

Engravers do . . . 

Riveters do. .. 

Mechanician do . . . 

Machine  workers do. . . 

Grinders do . . . 

Steam-crane  drivers do... 


$2  60 
3  00 
3  10 
3  00 
3  00 
3  10 

2  60 

3  20 

2  38 

3  00 
3  00 

2  85 

3  00 

3  00 

4  28 

2  38 

3  00 

2  38 

3  00 
3  00 
3  80 
3  57 
3  57 

2  85 

3  57 

2  38 

3  00 

4  00 


$4  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 
4  00 

3  33 

4  28 

3  10 

4  00 
4  00 
3  57 

3  57 

4  00 

5  70 

3  10 

4  00 

3  00 

4  00 
4  00 
4  28 
4  28 
4  52 

3  57 

4  52 
3  57 

3  57 

4  50 


$3  30 

3  50 

3  55 

3  50 

3  50 

3  55 

3  09 

3  74 

3  50 

3  50 

3  22 

3  29 

3  50 

4  99 

2  74 

3  50 

2  69 

3  50 

3  50 

4  04 

3  93 

4  05 

4  05 
3  21 

3  29 

4  25 


*  Rent,  fuel,  and  light  free. 

Note. — In  addition  to  their  regular  salary,  train-leaders  and  engine-drivers  receive  at  the  end  of  each 
month  2^  cents  for  each  German  mile  made ;  conductois  and  baggage-masters  2  cents,  and  stokers  and 
brakemen  IJ  cents. 

IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  annum  in  stores  and  shops  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 


Hours 
per  day. 


Average. 


Wholesale  and  retail  clothing  and  dress  stores. 


Bookkeeper. 

Cashier 

Salesmen . . . 
Saleswomen . 
Apprentice  . 
Porters 


Wholesale  and  retail  dry  goods  stores. 


Bookkeeper 

Cashier 

Salesmen 

Saleswomen 

Porter 

Warehouse  clerk  , 


Oroeery  stores,  retail. 


Salesmen 

Saleswomen . 
Porters 


Wholesale  stores. 


Correspondent 

Confidential  clerk 
Traveling  agent.., 

Bookkeeper  

Clerks 

Porter 


$357  00 
3-57  00 
238  00 
190  40 
35  70 
166  60 


350  00 
357  00 
214  00 
142  80 
166  60 
285  60 


71  40 
57  12 
42  84 


528  16 
571  20 
571  20 
428  00 
285  60 
190  40 


$500  00 
500  00 
428  40 
285  60 
71  40 
190  40 


500  00 
500  00 
428  40 
238  00 
214  00 
357  00 


119  00 
85  68 
68  06 


714  00 
856  80 
714  00 
571  20 
476  00 
238  00 


$428  50 
428  50 
333  10 
238  00 
52  55 
178  50 


425  00 
428  50 
321  20 
190  40 
190  30 
321  30 


*95  20 
*71  40 
*55  45 


621  08 
714  00 
642  60 
499  60 
380  80 
214  20 


^  And  free  board  and  lodging. 


292 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

X.  Household  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servanls  (fowns  and  cities)  in  Barmen  {including  board 

and  lodging). 


OccapatioDB. 


Coolcs : 

Male 

Kctuale 

Chamhermrtids 

Housi'ki'cpeia 

Female  mrvanta  for  general  housework 

Ceaehmen 

Gardeuera 

■Washwomen  (laundresses) 

Porters 

Ironing-women 


Lowest.  I  Highest. '  Average. 


$178  50 

$285  CO 

$232  05 

71  40 

119  00 

S>5  20 

42  84 

57  12 

49  98 

57  12 

85  08 

71  40 

:)0  94 

47  CO 

39  27 

71  40 

100  00 

83  70 

71  40 

110  00 

95  20 

4i  84 

85  Crt 

64  20 

42  84 

107  10 

74  97 

42  84 

85  G8 

64  26 

Wages  paid  per  month  in  hotels  in  Barmen. 
[Including  board  aud  lodfring.] 


Occupations. 


Weekly 

hours 

of  labor. 


Lowest.     Highest. 


Average. 


Chief  waiter.   

"Waiter 

Book-keeper 

Cashier 

Dooi  keeper  (exclusive  of  board  and  lodging) 

31nle  cook    

Female  cook 

Coach-driver 

Porter 

Servants  (female) 


$23  80 
H  28 
17  85 
20  00 
20  00 
17  85 
12  00 
7  U 
10  00 
3  57 


$57  12 

17  85 
23  80 
35  70 
5(1  00 
38  80 
20  00 
15  00 

18  00 
8  00 


$40  46 
16  07 
20  83 

27  85 
35  00 

28  33 
16  00 
11  07 
14  00 

5  79 


XI.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Bai-vien, 

ii'ith  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest 


Average. 


Inspector  

AdminiHtrstor 

TroaHurer 

Overseer 

Shepherd  

Gardener 

Coiicbiiian 

Cook,  female.. 
Cbambermaid  . 
Servant  girls. . 
Farm  bauds : 

Male   

P'emale 

Day  laborers  . 

Carpenter 

Slacksmith  ... 


$523  60 
380  80 
428  40 
85  68 
71  40 
57  12 
67  12 


42  84 

28  50 

21 

42 

42 

84 

23 

80 

50  21  1 

57 

12 

57 

12 

$856  80 
5-23  60 
714  00 
166  60 
107  10 
95  20 
95  20 
50  00 
35  70 
28  56 

57  12 

35  70 

71  40 

95  20 

95  20 


$690  20 
4.-.2  20 
571  20 
126  14 
89  85 
76  16 
76  16 
46  42 
32  13 
24  99 

49  98 
19  75 
60  81 
76  16 
76  16 


LABOK  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  293 

XII,  XIII,  XIV.  Municipal  and  government  employ:6s. 

Wages  per  annum  paid  government  and  municipal  officers  in  Barmen. 


Occapations. 


Hours 
per  day. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Other  allowances. 


1.  GOVERNMBNT  OFFICERS. 

District  court. 


Chief  judge. 

Judges  

Cleiks 

Assistants  .. 
Copyists  .... 

Janitor 

Messengers  . 


Jail. 


Director 

Principal  overseer  ... 

Ovoi  seei  s 

Stationhouso  keeper . 

Jail  physician 

Jail  minister 

Clerks 


9 
10 
12 
12 
to  4 
to  4 
10 


Customs  and  taxes. 


Director 

Chief  inspector 

Ti  easni er 

Inspectors 

Auelitois 

Eeceiveis 

Clerks 

Officeis   of  the  customs  and 
taxes. 


G 

6 

« 

G  to  7 


10 


Telegraph  offices. 


Director 

C  bief  clerk 

Clerk , 

Principal  telegraph  operators 

To'.e,G;i  apli  operators 

*Supe^vi^or  of  telegraph  ap- 
pa!atus. 

Deputies 

Laborers    - 


Post-offices. 


Director 

Inspector  

Cliief  clerk  (cashier) 

Clerks 

Assistants 

Luggage  master 

Post  agent 

Cierk  

Dispatch  agents 

Postmen  (letter-carriers). 

Postillion 

Deputies 


2.  Municipal  Officebb. 


Mayor 

Burgomaster 

City  clerk 

Clerks 

Recorder 

Auditor 

Clerk's  assistants  . 

Copyists 

Treasurer 

Kogistrar,  puhlio  . . 
Assistant 


to  0 
to  9 
to  9 
to  9 
to  9 
to  0 
to  9 
to  9 
to  9 


$1, 428  00  $2,  000  00 
9.V2  CO  1,428  00 


571  00 
357  00 
142  80 
238  CO 
214  00 


586  00 
428  40 
214  20 
214  20 
7U0  00 
C42  60 
321  36 


1,  428  00 

i,i'.;o  00 

1,  190  00 
714  00 
714  00 
357  00 
321  30 
214  20 


571  20 
470  00 
3cO  80 

380  80 
250  00 
380  80 

171-36 
142  80 


1,190 
1,071 
714 
476 
428 
2:;8 
428 
321 
192 
192 
142 
142 


820  00 
500  00 
190  40 
285  00 
321  36 


952  00 

500  00 
300  00 
280  00 
856  00 
856  00 
571  00 


2, 142  00 

l,e66  00 

2,428  10 

1.  190  00 

1,  190  00 

856  80 

609  90 

321  30 


1,071  00 
876  80 
714  00 
571  20 
357  00 
571  20 

250  00 
171  36 


00  2, 
00  1, 

00  j 

00  I 

40 

00 

40 

30 

78 

78 

80 

80 


2,  856  00 
1,  785  CO 
850  80 
523  60 
428  40 
428  40 
357  00 
238  00 
714  00 
714  00 
330  00 


3,  000  00 
2,000  00 
1,  000  00 
714  00 
571  20 
571  20 
428  40 
330  00 
952  00 
952  00 
500  00 


$1,  714  00 
1, 190  00 
695  50 
428  50 
1G6  60 
261  50 

267  es 


904  00 
404  00 
257  10 
247  10 
778  00 
749  30 
446  18 


1,783  00 
1,428  00 
1,  309  00 
952  00 
9.32  00 
606  90 
405  60 
267  75 


821  10 
676  40 
547  40 
476  00 
303  50 
476  00 

210  68 
157  08 


1,  595  00 
1,249  50 
833  00 
595  00 
459  10 
297  50 
464  20 
339  15 
274  89 
274  89 
106  60 
154  70 


2,  928  00 
1,892  50 
928  40 
618  80 
499  SO 
499  80 
392  70 
284  00 
833  00 
833  00 
415  00 


Free  rent. 


Free  rent. 
Do. 


Do. 


Free  rent. 

Do. 

Do. 
For  rent,  $102.81. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
For  rent,  $57.12. 


Free  rent. 

For  rent,  $102.82  per  annnm. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


Free. 

Do. 
For  rent,  $85.68. 

Do. 

Do. 
For  rent,  $42.84. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


£ent,  fuel,  and  light  free. 


*  When  inspecting  the  lines  he  is  allowed  $1.42  per  day  in  addition  to  his  regular  salary. 


294  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  annum,  government  and  municipal  offices  in  Barmen — Continued. 


Occupation. 


I  Hours  1 
,  per  day. 


2.  Municipal  Officers— Con- 
tinued. 

Department  of  police. 


Superintendent  — 
Couimissionera  — 

Serjieants 

Clerks 

Statistician 

Clerli's  assistants  . 
Snporniimeraries. . 

Copyists 

Market-master  — 

Forester 

Field-guard 

Kight  sergeant — 


Night  -watchmen... 
Reserve  watchmen. 

Policemen 

Jailer 


to  9 

to  9 

to  9 

to  9 

to  0 

to  9 

to  9 

to  9 

10 

10 

10 

9 


Lowest.  !  Highest. 


Average. 


City  architect 

City  assistants 

City  surveyor 

Auditor  of  public  works 

Drawing  elerks 

Bookkeeper 

Clerks 


City  water-works. 


Director 

Clerk 

Superintendent  of  , 


Pump  station. 


Factor 

Foreman . . . 
Pipe-fitters 
Laborers... 


City  gas-works. 


Director 

Overseer 

Foremen 

Pipe-fitters 

Laborers 

Clerks 

Stokers 

Inspectors  of  gasometer  . 
Laborers  in  public  parks. 

Overseer 

Dog-catchers 


Oymnasium  and  real  schools. 


Directors  . . 
Principals. 
Teachers . . 
Assistants 
Janitor  — 


High  schools  for  ladies. 


Directors 

Principals 

Female  t  eachers 

Female  teachers  of  handiwork 

Trade  school. 

Director 

Principal 

Teachers 

Assistants 


6 

to  7 

6 

12 


0 

6 

6  to  7 


$952  GO 
409  80 
357  00 
50U  00 
500  00 
357  00 
357  00 
178  50 
357  00 
357  00 
285  00 
238  00 

171  36 
142  80 
261  80 
190  40 

1,  428  00 
428  40 
571  20 
357  00 
285  60 
500  00 
285  60 


714  00 
500  00 
357  00 


285  60 
238  00 
178  50 
119  00 


714  00 
357  00 
285  60 
178  50 
119  00 
297  00 
190  40 
321  30 
119  00 
238  00 
166  60 


$1, 190  00 
714  00 
428  40 
571  20 
571  20 
500  00 
428  40 
328  00 
428  40 
476  00 
357  00 
363  30 

171  36 
142  80 
363  30 
238  00 

1,  785  00 
571  20 
856  80 
520  00 
357  00 
714  00 
500  00 


1,  000  00 
714  00 
476  00 


357  00 
285  00 
238  00 
178  50 


I,  000  00 
476  00 
357  00 
238  00 
178  50 
476  00 
285  60 
476  00 
166  60 
285  60 
238  00 


$1, 


6  to  7 
6  to  7 


1, 190  00 
714  00 
449  80 
357  00 
178  50 


1,071  00 
714  00 
285  60 
142  80 


1,  071  00 
714  00 
428  40 
285  60 


Other  allowances. 


1,  666  00 

1,071  00 

714  00 

500  00 

238  00 


1,408 

00 

9.72 

00 

428  40 

202 

30 

1,428 

00 

952 

00 

632 

(iO 

428  40 

071 
550 
392 
535 
535 
428 
392 
208 
392 
416 
321 
.SOO 

171 
142 
312 
214 

,606 
499 
714 
438 
321 
607 
392 


For  uniform,  per  annum,  $42.84, 

Do. 

Do. 
For  uniform,  per  annum,  $35.70. 


For    his   uniform, 
annum. 


Do. 


8.56  per 


For    his    uniform,  $28.56   per 
annum,  and  rent  free. 


857  00 
607  00 
416  50 


321  30 
261  80 
208  25 
148  75 


857  00 
416  50 
321  30 
208  25 
148  75 
386  50 
238  00 
398  65 
142  80 
261  80 
202  00 


1,  428  00 
892  50 
606  90 
428  50 
208  25 


1,  249  50 
833  00 
3.57  00 
172  56 


1,  249  50 
833  00 
530  50 
357  00 


Free  rent,  fael,  and  light. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  295 

Wages  paid  per  annum,  government  and  municipal  officers  in  Barmen — Continued. 


Occupation. 


Hours 
per  day. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Other  allowances. 


2,  Municipal  Officers— Con- 
tinued. 


Public  schools. 


District  inspector 
Local  inspector  . . , 
Principals : 

Male 


Female. 


Teachers : 
Male . 


Female 

Public  children's  home. 


Female  principals. 
City  vaccinators  .. 


Pawn-house. 


Superintendent 

Appraiser 

Cleik 

Cashier , 

Porter 


Public  bath-house. 


Director 

Clerk 

Cashier 

Purser 

Swimming-master . 

Porters 

Servants : 

Male 

Female 

Stoker  


Hospital. 


Chief  physician. 

Phvsicians 

Surgeon 

Superintendent . 

Clerk 

Overseer 

Nurse : 

Male 

Female 

Cook  (female)  . . . 
Servants  


6  to  7 
6 


6  to  7 
6  to  8 
6  to  8 
6  to  8 
6  to  8 


12 
12 
12i 


12J 
12i 
12J 


, 071  00 
428  40 

523  60 

357  00 

321  30 
214  GO 


190  40 
500  00 


714  00 
499  80 
357  00 
476  00 
149  00 


714  00 
476  00 
357  00 
238  00 
285  00 
142  80 

71  40 
47  60 
166  60 


952  00 
714  00 
714  00 
561  20 
357  00 
238  00 

71  40 
47  60 
57  12 
28  56 


$1,  600  00 
632  60 

714  00 

428  40 

500  00 
821  30 


214  20 
500  00 


952  00 

499  80 
476  00 

500  00 
190  40 


952  00 
520  00 
520  00 
357  00 
321  30 
190  40 

95  20 
71  40 
202  30 


1, 190  00 
856  80 
856  80 
714  00 
500  00 
285  60 

95  20 
71  40 
57  12 
47  60 


$1,335  50 
530  50 

618  80 

392  70 

410  65 
267  40 


202  30 
500  00 


833  00 
499  80 
416  50 
488  00 
169  70 


833  00 
498  00 
438  50 
297  50 
303  15 
166  60 

83  30 

59  50 

184  45 


1,  071  00 
785  40 
785  40 
637  60 
428  50 
261  80 

83  30 
59  50 
57  12 
38  08 


For  rent  for  married,   12  per 

cent,  of  income. 
For  unmarried,  7  per  cent,  of 

income. 


For   rent,   7   per  cent,  of   in- 
come. 


Free  rent,  fuel,  and  light. 


Free  rent. 
Do. 


Free  board  and  lodging. 
Do. 


Free  rent,  fuel,  and  light. 


Free  board  and  lodging. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


XV.  Printers  and  printing-offices. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  printers  in  Barmen. 


Occupations. 

Hours. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Editor      

48 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

$17  85 
8  56 
4  28 
4  28 

8  56 

9  00 
1  20 

$40  00 
14  28 
5  20 
5  71 
17  85 
12  00 
2  38 

$28  93 

11  42 

4  74 

5  OO 

13  21 

Clerk        

10  50 

1  79 

296  labor -in  europe — germany. 

Cost  of  living. 

A. — Retailprices  for  the  necessaries  of  life  ruling  in  Barmen  and  vicinity  in  1884. 


Artiolea. 


First     Second    Third  |  Fonrtk 
Iqoality.  quality,  quality,  quality. 


Kye per  100  pounds. 

Wheat do . . . 

Brandy per  liter. 

Salt per  pound . 

Flour : 

Kve do... 

Wheat do... 

Buckwheat do . . . 

Bread : 

Brown do . . . 

Mixed do... 

White do... 

Barley do  .. 

Groats do . . . 

Milk per  liter. 

Egfcs per  dozen. 

Butter per  pound . 

Peas do... 

Leu  t  lis do . . . 

Beans do... 

Potatoes do... 

Cheese : 

Dutch    do... 

Liuiburg do... 

Switzerland do . . . 

Vinegar per  liter. 

Sourki out per  pound. 

Sausage : 

Meat do... 

Mixed  with  flour do... 

Coflee : 

Green do... 

lioasted do . . . 

Supar do... 

Meat : 

Beef do... 

Veal do... 

Mutton do . . . 

Pork do... 

Bacon do... 

Gleoniargarino <lo . . . 

Lard  do . . . 

Soap do... 

Bape-secd  oil per  liter. 

SaUvd  oil do . . . 


$1  SO 
2  40 
0  26 
0  04 

0  03 
0  04 
0  04 

0  02J 

0  m 

0  02i 

0  or.j 

0  OOi 
0  0-lJ 
0  014 
0  o3 
0  o:!A 

0  oci 

0  04 
0  00| 

0  17 
0  11 
0  26 
0  042 
0  02 

0  23 
0  OOi 

0  38 
0  42 
0  10 

0  24 
0  15 
0  17 
0  IfiJ 
0  17 
0  17 
0  14 
0  05 
0  15 
0  24 


$1  52 
2  00 
0  18 
0  02i 


0  04i 
0  05 
0  03^ 
0  14 
0  28 


0  06 
0  033 
0  01 


0  02i 

0  19 

0  04g 

0  33 
0  36 
0  09 

0  15 
0  14 
0  10 


0  04 
0  14 
0  22 


$0  22 


0  23 
0  30 
0  08 

0  12 


$0  1» 
0  23 


B. — Average  prices  paid  h\j  laborers  for  rent,  fuel,  avd  light  in  the  principal  cities  of  Bar- 
men consular  district. 


Lodging: 

T<"or  oue-lialf  bod per  month. 

F(ir  one  bed do  .  . 

Dwellin^is: 

One  room do. .. 

Two  rooms do  .. 

Two  ronnis  and  a  part  of  the  cellar, 

j)ei'  month 

Fuel  and  lij;ht: 

Coal  per  100  kilograms . 

Petroleum j)er  liter. 

Giis per  centimeter. 

Inhabitants 


Barmen, 


Average. 


0  33 

0  05 

0  04i 

100,  000 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  297 

C. — Retail  prices  for  food  and  light  ruling  in  Prussia  and  the  German  Empire  in  1882. 


Articles. 


Prussia. 


German 
Empire. 


Kye  floor per  pound . 

W heat do... 

Bntt«r do... 

Milk per  liter. 

Eggs per  dozen . 

Potatoes per  100  pounds. 

Beef per  pound. 

Cow  meat do... 

Pork ....do... 

Mutton do . . . 

Veal do... 

Bacon do . . . 

Wheat  per  100  pounds. 

Rve do... 

Peas do . . . 

Petroleum per  liter. 

Gas per  cubic  meter. 


$0  03i 
0  04 
0  24i 
0  04 
0  14i 
0  84 
0  15J 
0  13} 
0  15i 
0  13i 
0  13 

0  22 
2  30 

1  80 

2  88 
0  05i 
0  05 


FeMAXE  employment   in   BARMEN   AND   ELBERFELD- 

Numher  of  male  and  female  operatives  employed  in  the  different  industrial  branches  in  Bar- 
men and  Elherfeld, 


Occnpations. 


Pemale. 


Bricklayers  and  masons 

Tenders  and  bod-carriers 

Plastot  ei s    

Roofers  and  slaters 

Plunibii's 

Cai  peutors 

Cabinet-makers   

Gas  and  water  fitters 

Bakers  

BlacUsrailhs 

iSliikers 

Bookbinders    .*■» 

Bricli -makers 

Brewers 

Butchers  

Brass-founders 

Confectionors 

Quill  Rirls 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Drivers,  draymen,  teamsters,  &c 

Engra  vers , 

Fnirier.s 

Gardeners 

Hatters    .  - 

Horse.ihoers 

Locni-nuikeis , 

La  borers.  i)orters,  <fec 

Lithographers , 

Millwrights 

Nailraakers , , 

Locksmiths , 

Machinists 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanners 

Tailors         

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Barbers  and  bair-dressers 

Painters 

Bleachers 

Weavers  of  braids,  laces,  fancy  articles  . 

Printers 

Compositors 

Button-makers 

Weavers  of  Italian  cloths 

Weavers  of  last  ings 

Laundresses  and  ironing-women 


68 

no 

215 
800 

34 

20 
119 

32 
186 
3l'0 
000 

14 

38 
117 
240 
310 

64 
214 
300 
128 
280 
275 
120 
530 
740 

82 
290 
300 
100 
640 


2,300 


340 

4,200 


35 

2,600 


298 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Xumber  of  male  and  female  operatives  employed  in  the  different  industrial  branches  in  Bar- 
vien  and  Elherfeld — Coutiuued. 


OccapatioDS. 


Saleamen  . . . 
Saleswomen 
Jewelers 


Luster-yarn  makers 

Colored'  paper  branch 

Paper  cornet  branch 

Seamstresses 

Dyers  of  Turkey  red  and  piece  yarn. 

Dyers  of  black  colors '. 

Waiters . 


Male. 


317 


Female. 


840 

1,900 

200 


Corset-makers 
Wheelwrights  . 
Eyelet-makers  , 
Modelers 


I7nibre]la-makers 

Assorting  rags 

Keelers 


Frinoje-makers. 

Distillers 

Clerks 

Turners 


Cravat-makers 

Embroiderers 

String-makers 

Laborers  in  chemical  factories  . 

"Watch-maker.s 

Envelope  factories 

Teachers  (public  schools) 


45 
972 
126 
40- 
72 


84 

30 

1,294 

300 


92 

800 

14 


130 


Total I      53,469 


790 


400 

347 

1,250 


95 
320 


360 


99 

300 

2,  830 

213 


45 


268 
130 
100 


312 
72 


18,394 


BREMEN. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILSON. 


In  answer  to  your  circular  letter  under  date  of  February  15, 1884,  re- 
garding the  rate  of  wages  paid  to  and  the  cost  of  living^o  the  laboring 
classes  in  this  consular  district,  which  embraces  the  whole  of  the  State 
of  Bremen,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  province  of  Ostfries- 
land,  and  a  part  of  the  i)rovince  of  Hanover,  in  all  containing  a  popu- 
lation of  over  1,000,000  inhabitants,  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  fol- 
lowing report,  prepared  from  information  and  statistics  which  have  been 
obtained  by  my  consular  agents,  Mr.  John  G.  Gross,  of  Brake,  Olden- 
burg, Mr.  Gerhard  Iblder,  of  Bremerhaven-Geestemunde,  and  myself. 
The  report,  though  not  so  full  and  complete  in  all  respects  as  I  should 
wish,  will  liowever  serve  to  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  cost  and  manner  of 
living,  the  general  character  and  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  of  all 
grades  in  this  district,  and  their  ability  to  save  something  for  old  age  or 
sickness. 

MALE  LABOB. 


RATES    OF  WAGES. 

The  rates  of  wages  paid  to  laborers,  mechanics,  andartisaus  of  every 
class  is  given  in  a  series  of  tables  herewitli  transmitted. 

In  general  the  rates  of  wages  ])aid  in  the  cities  and  towns  in  this  dis- 
trict are  gieater  than  that  i)aid  in  the  country.  The  latter  class,  how- 
ever, have  many  advantages  which  the  laborer  in  the  city  does  not,  as, 
for  instance,  the  country  laborer  has  his  cottage  free  of  rent  and  a  small 
garden,  and  often  pasturage  for  one  cow  or  two  or  three  sheep,  and  when 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


299 


workiug  for  bis  landlord  be  also  receives,  in  addition  to  bis  wages,  bis 
breakfast,  dinner,  and  beer.  Altbougb  tbe  actual  wages  paid  bim  is 
mucb  smaller  tban  tbat  paid  in  towns,  bis  condition  is  tbe  better  of  the 
two. 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

Tbe  cost  of  living  varies  according  to  tbe  condition  of  tbe  laborers 
and  wages  obtained.  Tbe  average  price  for  tbose  articles  wbicb  may  be 
classed  as  necessaries  during  tbe  first  quarter  of  tbis  year  in  city  and 
countrv  are  as  follows : 


Articles. 


Wheat per  100  pounds. . 

Rye do  — 

Bailey do 

Oats do..  - . 

Peas  and  beans do 

Potatoes do 

Beef per  pound . . 

Pork do 

Lamb do 

Veal do... 

Fresh'  bacon   do 

Smoked  bacon do 

Butter,  salted do 

Eggs .. .'. per  dozen . . 

Eye  bread per  pound. . 

Wheat  fiour do 

Rye  flour do 


In  town. 


$2. 439 
1.844 
2.38 
1.963 
2.  3.56 
.595 
.165 
.165 
.15 
.178 
.142 
.178 
.357 
.285 
.018 
.038 
.03 


In  country. 


$2.38 
1.725 
3.32 
1,094 
2.618 
.357 
.13.1 
.435 
.119 
.119 
.119 
.142 
.215 
.119 
.016 
.038 
.025 


Atticlea. 


In  town. 


Pearl  barley  ..per  pound. 

Barley  groats do . . . 

Buckwheat  groats . .  do . . . 

Milk per  quart . 

Rice,  E.  India,  per  pound. 

Coffee,  .lava do  . . 

Salt do  .- 

Lard do . . . 

Soap do... 

Starch do . . . 

Soda do... 

Candles do... 

Vinegar per  quart. 

Ciieese per  pound. 

Uoal  do. . . 

Herring per  piece. 


.061 

.047 

.047 

.043 

.059 

.274 

.024 

,119 

,095 

,071 

,024 

,12 

,036 

,142 

,01 

,024 


In  country. 


$0.  055 
.042 
.042 
.036 
.05» 
.23» 
.024 
.107 
.093 
.07 
.024 
.12 
.03 
.14 
.01 
.02 


Articles  of  clothing. 


Articles. 


Pilot  jacket. , 

Overcoats 

Felt  hats 

Cotton  made  suits 

Tweed  suits 

Calicoes,  per  yard 

Cotton  sheetings,  per  yard. 
Woolen  sheetings,  per  yard 


Value. 

$4  76  to  $9  52 

11  90  to  21  42 

49  to 

2  86 

1  43  to 

4  06 

2  14  to 

5  71 

5  to 

14 

7  to 

16  1 

16  to 

30 

Articles. 


Flannel,  per  yard 

Blankets,  per  pair 

Wool  shawls,  each 

Woolen  knitting,  per  pound 

Cashmeres,  per  yard 

Stockings  (yarn),  per  pair. . . 
Boots  for  nien 


Value . 


29  to 

50 

95  to 

6  ]& 

12  to 

eO' 

2  to 

5 

14  to 

84 

24  to 

59' 

1  43  to 

2  87 

In  accordance  witb  these  prices,  and  added  thereto  the  cost  of  rent, 
taxes,  schooling,  and  sandry  small  expenses,  the  cost  of  a  household 
consisting  of  a  married  couple,  with  three  to  four  children  and  servant^ 
if  it  can  be  afforded,  may  be  accounted  at —  , 


Average  expenses. 

In  towns. 

In  country. 

$142  80 

285  60 

595  00 

1,  428  00 

$119  OO 
204  80 
357  OO 
714  OO 

Yearly  earning  from  $119  to  $238 

Yearly  eainins  from  $240  to  .$500 

Yearly  paining  from  .'foOO  to  $1,000.. 
Yearly  earning  from  .$1,000  to  $2,000 


A  laborer  whose  weekly  earnings  amount  $5.20  a  week  will  pay  about 
$45  a  year  for  bouse  rent.  Outside  of  town  in  the  surrounding  villages, 
a  mile  or  two  away  from  his  work,  tbe  rent  will  be  $35  a  year.     This 


300  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

sum  provides  him  with  a  house  of  three  or  four  rooms,  a  store-room,  a 
small  garden. 

His  furniture  is  of  the  cheapest  kind,  tables  and  chairs  often  of  his 
own  make.  He  seldom  eats  a  meal  at  home,  except  supper,  as  he 
goes  to  work  at  6  o'clock  a.  m.,  has  half  an  hour  for  breakfast  at  8  a.  m., 
and  an  hour  for  dinner  at  1  o'clock.  His  wife  or  chil<l  brings  him  din- 
ner, which  consists  of  soup,  with  potatoes  or  vegetables,  and  a  slice  of 
meat  or  bacon.  He  stops  work  at  6  o'clock  and  has  his  supper  at  home, 
consisting  of  rye  bread,  butter  of  the  cbea])est  kind,  cheese,  and  tea. 
On  Sundays,  when  he  can  have  his  dinner  at  home,  there  is  fresh  meat 
for  all.  He  has  his  Sunday  suit,  which  costs  him  $10,  and  which  musi 
last  him  ibur  or  live  years. 

The  laborer  generally  belongs  to  a  mutual  benefit  society,  into  which 
he  pays  about  25  cents  a  month,  and  out  of  which  he  draws  when  ill 
$2.15  i)er  week  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  months.  His  heirs  are 
entitled  to  $35.70  in  case  of  death.  The  residence  tax  is  8  per  cent,  on 
the  house,  and  the  tax  on  earnings  8  per  cent  of  the  income,  which 
entitle  the  payer  to  a  full  political  right. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT   WAGES. 

3-  The  present  rate  of  wages  and  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  is 
similar  to  that  prevailing  in  1878.  Living  is  perhaps  a  little  cheaper 
now,  as  house  rent  is  not  so  high.  Changes  in  condition  or  in  established 
customs  and  rates  are  but  seldom. 

HABITS  OF   THE   WORKINGMEN. 

The  habits  of  the  working  class  in  general  may  be  said  to  be  good.  As 
a  rule  they  are  steady,  sober,  trustworthy,  and  saving,  always  eager  to  lay 
something  bj'  for  age,  or  sickness.  In  this  the  father  is  admirably  as- 
sisted by  the  mother,  who  presides  at  home,  or  works  in  the 'field  with 
her  husband.  Usually  she  has  the  charge  of  the  cash  box,  and  endeavors 
to  make  her  home  as  ])leasant  as  possible  for  the  husband  and  family. 
A  large  i)roportion  of  the  people  of  this  class  belong  to  mutual  aid 
societies,  which  are  managed  by  persons  of  their  own  class,  and  upon 
the  i)ayment  of  a  small  aujount  weekly  or  monthly  they  are  entitled  in 
case  of  sickness  to  receive  aid.  The  general  plan  of  working  of  these 
societies  will  be  given  later. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER   AND  EMPLOYl^lS. 

The  feeling  prevailing  between  the  employ^  and  employer  in  genera 
is  of  the  best  and  most  friendly  character ;  tlie  employ^  giving  liisluU 
confidence  to  his  employer,  and  the  latter  generally  manifesting  a  kindly 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  those  who  are  under  his  employ. 

ORGANIC   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

No  organized  condition  of  labor  exists.  Trade  unions,  protective 
societies,  and  organization  of  the  laboring  classes  against  capital,  similar 
to  those  existing  in  the  United  States,  are  here  unknown  ;  neither  does 
there  exist  organization  of  capital  for  protection  against  the  laboring 
classes. 


LABOR    IN    ETTROPE GERMANY.  301 


STRIKES. 


Strikes  are  events  occurring^  but  seldom,  if  at  all ;  tlie  laboring 
classes  tbiuUing  that  snob  events  damage  not  only  tbeir  own  trades 
and  interests,  but  also  tbat  of  tbeir  employers. 


PAYMENTS  AND  PURCHASES. 

The  working  people  are  usually  paid  by  the  week,  in  the  currency  of 
the  country,  and  are  free  to  purchase  their  necessaries  wherever  they 
desire.  The  system  \\  hich  requires  laborers  to  purchase  their  goods 
from  tbeir  employers,  or  to  take  a  half  or  any  part  of  their  wages  in 
goods  from  him,  is  prohibited  by  law. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

In  some  of  the  lar^i^e  establishments  the  employes  are  commencing  to 
form  unions  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  their  supplies  at  wholesale, 
which  are  then  sold  without  protit  to  the  various  members  of  the  union  j 
the  manngement  of  the  union  being  intrusted  to  the  members  alter- 
nately, who  serve  without  compensation.  Cooperative  societies  or 
unions  are  established  for  the  benefit  of  the  working  classes  and  laborers 
for  receiving  deposits  on  a  small  scale,  at  no  time  to  be  over  $71.40,  i)ay- 
lug  an  interest  of  3^  per  cent.,  and  to  give  advances  to  small  traders 
anil  workingmen  uj)  lo  $100  on  their  own  personal  credit,  if  they  are 
members;  otherwise  they  must  find  good  sureties.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  the  profits  are  divided  among  the  members  or  shareholders,  each 
share  amounting  to  $21.42,  and  of  which  no  member  can  possess  more 
than  one. 

The  profits  of  such  unions  amount  per  year,  after  deduction  of  25  per 
cent,  of  the  same  as  salary  for  the  cashier  and  director,  to  about  15  to 
20percent.  on  the  capital  invested;  wherefore  these  unions  may  be  stated 
to  be  highly  prosperous, enabling  their  members  to  buy  for  cash,  which 
otherwise  they  would  not  be  enabled  to  do,  as  the  credit  system,  post- 
poning payments  for  work  or  goods  delivered,  some  six  to  twelve  months, 
prevents  this  cash  system  to  minor  traders.  Besides  these  unions  and 
the  cummou  savings  banks,  which  are  managed  in  the  same  manner  as 
with  us,  there  are  unions  for  buying  the  necessaries  of  life  at  wholesale 
cash  prices  and  the  delivery  of  these  goods  to  members  at  a  very  limited 
profit — only  large  enough  to  pay  for  the  management.  The  profits  are 
distributed  among  the  members  on  a  scale  which  is  regulated  by  the 
sum  or  amount  for  which  a  member  has  bought  goods  from  the  union. 
In  general  the  unions  are  very  prosperous ;  if  they  fail  to  be  so  the  fault 
lies  with  the  managers.  As  to  the  elfect  these  unions  have  on  the  gen- 
eral trade,  it  may  be  stated  to  be  appreciable,  as  the  customers  are  by 
degrees  learning  that  it  is  better  to  buy  for  cash  and  not  run  up  large 
accounts,  which  afterwards  they  find  very  hard  to  pay,  and  thereby  in 
most  instances  create  heavy  losses  to  general  traders. 

CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

The  condition  of  the  working  people  in  general  is  good,  but  not  to  the 
same  degree  that  it  is  with  us.  Consular  Agent  Gross  gives  me  the 
following  report  upon  this  branch  of  the  subject  as  existing  in  Olden- 
burg: 

Work  for  men  aucl  women  who  are  willing  to  work  is  at  most  all  times  to  bo  had 
in  towns  as  well  as  in  country.  Their  manner  of  living,  especially  in  the  country,  is 
of  the  best,  their  breakfast  consisting  of  coti'ee  and  bread  and  butter  or  milk  soup; 


302  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

their  dinner,  whicli  they  take  from  12  to  1  o'clock,  consists  of  soup  with  barley,  peas, 
or  beans  therein,  and  either  fresh  meat  or  bacon,  according  to  the  season  ;  at  4  p.  m. 
they  again  take  eofiee,  with  bread  and  butter,  and  at  7  o'clock  p.  m.  their  tea,  with 
a  slice  of  roasted  bacon  or  fried  potatoes,  and  bread  and  butter  or  lard.  Instead  of 
barley,  rice  has  lately  come  much  in  use  with  the  working  class. 

workingmen's  homes. 

The  homes  of  the  common  laborer  consists  of  two  to  three  rooms,  a  small  bit  of  gar- 
den ground  to  raise  the  necessary  vegetables.  In  general,  their  dwellings  are  healthy, 
well  aired,  and  clean,  for  which  cleanliness  the  people  of  this  district  are  renowned ; 
exceptions,  of  course,  occuring,  but  they  being  exceptional,  I  omit  to  state  such  cases 
here.  In  larger  towns,  however,  the  working  class  are  not  so  well  situated,  as,  by 
reason  of  the  high  rents,  whole  families,  consisting  of  5  to  7  persons,  sometimes  are 
lodged  in  a  single  room. 

CLOTHli^G. 

The  clothing  worn  by  the  working  class  in  most  part  consist  of  cotton  goods  and 
moleskin  during  the  week,  but  of  cloth  on  Sundays.  Leather  shoes  in  general  are  in 
use,  and  very  seldom  wooden  shoes  are  met  with.  As  to  the  ability  for  bettering  their 
condition  one  may  say  every  man  sleeps  as  he  makes  his  own  bed.  In  general,  a 
saving  man  and  wife  earn  enough  to  lay  up  something  for  old  age,  and  to  give  their 
children  a  good  education,  so  that  the  whole  world  is  open  to  them.  Of  the  moral 
and  ])hysical  condition^of  the  working  classes  in  this  district  and  the  influence  of  good 
or  evil  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  I  have  to  state  that,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
the  conditions  are  sound  and  good  if  not  praiseworthy  ;  and  not  being  surrounded 
nor  exposed  to  any  evil  influence,  one  may  state  with  confidence  that  in  the  whole  of 
the  Empire  of  Germany  there  does  not  exist  a  district  with  healthier  and  better  con- 
ditions among  the  workingmen  than  in  this  district. 

HOW  MECHANICS  LIVE   IN  BREMEN. 

A  cooper  foreman,  a  very  reliable  and  trustworthy  man,  has  given  me 
the  following  information  regarding  himself  and  familj^ : 

I  am  forty-five  years  of  age ;  a  cooper  foreman  ;  have  a  wife  and  two  children,  one  of 
nine  and  one  of  three  years  of  age.  I  have  steady  work  all  the  year  round,  and  earn 
$6.41  a  week.  The  average  wages  paid  to  coopers  are  83  cents  i)er  day.  During  the 
winter  we  begin  to  work  at  7  o'clock  a.  m.,  and  quit  at  5  p.  m. ;  in  summer  we  \york 
from  6  to  6.  We  are  allowed  half  an  hour  for  breakfast  at  8  a.  m.,  and  aae  hour  for 
dinner  at  noon.  We  never  work  by  gas  or  candle  light.  My  earnings  amount  to 
about  $334.15  per  year,  which  is  sufficient  to  support  iliy  family  and  aged  father.  I 
pay  per  annum : 

For  rent,  four  rooms  in  the  third  story $53  55 

Clothing,  self  and  family 35  70 

Food  and  fuel,  per  day,  47  cents 173  74 

Residence  tax —  4  28 

School  tax  (one  child) 4  76 

Mutual  aid  societies 8  57 

Tax  on  earnings 3  33 

iDcideutals,  doctor,  medicine,  &o 28  56 

312  59 
Surplus 21  66 


334  15 


Our  breakfast  consists  of  rye  bread,  white  bread,  butter,  and  coffee.  Dinner,  which 
I  always  take  at  home,  of  meat,  vegetables,  and  potatoes,  and  supper  of  two  kinds  of 
bread,  butter,  tea,  cheese,  and  sometimes  fried  potatoes,  or  a  kind  of  hash.  As  above 
shown,  1  am  able  to  save  a  little  for  cases  of  sickness  and  old  age.  I  belong  to  three 
mutual  aid  societies,  created  and  administered  by  the  laboring  classes  on  the  follow- 
ing principles :  They  keep  no  funds  over  $47.60  lor  ruimiug  expenses,  but  whenever 
help  is  required  they  collect  what  is  wanted.  Taking  an  average,  I  have  been  paying 
$8.57  a  year,  or  to  each  society  $2.86.  In  case  of  sickness  I  draw  from  each  society 
$2.14  a  week  for  a  period  of  not  over  six  months,  and  in  case  of  death  my  wife  is  enti 
tied  to  $35.70  from  each  society. 


LABOR    IN    EUPOPE GERMANY.  303 

PROTECTION   OF  EMPLOYES. 

11.  In  most  all  factories,  mills,  and  railroads,  it  is  the  custom  of  the  em- 
ployers to  insure  their  workmen  against  accidents  which  may  occur  to 
them  by  reason  of  their  employment ;  in  case  of  accident  the  employer  pays 
to  them  during  sickness  their  full  daily  salary,  or,  in  case  of  death,  to  their 
widow,  a  sum  generally  equal  to  from  $500  to  $700.  In  general,  great 
care  is  exercised  as  to  the  moral  and  physical  welfare  of  the  employ^. 

POLITICAL  RIGHTS. 

12.  The  political  rights  enjoyed  by  the  workingmen,  and  their  rights, 
or,  rather,  influence  on  legislation :  also  to  the  question,  What  is  the  share, 
comparatively,  borne  by  working  people  in  local  and  general  taxation 
with  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  regard  to  labor  and  the  working 
people?  They  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  exert  the  same  influence  on  legis- 
lation, as  well  as  local  taxation,  as  every  other  German  subject,  they 
enjoying  free  voting,  together  with  right  of  election  to  every  station  ob- 
tained by  the  majority  of  voters. 

The  tendency  of  the  general  legislation  tends  more  in  favor  of  the 
workingmen  than  to  capitalists,  although  laud-owners  enjoy  the  great- 
est benefit  and  protection  from  the  Government  and  its  members. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

Among  the  principal  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the  work- 
ing people  are  lack  of  work  in  the  middle,  north,  south  and  east  parts 
of  Germany,  and  the  wish  of  farmers  to  find  a  freehold  ground  for  little 
money  for  their  children,  which  is  beyond  their  reach  here;  the  wish  to 
free  their  sons  trom  military  service,  and  last,  not  least,  the  heavy  taxes 
charged  to  the  land-owners  here ;  and,  perhaps,  more  than  all,  the  wish 
to  advance  themselves  and  children  in  the  social  scale  of  life,  which 
here  they  find  impossible.  Most  of  the  emigrants  going  from  here  are 
farmers  or  agricultural  laborers,  who,  in  general,  are  comparatively 
well  off,  and  do  not  settle  in  the  seaports,  but  go  on  their  arrival  without 
stopping  to  their  friends  in  the  West,  they  having  selected  favorable 
pieces  of  land  for  them,  of  which  they  take  possession  at  once,  and  with 
all  the  family  commencing  work  as  so<5n  as  possible,  leading  the  same 
careful,  money-saving  life  which  they  led  in  the  mother  country.  Emi- 
grants coming  from  middle,  south,  or  northeastern  Germany  are  gen- 
erally not  so  well  off  as  those  from  this  district,  as  they  consist  of  farm 
laborers,  journeymen  carjienters,  joiners,  tailors,  &c.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  of  the  large  number  of  emigrants  who  have  from  time  to  time 
emigrated  from  this  district,  that  most  of  them  do  well,  and  a  great 
many  of  them  have  returned  to  their  old  homes  with  quite  large  for- 
tunes, the  greater  part,  however,  remaining  in  the  land  of  their  adoption. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

1.  The  number  of  women  and  children  employed  in  this  district,  ex- 
clusive of  household  and  domestic  servants,  cannot  be  definitively  given. 
From  the  best  information  I  have  been  enabled  to  obtain  the  total 
numberso  employed  may  be  stated  to  be  about  16,000  in  addition  to  those 
engaged  in  agricultural  labor,  and  may  ba  classified  as  follows: 

(a)  Manufacturing. — Employed  in  mills,  factories,  and  as  dress  and 
cloak  makers,  milliners,  and  sewers  jof  men's  clothing,  9,000. 


304  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

(&)  Professional  and  personal,  such  as  teachers,  clerks,  hotel  and  board- 
ing house  keepers,  and  laundresses,  4.500. 

(c)  Agricultural. — In  this  district  tlie  number  of  persons  employed  in 
agriciiliural  hibor  may  be  estimated  at  about  450,000,  and  it  can  safely 
be  said  that  fully  one-balf  if  not  two-thirds  ot  this  number  is  composed 
of  women.  The  able  bodied  men,  when  not  in  the  army,  generally  seek 
the  more  remunerative  labor  obtained  in  the  towns  and  cities. 

{d)  In  other  pursuits,  as  common  laborers,  wash  and  scrub  women, 
say  2,500. 

2.  Common  and  farm  female  laborers  receive  from  20  to  35  cents  per 
day  ;  laborers  in  mills,  factories,  and  manufactories,  from  47  to  85  cents 
per  day,  actcording  to  the  skill  of  the  person  ;  teachers  in  school  from 
$100  to  $050  i)er  year;  sewing  women  and  dressmakers  receive  from  23 
to  75  cents  per  day.  The  average  price,  however,  is  not  more  than  35  cents. 
When  working  in  private  families  they  receive  their  board  in  addition. 

3.  The  hours  of  labor  in  general,  teachers  excepted,  are  tVom  0  a.  m.  to 
8  p.  m.,  two  hours  being  allowed  for  meals.  On  the  farm  the  hours  are 
from  G  a.  m.  to  0  \).  m.,  with  an  hoar  for  dinner  allowed. 

MORAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CONDITION  OF  FEMALE  LABORERS. 

The  physical  condition  in  general  is  good.  The  moral,  however,  is  not 
up  to  the  standard  we  are  accustomed  to  find  among  the  laboring  classes 
of  our  own  country.  Female  virtue,  especiall^^  among  the  lower  classes, 
is  of  the  free  and  easy  sort  before  marriage.  After  marriage,  however, 
thej'  are  generally  true  and  faithful  to  their  husbands. 

5.  No  general  means  for  the  improvement  of  the  employes  are  pro- 
vided other  than  the  schools,  churches,  and  home  influence  and  training. 

0.  Those  who  work  in  factories,  mills,  and  manufactories  have  the 
same  provisions  made  for  their  safety  as  the  male  employ^. 

7.  In  general  females  employed  in  manufiicturing  establishments  are 
insured  ai:ainst  accidents  similar  to  the  male  laborer.  A  small  amount 
is  deducted  weekly  from  the  wages  of  the  employd,  which  constitutes  a 
sick -fund,  which  is  under  the  control  of  a  committee  appointed  by  the 
laborers.  From  this  fund  when  sick  they  can  receive  their  full  pay  for 
three  days;  over  three  days  and  up  to  three  weeks,  half  pay,  and  after 
this  the  relief  is  not  afforded. 

8.  During  the  past  five  years  tiiere  has  not  been  any  change  of  amount 
either  in  the  wages  paid  or  the  cost  of  living.  The  emploj^ment  of 
women  has  a  tendency  to  cheapen  the  price  of  labor  in  all  branches,  and 
furnishes  a  supply  of  laborers  most  always  in  excess  of  the  demand. 

FEMALE   EDUCATION. 

9.  The  state  of  education  among  the  women  and  children  of  the  labor- 
ing classes  in  towns  and  cities  is  usually  such  as  to  enable  them  to 
read  and  write,  and  a  knowledge  of  figures  sufficient  for  ordinary  jmr- 
suits.  The  education  so  obtained  in  general  must  be  acquired  before 
the  age  of  fourteen  years,  as  from  that  time  on  the  child  is  expected  and 
required  to  help  support  herself  by  her  own  labor.  In  the  country  the 
standard  of  education  is  of  a  low  order  and  much  illiteracy  prevails, 

-whole  communities  being  unable  to  si)eak  any  other  language  than  a 
low  patois,  or  the  lowest  of  low  German.  The  effect  of  the  employment 
of  wtmien  in  factories,  mills,  Stores,  &c.,  upon  the  family  and  home  cir- 
cle is  such  that  home  life  and  home  influence  such  as  exists  among  the 
laboring  classes  of  our  country  is  almost  unknown ;  home  with  this  class 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


305 


is  merely  a  place  where  tliey  sleep.  The  physical  condition  of  the  wo- 
men of  all  classes  of  society  in  North  Germany  is  in  general  good,  they 
being  mostly  a  strong,  healthy,  and  hardy  people.  The  lack  of  home 
training  and  home  influences  is  plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  light  manner 
in  which  female  virtue  is  held,  and  the  ease  and  complacency  with  which 
she  in  general  surrenders  her  charms  to  her  friend  or  lover,  and  from 
whom  she  in  return  is  assisted  in  her  struggle  for  bread.  Caste  or  social 
position  in  general  is  not  lost  by  such  unions,  which  in  many  cases  re- 
sult in  marriage  between  the  parties. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

The  general  character  and  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  of  this  dis-' 
trict  is  far  above  the  average  of  that  prevaihng  in  other  parts  of  Ger- 
many, hence  emigration  from  the  district  is  light,  as  compared  with 
other  sections  of  the  country.  Even  here,  with  the  numerous  advan- 
tages possessed,  the  most  rigid  economy  on  the  part  of  every  member  of 
the  family  as  to  food  and  clothing  is  required  to  enable  them  to  live 
upon  their  earnings.  This  class  of  people  in  general  have  nothing  to 
look  forward  to  excepting  a  life  of  labor  and  toil  from  year  to  year  for 
the  bare  necessaries  of  life,  and  those  of  the  cheapest  kind;  no"  chance 
of  advancement  for  themselves  or  children,  being  bound  by  tradition, 
custom,  and  law  to  remain  in  the  condition  of  life  in  which  they  were 
born.  A  people  with  a  higher  degree  of  intelligence  than  that  common 
among  the  lower  orders  of  the  laboring  classes  would  either  feel  like 
rebelling  against  such  a  lot  or  giving  up  the  struggle  for  a  bare  exist- 
ence. 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Oldenburg  being  a  separate  principahty,  difler- 
iug  in  many  respects  from  the  free  State  of  Bremen,  and  other  parts  of 
this  consular  district,  I  have  thought  it  best  to  transmit  herewith  un- 
changed the  tabular  forms  1  to  15  as  prepared  by  Consular  Agent  Gross, 
giving  prices  paid  for  the  various  kinds  of  labor  In  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Oldenburg. 

JOHN^  M.  WILSOI^, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Bremen,  June  11,  1884. 


I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hows  in  Bremen. 


Occapations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


nriLDING  TRADES, 

Bricklayers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Slaters  

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters ; 

Gas-fitters. 

92  A- LAB 20 


$4  28 
5  00  I 
3  57 

2  38 

3  57 

4  28 
4  28 

3  33 

4  28 
3  20 

5  00 
3  57 


$5  24 
5  30 
3  81 

7  14 

3  81 
5  71 
5  71 

4  28  I 

5  24  I 

4  00  I 

5  71  I 

6  43  I 


$4  50 
5  00 

3  65 

4  50 

3  61 

4  35 
4  35 
o  39 

4  57 

3  20 

5  00 

4  U 


306  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  x>^  iceek  of  sixty  hoins  in  Bremen — Coutiuued. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers 

Blacksmit  Ls 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brick-iiKikers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

I'rass  lounders 

Cabiuot-iiiakers 

Cont'ectionors 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers : 

Drnymcn  arid  teamsters 

Cat)  and  carriage 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Eugravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters , 

Horse-sboers 

Jewelers ^ 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Litliogiiipbers 

MilhvvitiLts    

!N'aili:iaker8  (hand) 

Potters 

Printers : 

Teachers,  public  schools,  per  year 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Sailmakors 

Stevedores  

Tanners 

Tailors 

1"el'  giaph  operators 

Tinsmiths 


2 
2 
3 
4 
3 
2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
238 
3 
2 
5 
3 
2 
4 
4 


Highest. 


Average. 


55 

28 

57 

95  I 

50  I 

28  ! 

50 

28 

33 

20 

86 

28 

57 

86 

40 
20 
85 
33 
76 
00 
86 
57 
00 
57 
57 
76 
57 
67 
28 
76 
00 
57 
85 
00 
57 
80 
74 
25 


$4  85 
4  50 

4  28 

6  82 

7  UO 

5  71 
4  85 

4  75 

5  24 

4  25 

8  33 

5  24 
5  24 

3  10 

4  75 

3  00 

4  28 

5  00 
7  14 
4  28 

10  71 
7  14 
3  76 

7  14 

3  95 

11  90 

4  28 
4  00 

4  60 

8  33 
642  60 

5  71 
5  70 
0  14 
4  28 
4  70 
7  14 
4  75 


$3  55 

4  28 

3  57 

5  15 

4  75 
4  61 

3  61 

4  28 
3  33 

3  43 

4  19 
4  28 
3  91 

2  86 

3  17 

2  46 

3  10 

3  83 

4  92 
3  15 

3  10 

4  35 

3  00 

4  67 

3  63 

4  90 
3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

5  00 
357  CO 

3  75 

2  85 
5  70 
8  57 

3  95 
5  75 

4  25 


II.  Factories,  mills,  &c. 

Wa(j€8  puUl  pel'  xveek  of  sixty  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Bremen,  Germany. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

KICE  MILLS. 

$10  23 
6  43 
4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
4  28 

3  42 
911 

4  28 
4  28 

$13  09 
7  14 
4  76 
4  76 
4  76 

4  76 

5  25 
2  50 
4  76 
4  28 

$12  25 
6  43 

4  28 

Blacksmiths 

4  28 

Carpenters 

4  28 

Joiners 

4  28 

Porter 

3  60 

Bovs  and  girls 

1  00 

Draymen 

4  i8 

4  28 

Wages  from  the  lat  of  April  to  the  first  day  of  Decemier,  in  irick  factories. 


Occupations. 

Amount. 

Occupations. 

Amount. 

Foreman 

$202  30 
119  00 
95  20 
78  54 
85  08 
89  25 
92  80 

Setter      

$89  25 
103  53 

Fireman 

First  molder 

57  12 

Second  molder 

108  52 

Out.si(le  men 

78  54 

Inbringers 

21 

Outhringora 

LABOR.  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  307 

III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  pet-  weelc  of  sixty  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  icorks  in  Breinen. 


Occupations. 


Technical  director 

Assistant 

Master  foretiian 

Engineers 

Holder 

Boiler-maker  (foreman) 

Strikers 

Blacksmiths 

Turners 

Apprentices 

Laborers 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$19  40 

$40  00 

6  C6 

16  18 

7  61 

12  37 

4  28 

5  71 

4  28 

6  43 

5  71 

7  14 

4  28 

4  76 

4  28 

4  76 

4  28 

4  76 

1  50 

2  00 

3  33 

4  28 

Average. 


$25  00 
10  00 
8  33 
4  28 
4  28 
6  66 
4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
1  75 
3  33 


IV.  Glass  works. 

Wages  paid  per   week  of  sixty-five  hours    to  glass-uorlcers  in  Obernlii-chen ,  and   Rinteln 

{near  Bremen). 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

...           .          $3  81 

$6  66 
6  66 
3  81 
1  90 

3  57 

4  28 

$5  41 
6  00 

5  95 

3  57 

3  57 

1  43 

1  43 

2  14 

2  14 

Basket-makers 

1  na 

2  14 

1 

VI.   EAILWAYS  and   railway  EMPLOYlfiS. 

Wages  paid  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  u-ell  as  those  engaged  on  the 
engines  and  ears,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c.)  in  the  consular  district  of  Bretnen. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average. 


Superintendents per  year. . 

Telegraph  operators do 

Station-mastors do 

Engineers do 

Conductors do 

Machinists do 

Track-masters do 

Trackmen do 

Laborers per  day . . 

Porters  * per  week . . 

Lampmen* do 

Guards* do 

Engine  cleaners  * do 


$1,  200  00 

285  00 

476  00 

357  00 

214  00 

238  00 

357  00 

142  00 

60 

3  80 

3  57 

5  00 

2  85 


$1,  500  00 
300  00 
952  00 
547  00 
285  00 
357  00 
428  00 
166  00 
70 

4  76 
3  80 

5  00 
3  50 


$290  00 
540  00 
400  00 
230  00 
280  00 
375  00 
150  00 
62 


Uniforms  included. 


308 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 

VII.  Ship-yards  and  ship-building. 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 

shijj-buildivg — in  Bremen. 


Occupationa. 


Lowest.    Highest. 


Average; 


inON-BHIF  BUILDING. 

Shipwrights 

Draftsmen: 

First  class 

Second  class 

Foremen 

Iron  finishers 

Turners 

Planers 

Riveters 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Brass  iiltcrs j 

Tinsmiths 

Joincis 

Calkers 

I'ainters 

WOODEN-SHIP  BUILDING. 

Shipwrights 

Foi  cmen 

Canw-ntcrs 

Painters • 

Joiners ■ 

Mast  and  spar  makers 

Flunibcrs - 

Blacksmiths 

l*igs;ers 

Sawyers 

Saw -mill-machine  men 

Lahoreis 

WAOES  PAID  BY  THE  NORTH  GERMAN  LLOTD    (REPAIRING  DOCK) 

Fitters 

First li veters 

Second  liveters 

Upholders 

Boys 

Shipsniiths 

Cai  penttTH  and  joiners 

Painters 

P'npineers 

Sawyers 

Sailmakers 

Kiggers 

Laborers 


$5  40 

14  87 

5  95 

6  90 

5  40 

6  66 

6  66 

6  66 

6  66 

4  28 

5  40 

4  28 

4  28 

2  85 

3  57 

5  40 

13  80 

3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

6  90 

3  57 

4  28 

5  40 

5  40 

5  40 

3  57 

4  56 

5  40 

4  56 

3  92 

2  04 

4  56 

5  40 

4  20 

4  74 

5  40 

4  98 

4  98 

4  20 

$6  00 

29  50 

15  23 

7  14 

6  90 

7  37 
7  37 
7  85 
6  66 

4  76 

5  71 
4  52 

4  50 
2  85 

5  50 


6  00 
14  28 

7  38 

3  57 

4  50 
6  90 

3  57 

4  28 
6-66 

5  47 
5  40 
3  57 


4  56 

5  40 
4  56 

3  92 
2  04 

4  56 

5  40 
4  20 

4  74 

5  40 
4  98 
4  98 
4  20 


$5  40 

18  00 

11  90 

0  90 

5  95 

6  66 
6  66 
6  86 
6  66 

4  28 

5  40 
4  28 
4  28 

2  85 

3  85 


5  40 
13  80 
4  28 

3  57 

4  28 
0  90 

3  57 

4  28 

5  40 
5  40 
5  40 
3  57 


4  56 

5  40 
4  56 

3  92 
2  04 

4  56 

5  40 
4  20 

4  74 

5  40 
4  98 
4  98 
4  20 


VIII.  Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  helween  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  belicccn  sail  and  steam — in  the  consular  district  of  Bremen. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest.  1               Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Ocean  (steam) : 

$35  70 
28  56 

16  60 
15  71 

17  85 
17  85 
10  71 
42  64 
20  18 
20  18 
14  28 

$47  60 
30  94 
21  42 
15  71 
20  23 

Ocean  (sail) : 

$23  80 
23  80 

10  IS 
19  04 
18  .56 
15  47 

8  33 
14  04 

11  90 

23  80 
21  42 

$35  70 

~     Fii  st  mate 

28  56 

16  66 

21  42 

Carpenter 

21  42 

20  23 
n  90 
60  70 
45  22 
33  32 
10  'to 

17  85 

11  90 

15  47 

11  00 

Third  engineer 

Coast  (steam) : 

35  70 

Firemen 

12  10           12  85 

i        Mate 

26  18 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men),  ^c. — Continued. 


309 


Qccapations. 


Coast  (steam) — Continued. 

Seamen 

Engineer 

Firemen 

River  (steam) : 

Captain , 

Cai  peuter 

Seamen  (deck  hands) 

En  ineer 

Firemen 

RiYCi  (sail): 

Captain 

Deck  hands 

Boys 

WAGES  PAID  BY  THE  NORTH 
GEltJIAK  LLOYD  STEAMSHIP 
COMPANY. 

Captain 

Fiist  officer 

Second  officer 

Third  officer 

Fourth  officer 


Lowest. 


$11  90 
29  75 
12  61 

17  85 
12  85 
10  71 
19  04 
12  85 

$14  28 
10  00 
2  38 


47  60 
35  70 
29  75 
23  SO 
19  04 


Highest. 

$12  85 
30  94 
12  85 

17  85 
12  85 
10  71 
23  80 
12  85 

$14  28 
10  71 
4  76 

85  68 
40  46 
32  n 
23  80 

19  04 

Occupations. 


WAGES  PAID  BY  THE  NORTH 
GERMAN  LLOYD  STEAMSHIP 

COMPANY — continued. 

Physician 

Purser 

Carpenter , 

Boatswain 

Helmsman 

Seamen 

First  engineer 

Second  engineer , 

Third  engineer 

Fourth  engineer 

A  ssistant 

Chief  firemen 

Fireman 

Coal  heaver 

Chief  cook 

Cook 

Baker 

Chief  steward 

Steward 

Stewardess 


Lowest. 


$23  80 
23  80 
19  04 
15  47 
12  85 

10  71 
63  17 
51  17 
38  08 
26  1« 
19  99 
14  76 

11  42 
7  14 

23  80 

12  14 
7  85 

23  80 

7  14 

8  33 


Highest. 


$32  13 
32  13 
21  42 
17  85 
12  85 

10  71 
^&  77 
55  93 
41  65 
26  18 
19  99 
15  71 

14  28 
8  33 

32  13 

15  95 

11  19 
32  13 

8  33 

9  52 


The  captains  of  the  transatlantic  steamers  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  have,  besides  their  monthly 
wages  of  about  $80,  a  certain  percentage  on  the  net  proceeds  of  the  business  done  bj'  their  steamers, 
guaranteed  to  be  not  less  than  $476,  and  not  to  exceed  $2,380  per  year  in  addition  to  their  wages. 

IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  in  stores  (wholesale  or  retail),  to  males  and  females,  in  Bremen,  Ger- 
many. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

WHOLESALE. 

$476 
357 
428 
428 
357 
214 

286 
238 
26i 
152 
222 
20 
214 

$2,  546 
952 
952 
952 
952 
833 

428 
476 
523 
2?  6 
309 
50 
309 

$833 
595 

595 

595 

595 

Clerks 

476 

Salesmen 

RETAIL. 

357 

Salesmen,  female 

286 

Cutter 

4''8 

Assistant  

238 

Cashier.s          

261 

Apprentice  

30 

Book-keeptr 

238 

The  wholesale  hotises  generally  work  from  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.,  allowing  two  hours  for  dinner;  the 
retail  houses  from  7  a.  m.  to  10  p.  m.,  allowing  one  hour  for  dinner  and  half  an  liour  for  .supper.  Ap- 
prentices in  wholesale  houses  work  three  or  four  years  without  any  remuneration.  They  have  to 
board  themselves,  and  are  glad  to  receive  $20  to  $50  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  years. 


310 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


X.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  pel-  year  to  household  nervavts  (towns  and  cities)  in  the  coiisular  district  of  Bremen 
(including  board  and  lodging). 


Occupations. 


Head  butler 

Second  butler 

Coachman : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Cook: 

Firat  class 

Second  class 

Stabloiuan 

Stableboy 

Servant 

Gardener 

Assistant 

Female  housekeeper 

Feinale  cook 

Go voiiiess  

(Jhanibermaid 

Wasbraaid 

Servant  girl 

Hotel  wages : 

Head  waiter  and  clerk 

Sa'oon  waiters 

Ordinary  waiter 

Housekeeper 

Servautmaids 


Lowest. 

$214  00 

119  00 

83  00 

3G  00 

238  00 

142  00 

85  70 

8  33 

47  00 

142  00 

47  60 

96  20 

47  60 

71  40 

35  70 

23  80 

23  80 

285  GO 

128  82 

125  50  i 

150  55 

22  75 

Highest 


$595  00 
238  00 

100  00 
81  00 

470  00 

214  00 
83  30 
35  00 
95  00 

238  00 
95  20 

142  80 
71  40 

142  l-O 
S'i  30 
47  60 
47  60 

428  40 
214  20 
19)  60 
214  20 
54  10 


Average. 


$357  00 
150  00 

83  00 
60  00 

357  00 
106  00 
5!»  50 
23  00 
35  70 
166  60 
71  40 
95  20 
59  50 
83  30 
59  50 
23  80 
23  80 

305  45 
175  80 
102  60 
207  40 
30  35 


XI.   AORIOULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (eountrg)  servants  in  the  con- 
sular district  of  Bremen  (ivith  board  and  lodging). 


Occupations. 


First  stableman 

Sficond  stableman 

Plowmen ; 

First  class  

Second  class 

Boy 

Sheplierd 

Coachmen 

Agricultural  inspector 

Carter 

First  household  servant . . 
Second  household  servant 

First  dairy  woman   

Second  dairy  woman 

Agricultural  laborers* 

Harvesters* 


Lowest. 


$59 
35 

53 
23 
9 
47 
47 
119 
47 
23 
10 
35 
10 


Highest. 

$130  00 

59  50 

57  12 

35  70 

11  90 

47  60 

59  90 

142  80 

59  90 

35  70 

23  80 

35  70 

23  80 

95i 

Qoi 

Average. 


$100  00 
47  60 

54  74 

28  56 

9  52 

47  60 

52  36 

130  90 

47  60 

28  56 

17  85 

35  70 

17  85 

7i* 

83i 


*  Per  day  and  board. 

XII.   CORPORATON  EMPLOYi^S. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Bremen. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Director  of  banks"' 

Cashier 

Bookkeeper 

Clerk 

.Junior  clerk 

Messenger 

Director  of  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Company* . 

Assistant* 

Cashier 

Book-keeper 

Correspondent 

Clerk 

Messenger 


$1,  904  00 
714  00 
595  00 
357  00 
71  40 
286  00 


714  00  , 
238  00 
286  00 


;■.',  380  00 

1,190  00 

833  00 

595  00 

238  00 

333  no 

4,  760  00 

1,  606  00 

1,  428  00 

1,  428  OD 

952  00 

595  00 

357  00 


$2, 142  00 
833  00 
042  00 
428  00 
119  00 
280  00 


714  00 
357  00 
286  00 


'  In  addition  to  this  salary  they  also  receive  a  certain  percentage  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  bui«iness. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

XIII.  Government  EMPLOY:fis. 


311 


Wages  paid  per  year  to  employeti  in  Government  departmcnis  and  offices — exclusive  of  trades 
men  and  laborers — in  the  consular  district  of  Bremen,  Germany. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Executive : 

Burgomaster j$2, 

Senator 2, 

~  "    ■  1, 


Secretary  of  the  senate. 

Clerks..'. 

Messenger 

Archivist 

Janitor 

Porter 

Judicial : 

President 

Judj,^cs 

Sociotary 

Clerk  

Messenger 

Attorney-general 

Director  of  prison 

Turnkey  (including  board  and  lodging) 
Health  department: 

Health  officer 

Chemist    

Messenger 

Bureau  of  vital  statistics,  clerks 

Police  department : 

Inspeetora 

Cai)taius , 

Clerks 


Policemen 

Suriieon  

Fire  department : 

Director 

First  and  second  assistant. 

Firemen  

Treasury  department : 

Chief  of  bureau 

Cashier 

Bookkeeper 

Clerks 

Customs  department : 

Director 

Cashier 

Clerks 

Collectors , 

Land  register  office : 

Director 

Appraiser 

Surveyors 

Rodmen 

Docks  and  harbor: 

Chief  architect 

Harbor-master 

Sluice-master 

Clerk 

Book-keeper 

Assistant  harbor-master  . . 

Porter 

Ljght  inspector 

Assistant 

Lampmon 

Schools : 

Director  (real-schule) 

Teachers  (academical) 

Teachers  (seminaristical)  .. 

Director  (primary  school) . . 

Teachers 

Lady  teachers  

Assistant  teachers 


456  00 
ODB  00 
190  00 
428  00 
238  00 
1, 190  00 
595  00 
238  00 

!,  237  00 

1, 190  00 

L,071  00 

595  00 

286  00 

1, 190  00 

1,486  00 

238  00 

286  00 
952  00 
286  00 
428  00 

952  00 
524  00 
428  00 
286  00 
202  00 

952  00 
524  00 
286  00 

,547  CO 
833  00 
714  00 
428  00 

, 702  00 
476  00 
357  00 
262  00 

, 178  00 
952  00 
821  00 
428  00 

,  5t7  00 
952  00 
476  00 
523  60 
428  40 
571  20 
214  20 


Highest.  Average. 


214  20 
166  60 

, 142  40 
642  60 
499  80 
714  00 
357  00 
261  80 
238  00 


$2,  456  00 

2, 166  00 

1,309  00 

657  00 

310  00 

1,  547  00 
774  00 
238  00 

2,  237  00 
1,  999  00 
1,  392  00 

774  00 

371  00 

1,  999  00 

1,  571  00 

476  00 

286  00 

1,047  00 

357  00 

557  00 

1,  440  00 
681  00 
557  00 
371  00 
202  00 

952  00 
714  00 
386  00 

1,  547  00 
833  00 
714  00 
557  00 

1,  702  00 
928  00 
514  00 
562  00 

1,  178  00 

1, 190  00 

832  00 

472  00 

1,  856  40 
1,  237  60 
618  80 
680  6^ 
556  92 
571  20 
278  40 


214  20 
166  60 

1, 428  00 
1,  190  00 
785  40 
785  40 
642  GO 
404  60 
309  40 


$2,  456  00 
2, 100  00 

1, 250  oa 

500  00 
275  00 

1,  250  00 
650  00 
238  00 

2,  237  00 

1, 428  00 

1,  200  00 

654  00 

300  00 

1,  428  00 

1,  500  00 

300  00 

286  00 

1,  000  00 

300  00 

500  00 

1, 100  00 
600  00 
500*00 
286  00 
202  00 

P*2  00 
600  CO 
300  00 

1,  .547  00 
833  00 
714  00 
500  00 

1,702  00 
752  00 
450  00 
350  00 

1,178  00 

1,  022  00 

821  00 

428  00 

1,  726  40 
1,137  60 
521  75 
555  45 
474  82 
571  20 
224  10 
428  40 
214  20 
166  16 

1.  200  00 
870  00 
610  00 
714  00 
420  00 
300  00 
250  00 


312 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


XIV.  Trades  and  labor  in  government  employ. 

Wages  paid  iy  the  %veek  of  sixty  hours,  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  employ  tJ» 

Bremen. 


Occupationa. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Inspector  of  the  trine  cellar 

Assistant 

Coopers 

Park  inspector 

Assistant 

Laborers 

Street  overseer 

Pavers 

Sweepers  

Dredging-master 

Engineer 

Fireman 

Jett  j--maker 

Masons 

Carpenters 

Painters 


$46  00 
7  14 

3  80 
12  00 
-  7  14 

2  85 

4  26 
2 
2 
3 
4 
3 
3 


38 
85 
72 
70 
22 
33 
5  00 
5  00 
3  57 


$46  00 
9  52 
5  95 
12  00 
7  14 
3  57 
5  95 
3  33 
3  81 
5  95 
5  95 
3  22 
5  07 
5  30 
5  71 
5  50 


$46  00 
8  33 

4  76 
12  00 

7  14 
3  33 

5  24 

2  85 

3  33 
5  35 

4  76 
3  22 
3  33 

5  00 
5  00 
3  57 


XV.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  shelving  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen, 
proof-readers,  i^-c.)  in  Bremen. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$7  14 
4  76 
4  76 

4  76 

5  95 
5  95 
5  95 
1  90 

95 
3  81 

$9  52 
5  71 
5  71 
5  71 
7  14 
7  14 
7  14 
2  80 
1  43 
4  28 

$8  50 

5  00 

5  00 

5  00 

6  00 

6  00 

6  00 

2  00 

1  00 

3  81 

BAVARIA. 


JtEFOBT  BY  CONSUL  HOIiSTMANN,  OF  NVREMBERQ. 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

In  accordance  with  instructions  from  the  Department  of  State  con- 
tained in  the  "  Labor  Circular,"  dated  February  15,  1884,  I  transmit 
herewith  the  information  desired,  as  far  as  it  lias  been  possible  for  me 
to  procure  the  same. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  presidents  of  the  chambers  of  commerce  and 
trade  of  Lower  Bavaria  and  Middle  Francouiafor  most  of  the  items  con- 
tained herein. 

COST    OF  LIVING. 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  living-  to  the  laboring-  classes,  the  prices  of 
the  necessaries  of  life,  clothing,  &c.,  there  is  but  little  tlift'erence  from 
that  of  other  ])arts  of  South  Germany  and  of  Middle  Germany.  The 
great  (piantity  of  beer  consumed  by  the  laboring  classes  (females  and 
children  as  well  as  males)  does  not  necessitate  the  eating  of  as  much  meat 
as  in  parts  where  less  beer  is  drunk.  The  higher  price  of  meat,  there-' 
fore,  in  some  parts  of  Bavaria  is  counterbalanced  by  the  cheapness  of 
the  beer. 


LABOE    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  313 

PAST  AND  PRESENT  WAGES. 

In  comparison  with  the  year  1878  there  has  been  no  change  in  the 
general  rates  of  wages.  In  some  few  branches  in  articles  for  export 
there  has  been  a  trifling  decline. 

HABITS   OF  THE  BAVARIAN  WORKING  PEOPLE. 

The  working  classes,  as  a  rule,  are  steady  and  trustworthy.  They 
can  scarcely  be  called  saving  in  their  habits,  as  the  wages  they  receive 
are  only  sufficient  to  keep  them,  but  they  are  able  to  live  in  a  condition 
that  they  are  not  debarred  recreation  and  pleasures  in  their  simple  and 
contented  manner  with  their  families  on  Sundays  and  holidays.  They 
are  able  to  clothe  themselves  decently,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  they  are 
cleanly  in  their  habits.  Such  squaliduess  as  is  seen  in  some  imrts  of 
England  among  the  working  classes  is  not  met  with  in  Bavaria. 

STRIKES. 

Strikes  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  have  not  taken  threatening  dimen- 
sions. They  have  in  almost  all  cases  been  settled  by  agreement  between 
the  workiugnien  and  the  employers,  and  have  never  proved  of  any  great 
advantage  to  the  former.  They  have  had  but  little  influence  in  bring- 
ing forth  any  change  either  in  the  rate  ol  wages  or  the  systems  of  labor. 
With  the  exception  of  some  districts  in  the  central  and  northern  parts 
of  Bavaria  there  are  no  great  industrial  centers.  For  the  most  part  the 
manufacturing  interests  are  scattered  throughout  the  whole  Kingdom. 
There  are  a  great  number  of  small  concerns,  employing  but  a  few  hands, 
and  in  many  of  the  branches  much  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  families 
in  their  own  dwellings  or  shops.  Bavaria,  altogether,  is  more  an  agri- 
cultural than  a  manufacturing  or  commercial  country. 

FOOD  PURCHASES. 

The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  where 
the3"  choose.    Payments  are  mostly  made  weekly  and  in  coin. 

PROTECTION   OF  EMPLOYii&S. 

In  regard  to  the  means  taken  for  the  protection  of  life  and  limb  of 
employes  in  factories,  mills,  &c.,  I  can  state,  generally,  that  there  are 
public  oflicers  known  as  inspectors,  whose  dury  it  is  to  inspect  all  fac- 
tories, &c.,  from  time  to  time,  to  see  that  the  employes  are  not  unneces- 
sarily exposed  to  danger ;  to  give  instructions  to  the  emjdoyers  how  the 
machines,  shafting,  &c.,  must  be  placed  as  regards  their  jHoximity  to 
each  other,  or  to  the  walls  or  columns  of  the  building,  or  to  the  places 
of  entrance  and  exit,  what  parts  of  the  running  gear  and  machinery 
must  be  shielded  to  prevent  employes  catching  in  any  part  of  it ;  to  see 
that  the  apartments  are  properly  heated,  ventilated,  and  lighted ;  that 
children  within  a  certain  age  are  not  employed  over  the  legal  hours,  «&c. 

-For  the  revision  of  boilers  there  is  a  special  commission,  and  state 
laws  regulate  its  operations.   - 

For  every  village  there  is  a  fire  department,  furnished  with  engines 
and  other  apparatus  for  the  extinguishing  of  fires  and  the  rescuing  of 
persons,  and  every  factory  is  obliged  to  be  furnished  with  water-tanks, 
buckets,  &c.,  and  larger  factories  mostly  have  an  organized  fire  depart- 
ment manned  by  their  employes. 


314 


LABOK    IN    EUROl'E — GERMANY. 


In  cases  of  accident  or  sickness  parties  are  paid  by  tbe  insurance  com- 
panies in  which  they  are  insured,  or  by  thefiictory  sick  fund  subscribed 
to  by  the  employes.  Every  one  not  paying  dues  in  the  above  manner 
is  obliged  to  pay  monthly  into  the  hospital  fund  of  the  comnnmity, 
which  then  cares  for  him  in  case  of  sickness  or  accident.  The  impeiial 
laws  of  June  7,  1871,  and  June  5,  1883,  give  the  nature  and  amount  of 
assistance  to  be  given  by  the  employers  in  case  of  accident. 

FEMALE  WAGES. 

The  highest  wages  of  women,  including  meals,  is  not  over  $2 — 48 
cents  a  day — but  only  practiced  mantua-makers,  who  go  out  in  families  to 
work,  receive  that  much.  For  a  week  of  sixty  hours  the  lowest  wages 
are  about  $1.20,  the  hig.hest  $3,  without  meals.  The  average  may  be 
put  down  at  $1.70. 

There  has  been  no  change  in  the  wages  of  female  laborers  since  1878, 
nor  have  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  changed  since  then. 

FEMALE   EMPLOYMENT. 

Females  are  employed  in  such  work  only  as  is  suitable  for  females  to 
perform.  The  rate  of  wages  paid  to  women  has  had  no  eflect  in  lessen- 
ing the  wages  paid  to  men.  The  physical  as  well  as  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  female  laborers  is  satisfactory.  The  employment  of  women  along 
with  men  has  not  affected  the  morals  of  either  adversely. 

The  degree  of  education  of  women  and  children  is  satisfactory.  It  has 
not  been  found  that  the  employment  of  children  in  factories  has  inter- 
fered with  their  education. 

Both  boys  and  girls  are  obliged  by  law  to  attend  the  common  school 
until  the  completion  of  their  thirteenth  year,  and  the  Sunday  school 
(notajjurely  religious  institution,  but  where  the  ordinary  branchesof  the 
common  scIjooI  are  taught)  till  the  completion  of  the  sixteenth  year. 
During  thisx)eriod  they  are  subject  to  school  discipline,  afterwards  they 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country.  For  refactory  children  within 
the  age  mentioned  there  are  houses  of  correction  in  which  they  are  forced 
to  work  and  to  lead  a  regular  life. 


GENERAL  TRADES  IN  BAVARIA. 

Following  is  a  table  of  the  highest,  lowest,  and  average  wages  paid 
to  laborers  of  the  several  classes  called  for  in  the  circular  from  the  De- 
[)artment  of  State,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  procure  them.  The 
amounts  are  given  in  United  States  gold  : 

General  icages  per  week  of  nixty  hours  paid  i?)  Bavaria. 


Occupations. 

Lowest 

Bighest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TKADE8. 

$2  CO 

1  45 

2  90 

1  45 

2  90 
2  CO 
2  CO 
4  00 
2  90 

2  65 

3  60 

$5  05 
3  05 
C  00 
3  05 

f)  00 

$3  80 

2  25 

4  45 

2  25 

4  ^.-i 

5  35               4  00 

3  45               3  00 

8  70               6  35 

4  10      '         3  50 

4  05               3  65 

Gas-attera 

5  30              4  45 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

General  wages  pe^'  week  of  sixty  hours  paid  in  Bavaria — Continued. 


315 


Occupations. 


OTHEE  TKADE8. 


Bakers  (with  board  and  lodging) . 

lilacksnjiths 

Strikers 

Bookbinders 

Brick  Tnalcci'9 

Brewers 


Butchers  (with  board  and  lodging). 

Brass-loiiudcna i 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Ci<;artuak  ers 

Coopers  . 


Distillers  (with  board  and  lodging) 
Drivers 


Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cal)  and  carriage  (with  board  and  lodging) 
Sti  eet  railwaj' 


Dyers 
Engiarera  ... 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horse  shoers  , 
Jewelers 


Lowest. 


$0  70 

2  no 

4  90 

1  45 

2  65 
4  45 

95 
4  45 

2  GO 

3  55 

4  00 
4  00 

1  45 
4  00 

2  15 


Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithographers 

Millwriglits 

Nail-raakers  (hand)  — 
Potters 


Printers 

Public  scbool  teachers 

Saddle  and  harness  maker. 
Stevedores  

Taur 


4  3D 

2  15 

5  35 

3  CO 
2  65 

4  00 
4  00 

4  45 

1  75 

5  55 

2  90 
2  90 
4  45 
4  CO 

194  00 
2  90 


Highest.    Average. 


jneri^ 


Tele iiaph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

"Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 

Wheelwrights - 

Turners 

Basket-makers 

Locksmiths 

"Workmen : 

Bronze  powdries 

Pencil  factories 

"Wire  factories 

Paper  lactorie." 

Tobacco  factoiies 

Goldbeaters'  iactories 

Grist-mills  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Saw-mills 

Comb  factories  

Bru.sh  factories 

Mathematical  instrument  factories 

Match  J'artories    

Color  ;ind  varnish  factories - 

Porcelain  factories. 

Malt  factories •. 

Boot  and  shoo  factories 

Needle  factories 

Machine  factories 

Iron  factories 

Glass  factories 

Quarrymen 

Raili  oad  emiiloyes per  annum. . 

Depot  managers do 

Enginedrivers do 

Firemen do 

Station-masters do 

Station-masters'  assistants , do 

Switchmen do 

Railroad  laborers 

Boatmen 

Raftsmen 

Shop  employes : 

Males per  annum.. 

Females do 

"Wholesale  business do 

Retail  trade do 


4  45 
240  no 

2  90 
75 

3  55 
3  35 

3  35 

4  00 

3  35 

2  65 

3  35 
1  45 
1  45 
3  95 

75 


3  35 

4  00 
4  45 
4  00 
3  35 

1  45 
3  55 

3  35 

2  65 

4  45 
4  45 

1  75 

2  15 
288  00 
288  00 
288  00 
240  00 
288  00 
192  00 
192  00 

2  15 
2  15 
2  90 

120  00 

84  00 

120  00 

84  00 


$1  45 

4  45 

5  55 

3  60 
5  05 

5  55 

1  95 

6  65 
5  55 

4  45 
4  45 

4  45 

2  15 

5  30 
4  30 


4  35 

5  55 

6  65 
4  90 
4  GO 
4  45 
4  Co 
6  65 

4  00 
11  10 

5  80 

4  00 

6  65 

5  .^5 
GOO  00 

5  80 


5  80 

288  00 

4  90 

3  35 

4  90 
4  45 

4  45 

5  30 

4  45 

3  35 

5  30 
9  00 

4  90 
8  85 
1  95 


4  45 

5  55 

'  6  09 

5  30 
4  45 
7  20 
4  45 
4  45 

4  45 

6  65 
6  65 

5  80 
5  30 

576  00 
576  00 
480  00 
432  00 
528  00 
288  00 
384  00 
2  00 

2  BO 

3  CO 

288  00 
120  00 
288  00 
120  00 


316  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

General  wages  per  week  of  sixty  hours  paid  in  Bavaria — Contiuued. 


Occapations. 


Servants,  city : 

Cooks,  male  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Cooks,  IVmalt) per  year . . 

lien  servants do 

Cluiiuberinaids do 

Seamstresses ■ 

Waiters 

Waitresses  (with  board  and  lodging) per  year. . 

Servants,  country  : 

Mule  hands  (with  board  and  lod.tring) 

Female  Iiands  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Dairymen  (with  board  and  lodgiu;;) 

Shepherds  (witli  board  and  lodging) 

iJay  laboiers  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Printing  ofbces: 

Type-sttters 

Pressmen 

Proof- readers 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  00 

$7  20 

14  40 

72  00 

48  00 

72  00 

28  80 

36  Oo 

2  15 

4  45 

75 

5  75 

24  00 

60  00 

48 

72 

24 

48 

48 

96 

76 

96 

1  45 

2  15 

2  90 

8  90 

2  90 

5  55 

4  80 

6  65 

Average. 


$C  00 
43  10 
60  00 
32  40 
3  30 
3  25 
42  00 

60 
:i6 
72 
84 
1  80 


Family  servants,  waiters,  and  persons  of  that  class  receive  in  the  way 
of  "  tips"  about  the  same  amount  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany.  Let- 
ter-carriers, railroad  and  telegraph  officials,  &c.,  receive  more  than 
their  fixed  wages  and  salaries  from  the  same  source. 

G.  HENEY  HOESTMANN, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Nuremberg y  July  12,  1884. 


COLOGNE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SPACEMAN. 


In  reply  to  your  circular  of  February  15, 1884,  concerning  the  condi- 
tion of  labor  in  Europe,  I  have  the  honor  to  report  as  follows: 


KATES    OF  wages. 


The  rates  of  wages  paid  to  laborers  in  this  consular  district  will  be 
found  in  the  several  tables,  herewith  inclosed.  Laborers  upon  i)ublic 
works  receive  about  the  same  as  other  laborers,  the  Government  gen- 
erally employing  contractors  for  the  execution  of  such  works. 


COST   OF  LIVING. 

The  cost  of  living  of  the  laboring  classes  varies  greatly  according  to 
their  incomes.  It  is  possible  for  them  to  subsist  upon  a  very  small 
amount  per  day.  Many  have  but  a  few  rolls,  potatoes,  herring,  coffee, 
milk  or  beer,  with  meat",  perhaps,  once  a  week.  Clothing  is  cheap,  and 
as  the  climate  is  generally  mild  in  winter,  only  a  small  supply  is  re- 
quired. Fuel  is  only  needed  in  small  quantities.  Seventy  live  cents 
l)er  day  is  considered  good  wages  in  most  of  the  trades.  A  single  room 
can  be  attained  for  about  $2.25  i)er  month,  and  daily  food  of  the  8ini])lest 
kind  for  30  cents,  making  the  average  daily  expenses  of  a  laborer  37i 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  317 

cents,  exclusive  of  fuel  and  clotbing.    At  the  present  time  the  retail 
prices  here  of  the  principal  articles  of  food,  are  as  follows: 

Beef per  pouud..   $0  15    to  $0  20 

Bread do....  SJ 

Butter do....  25    to        40 

Cheese do....  17    to       20 

Coffee do....  20    to       38 

Lard do 17    to       18 

Pork do....  17    t»        18 

Rice -do..-.  4^  to        10 

Salt do....  2i 

Sugar  (white) do 10 

Sugar  (brown) ' do 8 

Tea do....  50 

Potatoes do 1 

Wages  are  lower  here  than  in  the  United  States,  but  the  amount  of 
work  done  is  correspondingly  small.  They  do  not  vary  much  from  year 
to  year,  but  are  somewhat  higher  than  in  1878. 

HABITS   OF   THE  TVORKHSTG  CLASSES. 

The  working  classes  are  generally  steady  and  trustworthy,  and  not 
disposed  to  change  their  employment  providing  they  can  make  suffi- 
cient to  live  upon.  The  natives  especially  dislike  leaving  Cologne  and 
the  Ehiue  in  order  to  seek  work  elsewhere,  and  they  therefore  endeavor 
to  remain  in  their  positions,  even  when  their  wages  are  low.  In  many 
cases  the  wives  of  the  laborers  help  to  earn  a  livelihood  by  washing, 
ironing,  cleaning  offices  and  streets,  doing  housework  by  the  half  day, 
&c.  The  wages  are  generally  too  small  to  allow  laborers  to  save  any- 
thing. Everything  is  spent,  either  for  actual  necessaries  or  for  pleas- 
ure, their  amusements  being  of  the  simplest  kind.  Notwithstanding 
their  small  wages,  they  are  v^ery  charitable,  and  always  ready  to  help 
each  other. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYE   AND   ElVIPLOTER. 

The  feeling  prevailing  between  employe  and  employer  is  generally 
good,  and  there  are  seldom  any  troubles  between  them.  As  a  conse- 
quence strikes  are  scarcely  ever  known  here. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

With  regard  to  the  organized  condition  of  labor,  it  maybe  mentioned 
that  there  exists  a  law  in  Germany  regulating  the  arrangements  to  be 
made  in  factories  and  work  shops  for  preventing  accidents  to  workmen, 
and  that  legislation  is  continually  employed  in  amending  the  laws  for 
the  welfare  of  the  laboring  classes.  Lately  the  new  accidental  insurance 
law  has  been  passed  for  the  benefit  of  workmen  in  case  of  accidents. 

STRIKES. 

As  already  stated,  strikes  scarcely  ever  occur  in  this  district,  and. 
therefore  there  is  little  need  of  arbitration. 

FREEDOM  OF  PURCHASE. 

Generally  workmen  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wher- 
ever they  like,  even  if  the  employers — especially  those  whose  establish- 
ments are  situated  far  from  town — form  co-operative  societies  among 
the  laborers,  or  keep  a  stock  of  ordinary  necessary  articles.    No  con- 


318  LABOR    IN    EUROPE  —  GERMANY. 

ditions  are  imposed  upon  tlae  workmen,  but  they  buy  from  the  co-op- 
erative stores  because  the  articles  are  generally  cheaper  and  better  than 
can  be  obtained  elsewhere.  The  laborers  are  paid  weekly,  and  the  em- 
ployes of  societies  and  the  workmen  in  the  Government  employ  are  paid 
monthly. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

As  stated  above,  co-operative  societies  are  sometimes  formed  among 
the  laborers  in  factories  situated  tar  from  towns,  where  the  ordinary  sup- 
plies are  diflicult  to  obtain.  There  has  recently  been  formed  in  Cologne 
a  co-operative  society  called  the  "Beamtenvereinigung,"  which  has  now 
a  great  many  members,  and  which,  it  seems,  fulfills  the  promises  held 
out  at  the  time  of  its  formation.  When  this  society  was  first  started 
some  wholesale  merchants  made  opposition  to  it,  and  tried  to  prevent 
its  success  because  it  bought  directly  from  the  manufacturers.  This 
objection  seems  to  be  settled  now,  and  the  society  has  proved  to  be  of 
great  benefit  to  its  members. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

Working  people,  generally,  are  so  situated  here  that,  with  a  house- 
bold  of  from  three  to  four  persons,  they  can  live  comparatively  well, 
unless  they  are  extravagant  and  squander  their  money.  Often  the 
laborers  have  so  many  children  that  the  ordinary  wages  are  not  suf- 
ficient to  i)rocure  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  then  they  suffer  from  want. 

They  generally  live  in  one,  two,  or  three  rooms;  their  comfort  depend- 
ing upon  themselves.  Orderly  workmen,  with  economical  wives,  have 
neat,  comlbrtable  homes,  no  matter  how  small  their  incomes  may  be. 
As  with  their  rooms  so  it  is  with  their  food.  If  the  wives  know  how  to 
manage  they  can  liave  comparatively  g(  od  food;  though,  as  a  rule,  only 
single  men  can  afford  to  have  meat  every  day.  The  latter  can  dine  very 
well  and  at  low  rates  in  the  numerous  boarding  houses  in  the  city. 
Most  of  the  working  people  are  well  and  simply  clothed,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  the  squalor  and  dirt  generally  seen  in  very  large  cities. 
The  chances  of  bettering  their  condition  are  generally  very  small  with 
the  laborers  unless  they  are  employed  in  some  of  the  great  industrial 
factories,  where  the  employers  have  an  interest  in  educating  a  number 
of  skillful  workmen.  In  such  cases  they  are  ])aid  according  to  the  length 
of  time  they  have  been  employed.  The  ordinary  workman  has  very 
little  opportunity  of  laying  up  anything  for  old  age  or  sickness.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  the  new  laws  already  mentioned  will  help  to 
alleviate  the  sufferings  and  improve  the  condition  of  the  working  classes. 
Their  moral  and  physical  condition  is  generally  good  ;  their  simple  food 
and  habits  making  them  mostly  strong  and  healthy. 

There  exists  in  Germany  the  ''  llaftpflichtgesetz,"  a  law  which  de- 
cides that  employers  under  certain  conditions  are  responsible  for  acci- 
dents happening  in  their  establishments,  and  theie  are  rales  providing 
against  accidents  from  the  various  kinds  of  ma(;hines,  tools,  «S:c.  Local 
inspectors  are  appointed  for  each  Government  district,  who  are  obliged 
to  make  examinations  and  report  to  the  Government  the  state  of  the 
various  in<lnstries,  and  especially  tlie  means  employed  to  prevent  acci- 
dents. Ordinarily  employers  do  their  best  for  the  moral  and  physical 
well-being  of  their  employes  aiul  laborers  by  erecting  family  lodging 
and  boarding  houses  for  them.  In  many  factories  there  are  saving- 
banks  where  workmen  can  make  provision  for  sickness  and  old  age. 
The  general  relations  between  the  emijloyer  and  the  employed  are 
good. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


319 


POLITICAL   EIGHTS. 

The  political  rights  of  the  workiiigmen  are  the  same  as  other  citizens, 
and  they  are  taxed  according  to  their  incomes.  The  tendency  of  legis- 
hition  during  the  last  few  years  has  been  constantly  towards  the  ame- 
lioration of  the  condition  of  the  working  classes. 

CAUSES  OF  EMIGRATION. 

Emigration  from  this  district  is  inconsiderable,  and  the  general  causes 
which  induce  it  in  other  places  do  not  exist  here  to  any  great  extent. 

FEMALE    LABOR. 

Female  labor  is  not  so  general  here  as  in  other  portions  of  Germany. 
Besides  the  ordinary  occupations  of  women,  such  as  teachers  in  public 
and  private  schools,  venders  of  fancy  goods,  &c.,  they  are  employed  in 
spinning  factories,  sugar  refineries,  cigar  manufactories,  &c.,  where  they 
earn,  according  to  their  ability,  from  37i  cents  to  62^  cents  per  day,  or 
on  an  average  of  about  50  cents  per  day. 

The  unmarried  women  live  with  their  parents,  or  in  boarding-houses, 
and  the  married  women  with  young  children  generally  employ  some- 
body to  look  after  them  during  the  hours  the  mothers  are  at  work. 

The  operation  of  the  above-named  institutions  for  the  welfare  of 
men,  the  remarks  upon  the  condition  of  laborers  in  general,  and  the 
relation  between  employer  and  employ^  apply  equally  to  women. 

SAMUEL  SPAOKMAN, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Cologne,  September  3,  1884. 


I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades  per  week  of  sixty  to  seventy-two  hours  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

HUILDIXG  TRADES. 

Brick-layers ..  . 

$4  44 

3  28 

4  44 
3  28 

5  71 

3  28 

4  28 
4  28 

3  28 

4  28 

3  28 

5  00 

4  28 

1  07 

5  24 
3  57 

$G  36 
3  71 
6  36 
3  71 
8  57 
3  71 
5  00 
5  00 
3  71 
5  00 

3  71 
5  71 

5  71 

2  14 

6  66 

4  28 

$5  00 
3  57 

Hoilcarriers 

ATnfloTia                                                  

5  00 

Tenders 

3  57 

Plasterers 

7  14 

Tenders 

3  57 

Slaters  

4  76 

Roofers 

4  76 

Tenders 

3  57 

Plumbers 

4  76 

Assistants 

3  57 

Carjjentei's 

5  24 

Gas-fitters 

4  76 

OWER  TRADES. 

Bakers  (with  board  and  lodging) 

1  61 

Blacksmiths 

6  19 

Strikers 

4  05 

320  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

ffage-f  paid  in  general  trades  per  xceel;  of  sixUj  to  seventy-two  hours  in  €ologne-~Cqn\in\W(\. 


Occupations. 


Low.est. 


Other  tkades — CoDtinned. 

Book-bindeis 

Kriclv-raakors 

Brewers  (with  board  and  lodffinfx) -•-- 

Butchers  (with  board  and  liHlging) 

Cabinft-niuliia-a 

Cont'fctionerH 

('i::ar-tnakers 

^"oopers ". 

Cutlers  

Drivers : 

Dra\  men  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  can  iage 

Street  railways 1 

Dyers        j 

Engravers - 

Tan  icrs j 

Gardeners  i 

Hatters j 

U  orseshoers - j 

.Teweloi  8 - 

Lah(»riTS,  porters,  &c 

Litho:ira])ljers 

Printers  — 

Saddle  'and  harness  luakers | 

Stc  vtdores | 

Tanners  - 

Tailors  I 

Tinsmiths 

Bathers  (with  board  and  lodging) } 

Brnsb-makers  (with  board  and  lodging) i 

Qnilt-makers '. I 


SUgtaest. 


$3  21 

$3  57 

$5  71 

2  57 

3  57 

2  86 

71 

1  71 

1  14 

71 

1  71 

1  14 

5  00 

5  71 

5  47 

3  57 

5  71 

4  28 

3  32 

5  00 

S  80 

4  28 

7  14 

5  24 

3  57 

5  00 

3  86 

3  57 

4  28 

3  93 

2  8C 

2  86 

2  86 

4  42 

7  14 

6  25 

2  86 

5  71 

4  28 

3  57 

7  14 

5  00 

3  57 

5  71 

4  28 

3  93 

4  28 

4  05 

3  57 

5  71 

3  93 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

4  28 

6  43 

5  71 

2  86 

4  28 

3  57 

5  00 

7  14 

5  71 

3  57 

11  90 

5  80 

3  57 

5  71 

4  28 

2  86 

4  28 

3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

3  93 

3  57 

4  28 

3  93 

4  28 

5  00 

4  76 

1  19 

4  76 

2  38 

1  79 

7  14 

2  14 

2  14 

11  90 

3  57 

Average. 


II.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wa,g(8 paid  per  tveek  of  sixty  to  seventy-two  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  aitd  iron 

works  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

Foundries : 

$4  00 
5  71 

3  57 

2  86 

4  00 
4  00 

3  57 

4  28 
2  86 

2  80 

4  28 

5  71 

4  80 
4  28 

3  43 
8  57 

4  46 

3  43 

4  89 
4  28 

6  85 
6  00 

$5  00 
7  14 

4  28 

3  57 

5  71 
5  71 

4  57 

5  71 
3  86 

3  57 
G  43 
7  14 

5  83 

5  39 

4  11 
11  14 

5  48 
4  28 

6  00 

6  85 

7  71 
7  71 

$4  28 

6  43 

4  00 

2  UO 

Machine-shops : 

4  71 

Turners 

4  64 
4  00 

5  00 

Stiikcis          

3  43 

2  86 

ICui; inc. fitters,  in  the  shop 

5  71 

6  43 

Boilers-makers : 

5  14 

4  81 

3  94 

10  28 

4  80 

3  94 

5  14 

Armature  machinists 

Tracer.'; 

5  14 

6  90 

7  14 

LADOK  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

IV.  Glass-workers. 

Wages  paid  per  joeek  of  sixty  to  seventy-two  hours  to  glass-uorkers  in  Cologne. 


321 


Occupations. 


Glass-makers : 

'Of  bottles,  &c 

Of  ordinary  drinking  glasses,  goblets,  &c 
Of  crystal  and  pressed  ware 

Stokers 

Ordinary  laborers 

Grinders  and  polishers 


Lo-veeet. 

Highest. 

$4  76 

$6  19 

6  19 

9  52 

9  52 

16  66 

5  71 

7  14 

3  09 

4  05 

5  24 

10  71 

Average. 


$5  71 
7  62 
13  09 

6  19 
3  57 

7  14 


VI.  Eailway  EMPL0Y]&S. 

Wages  paid  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  engaged  on 
the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  tf-o.)  in  Cologne. 


Occnpationss. 


OflSce  and  cash  attendant* per  annum. 

Ticket  printers  and  stampers do... 

Train  arrangers  and  car-masters ...do... 

Porters,  stewards,  pointsmen,  and  bridge  ■watchers do... 

Storekeepers  and  watchmen do. . . 

Bridge-masters do... 

Hoist  and  crane  overseers do. .. 

Bridge-toll  receivers do... 

Hoist  and  crane  masters do... 

Brakemen  (station  service) do.  -. 

Loading-masters do . . . 

Locomotive  conductors do . . . 

Stokers  and  machine  waiters do... 

Train  conductors do  . . 

Baggage-masters do. . . 

Stewards do . . . 

Brakemen  and  oilers  (line  service) do. .. 

Store-masters do . . . 

Machinists do... 

Line  workmen : 

Masters per  day. 

Laborers do... 

Auxiliary  pointsmen do... 

Auxiliary  warders do . . . 

Station  workmen : 

Ordinary  workmen do. .. 

Arrangers do... 

Dispatch-goods  laborers do . . . 

Lading  laborers do . . . 

Wagon  noters do. .. 

"Wagon  pushers do. .. 


Lowest. 


$214  20 
214  20 
279  90 
192  78 


285  60 
214  20 
192  78 
164  22 
249  90 
285  60 
214  20 
249  90 
235  62 
185  64 
164  22 
214  20 
285  60 


Highest 


$249  HO 
321  30 
285  60 
249  90 


357  00 
321  30 
249  90 
235  62 
321  30 
428  40 
285  60 
321  30 
261  80 
238  00 
238  00 
328  44 
428  40 


Average. 


$232  05 
267  75 
267  75 
221  34 
142  80 
481  95 
321  30 
261  80 
221  34 
199  92 
285  60 
357  00 
238  00 
297  50 
249  90 
209  44 
207  06 
273  70 
857  00 

00 
43 
45 
4S 

48 
54 

eo 

M 
48 

« 


VII.  Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men)  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Remarks. 

Kiver  navigation  (sail  and  steam) : 

Ma.tps                         ,  ,     , ,  , 

$23  80 
15  71 
14  28 
23  80 
17  14 

$28  56 
15  71 
14  28 
27  12 
17  14 

Helmsmen 

Extra  remuneration  of  $11.90  a  year. 
Do. 

Sailors 

Extra  remuneration  of  $23.80  a  year. 

Stokers 

Extra  remuneration  of  $9.52  a  year. 

92  A— LAB- 


-21 


322 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

VIII.  Store  akd  shop  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  to  seventii-two  hours  in  stores  (wholesale  or  retail)  to  males  and 

females,  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


■Warehonse-mastera per  wppk . 

A\' orl< nii-n ptr  day. 

PalesiiHU per  auii  iiiu . . 

Salesnicu  (witli  lioaid  and  lodgiu") <lo. . . 

Simp  1)()\8  (with  board  and  ludjiiuf;)  P'"''  ""eek.. 

Clerks  (.shop) per  auniim. . 

Shop  gills  (with  board  and  lodging) do  — 


$4  28 

48 

238  00 

47  60 

71 

285  CO 

23  80  i 


$7  14 

67 

357  00 

214  20 

2  38 

357  00 

71  40 


$j  00 

CO 

285  60 

95  20 

1  43 

285  60 

59  50 


IX.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  pei-  month  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 


Male  «ervant.s  (with  hoard  and  lodging) 

Male  servants  (witliout  lodging) 

Female  servant.s : 

Cooks  (with  board  and  lodging) 

General  housework  (with  board  and  lodging) 
Chambei-oiaids  (with  hoard  and  lodging) 


Lowest.     Highest. 


$10  71 
17  85 

3  09 

1  9U 

2  38 


$21  42 
28  56 


5  95 

3  57 

4  76 


Average. 


$14  28 
21  42 

4  28 
2  38 
2  86 


X.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest,  ^veraga. 


Plowmen per  week. 

Female  Liborers do  . . . 

Female  Heivants  (with  board  and  lodging) pervcar. 

Stablemen  and  grooms ilo. .. 


$2  14 

1  ('7 

14  28 

17  85 


$2  80 

1  71 

28  00 

71  40 


$2  38 

1  43 

17  85 

47  60 


XII.  Corporation  employes. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Cologne. 


Occupations. 


Ma Rter  workmen  (factory  Rnperintendpnts) 

Othce  seniors  (orilin.irily  iuvfsted  with  the  procuration) 

Contidiiiiial  clerks  (iuvesteil  with  the  procuration)   

liiiok -keepers 

Clerks  

Casliieis 

Cash  and  office  attendants 


Lowest. 


$'!57  00 
428  40 
4J8  40 
3:>7  00 
3."i7  ti't 
357  (10 
178  50 


Highest. 


$■.71  20 

2,  380  (10' 

1,4J8  (10 

591  20 

491)  80 

1,4J8  (10 

285  60 


Average. 

$428  40 

"714  66 

428  40 
42rt  40 
571   20 
2;i8  00 

'  And  in  some  cases  percentage  of  profits. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


323 


XIII.  Government  employ:6s. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  employea  in  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusive  of  trades- 
men and  laborers,  in  Cologne. 

Presiilent  of  the  GoTemment *$3,  570  00 

Hifrli  counselors  of  the  Guvernment  (chiefs  of  the  several  departments) 2,  8.'i0  00 

Privy  eouust-lois  of  the  Goverument  2,  142  00 

Couiiseliirs  of  the  Goverument 1,428  00 

Secivtaiifs 714  00 

Assistauts 428  40 

AB»l.xtants 357  uO 

Chiiucery  superintendent 714  00 

Clerk s 357  00 

Chancery 238  00 

Treasurer 952  00 

Chief  book-keeper 714  00 

Cashier  714  00 

Book-keeper 571  20 

Office  attendants 238  0) 

*  And  allowance  for  lodgings  and  expenses  of  public  entertainments. 

XIV.  Trades  and  labor  in  government  employ. 

Wages  paid  by  the  week  of  sixty  Jiours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Goveiniment  employ  in 

Cologne. 


Occnpations. 


RAILWAY,   MACHIXE,   AXD  CARRIAOE   REPAIRS  SHOP 

Machinists  (paid  monthly;  telegraph  and  electric  lighting)  .. 

Assi.stauts    

Machinists  (ordinary  work) 

Machinists  (machine  mounting;  paid  monthly) 

Assistants 

Tuinns ._ 

Machinists  (ordinary  work) 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Joiuei's  

Laborers , 

AVooil  cutters , 

Saddlers     

Varnishera 

Ship-master  (engineer)  * 


Lowest. 


$8  03 
5  00 
4  28 
7  14 
2  86 


499  80 


Highest. 

$8  93 

6  42 

5  00 

7  14 

3  57 

C  42 

5  30 

6  42 

4  07 

5  14 

3  14 

4  00 

5  57 

5  57 

6G6  40 

Average. 


$8  33 
5  95 
4  76 
7  14 

3  57 

4  85 

5  19 
5  3G 

4  07 

5  14 

3  14 

4  00 

5  14 
4  93 

571  20 


*  Per  annum. 


XY.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

statement  showing  the  ivajrs  paid  per  weelc  of  serenty-two  hours  to  printers  {compositors, 
prensmen,  proof-readers,  4'-c.)  in  Cologne. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Compositors 

PresHMien    

I'roof-i  eailers 

Lithoia"apht-is 

I'lessnieu 

Bookbinders    

Tyjje  loundeis 

St'  ieoty]>ers 

Oidiuary  workmen 


$i  44 
5  71 
5  71 
5  00 
3  57 
3  57 
5  71 
5  71 
3  57 


$11  90 

7  14 

11  90 


324  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

CREFELD. 

REPORT  BY  COXSUL  POTTER.* 

In  response  to  the  "Labor  Circular"  issued  by  the  Department  of 
State  under  date  of  February  15,  1884,  requesting  the  fullest  attainable 
information  concering  the  "condition  of  labor  in  Europe,"  I  have  the 
honor  to  rei)ort  that  the  inquiries  embraced  in  tlie  circular  are  so  nu- 
merous, and  cover  a  field  so  extensiv;e,  that  I  have  found  it  difficult  to 
condense  witliin  moderate  limits  the  information  desired,  and  at  the 
same  time  preserve  intelligent  clearness.  I  have,  therefore  confined 
myself  to  a  concise  statement  of  facts,  without  discussing  any  of  the 
interesting  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  them. 

The  information  given  relates  exclusively  to  labor  and  the  interests 
of  labor,  and  as  this  district  embraces  a  large  fraction  of  the  textile, 
mining,  and  iron  and  steel  industries  of  Germany,  the  subjects  referred 
to  are  necessarily  numerous. 

It  seems  proper  to  state  that  the  information  contained  in  this  report 
has  been,  in  all  particulars,  obtained  through  direct  personal  interviews 
had  with  persons  representing  all  the  different  trades  and  interests 
therein  mentioned.  These  include  laborers,  mechanics,  farmers,  trades- 
people, clerks,  servants  (male  and  female),  manufacturers,  employers, 
school  teachers,  professors,  scientists,  officers  of  chambers  of  commerce 
and  charitable  societies,  government  and  corporation  officials,  &c. 
Nothing  has  been  taken  from  hearsay  or  reports  previously  made. 

INTERVIEWS    WITH   WORKINGMEN. 

For  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  condition  and  sentiments  of  work- 
men engaged  in  different  industries,  I  visited  many  of  them  in  their 
homes  and  at  their  places  of  business,  and  they  have  answered  my 
questions  with  freedom  and  frankness,  exhibiting  generally  much  intelli- 
gence and  thought.  Their  answers,  just  as  they  were  given,  will  con- 
vey a  fresher  and  more  accurate  idea  of  their  real  status  than  any 
other  form  of  description.  I  have,  therefore,  selected  a  few  representa- 
tive persons  in  different  localities  employed  in  leading  industries,  and 
present  the  information  they  gave  in  their  own  language,  with  such 
shades  of  variation  only  as  are  made  necessary  by  translation  from  the 
German  into  the  English  language,  and  such  as  are  required  to  develop 
fully  the  ideas  expressed  and  facts  detailed. 

The  interviews  reported  are  those  had  with  a  weaver  with  a  family 
in  a  country  district;  an  unmarried  weaver  working  and  living  in  the 
city  ;  a  dyer;  a  printer;  a  butcher;  a  farmer,  and  a  laborer. 

Weaving  and  dyeing  being  the  occupations  in  which  the  great  mass 
of  working  people  in  this  district  are  engaged,  they  are  somewhat  more 
fully  reported  than  other  trades. 

WORKINGMEN   AND  WAGES. 

The  tables  at  the  end  of  this  report  show  that,  when  average  rates  are 
considered,  there  has  been  no  increase  in  the  prices  paid  for  labor  in 


*For  much  of  the  information  concerning  schools  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Kriill  and 
to  Mr.  Pauss,  teachers  in  the  Crofokl  school.".  And  for  information  rehiting  to  mines 
and  miners,  I  am  largely  indebted  to  Richard  Eichotl",  esq.,  the  eUicieut  United  State* 
consular  agent  at  Essen. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  325 

this  district  since  the  year  1878.  lu  many  industries  the  rates  of  wages 
are  even  lower.  There  may  be  isolated  instances  where,  for  local  rea- 
sons, higher  wages  have  been  temporarily  paid ;  but,  on  the  whole,  the 
tendency  has  been  downward. 

There  has,  perhaps,  been  fewer  manifestations  of  discontent  among 
the  laboring  classes  during  the  past  year  than  during  the  two  or  three 
previous  years,  for  the  reason  that  the  food  crop  of  1883  was  more 
abundant  than  those  of  the  years  immediately  preceding  it.  The  Gen- 
eral Government  of  Germany  and  local  administrations  have,  too,  made 
great  and  commendable  eftbrts  to  provide  emi^loyment  for  the  surplus  la- 
bor that  exists,  and  to  stimulate  ho])es  for  better  times  among  the  work- 
ing classes.  The  duties  of  governments  and  people  seem  to  have  been 
fully  performed.  But  these  efforts  may  be  regarded  as  somewhat 
strained.  They  can  hardly  bear  the  tension  that  time  will  surely  put 
upon  them,  as  would  appear  evident  by  a  single  season's  short  crop  in  a 
country  where  there  are  not  arable  acres  enough,  even  with  an  abund- 
ant yield,  to  supply  the  food  demands  of  its  population. 

Labor  and  the  products  of  labor  in  this  part  of  Germany  appear, 
therefore,  naturally  enough,  to  be  growing  gradually  cheaper,  while 
food  products  are  from  year  to  year  becoming  dearer.  The  active  and 
able  chambers  of  commerce  which  are  organized  in  every  industrial  cen- 
ter, and  sustained  by  Government  encouragement,  are  quietly  adopting 
the  most  efficient  measures  possible  for  finding  markets  for  the  manu- 
factures produced  by  the  cheap  labor  of  Germany's  increasing  surplus 
population. 

The  incessant  toil,  the  meager  wages  and  scanty  fare  of  the  European 
laborer,  as  described  by  some  of  them  in  interviews  embodied  in  this 
report,  are  conditions  of  life  which  are  not  pleasant  to  contemplate.. 
They  seem  incompatible  with  intelligent  human  existence.  A  modicum 
of  rest  and  pleasure  is  an  undeniable  normal  ingredient  in  the  nature  of 
man  ;  but  to  toil  during  all  the  hours  of  sunshine,  to  fare  scantily  from 
the  bounteous  gifts  of  earth,  to  always  seek  a  couch  for  sleep  with 
tired  limbs  and  brain,  and,  finally,  with  weary  limbs  lay  down  to  die, 
seems  to  be  the  inevitable  lot  of  the  poor  laborer  in  the  overpopulated 
districts  of  Europe.  Where  is  the  remedy"'  It  does  not  appear  to  be 
within  the  reach  of  legislation.  Governments  in  such  districts  may,  in 
trying  times,  afford  temporary  relief,  but  this  must  be  nearly  always 
done  at  the  expense  of  an  increasing  budget,  the  weight  of  which  comes 
back  again  upon  the  people  whose  burden  becomes  still  a  little  heavier. 

It  seems  not  to  be  difficult  to  determine  in  what  way  the  interests  of 
working  classes  of  the  United  States  would  be  affected  if  they  were 
obliged  to  surrender  advantages  now  in  their  possession  and  place  the 
products  of  their  labor  in  competition  upon  the  same  i)lane  with  the 
products  of  the  cheap  labor  of  Europe.  The  only  defense  against  a  de- 
cline in  the  value  of  the  wages  of  the  working  people  of  the  United 
States  down  to  the  same  level  of  the  laborers  of  Europe  appears  to  be 
in  such  efiftcient  protective  barriers  as  can  be  erected  and  maintained  by 
Congressional  legislation. 

The  necessity  recognized  by  German  officials  for  finding  new  and  un- 
obstructed markets  for  the  products  of  their  working  people  has  been 
recently  made  evident  by  the  organization  of  an  association,  with  large 
capital,  for  the  purpose  of  founding  colonies  in  distant  countries,  which 
shall  be  made  attractive  enough  to  draw  to  them  the  surplus  population 
of  Germany  and  other  countries.  In  this  way  Germany  hopes  to  build 
up  and  control,  in  remote  parts  of  the  earth,  markets  for  her  manufact- 
ures which  will  not  be  obstructed  by  tariff  barriers,  such  as  protects 


326  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

the  workinjjnian's  interests  in  the  United   States.     In  a  circular  ad- 
dressed to  German  capitalists  the  association  declares  that — 

German  exports  are  entirely  dependent  xipon  arbitrary  foreign  taritls.  We  lack  a 
safe  market  for  the  sale  of  our  indnstrial  productions,  because  we  have  no  foreign  col- 
onies. This  evil  has  to  be  promptly  and  jiractically  remedied,  and  to  do  this  the  so- 
ciety will  direct  its  immediate  and  best  efforts. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

Eiuijjratiou  from  this  district  to  the  United  States  is  considerable, 
but  there  are  no  especial  causes  for  it  separate  from  those  which  are 
connected  with  the  over-populated  districts  of  Germany.  All  the  land 
that  can  bo  brought  under  cultivation  is  now  fully  occupied  ;  and  yet, 
"with  a  full  average  yield  of  crops  tliere  is  a  large  deficiency  in  the  sup- 
ply of  food  needed  by  her  population,  which  is  increasing  more  rapidly 
than  that  of  any  other  continental  state.  The  consequences  are  plain. 
If  the  country  cannot  produce  food  enough  for  the  natural  wants  of  its 
people  the  redundant  portion  must  haveit  brought  to  them,  or  they  mus 
seek  it  in  countries  where  there  is  an  excess,  and  where  they  can  find 
employment.  The  American  States,  tothis  class  of  intelligent  Germans, 
is  viewed  as  being  altogether  the  most  inviting  locality.  The  connec- 
tions existing  between  the  six  or  eight  millions  of  Germans  who  now 
have  homes  in  the  United  States  and  their  families  and  friends  in  ''  Va- 
terlaud "  is,  of  course,  an  iutiuential  element  affecting  the  direction 
which  the  current  of  German  emigration  takes. 

An  attempt  is  now  being  made  b}^  a  powerful  organization  in  Berlin 
to  change  the  flow  of  German  emigration  from  its  direction  toward  the 
United  States  to  some  other  locality  not  yet  fixed  upon.  This  organiza- 
tion is  termed  the  "Society  for  German  Colonization."  Its  object  is  ofiflcl- 
ally  declared  to  be,  (1)  the  creation  of  a  sufticient  capital  for  colonization 
purposes;  (2)  the  discovery  and  acquisition  of  suitable  colonizing  dis- 
tricts; (3)  directing  the  stream  of  German  emigration  to  these  posses- 
sions, aTid  "every  German  whose  heart  beats  for  the  honor  and  great- 
ness of  his  nation"  is  called  upon  to  join  this  society. 

Neither  this  nor  any  other  §cheme  is  likely  to  have  any  tangible  effect 
for  years  to  come  in  checking  German  emigration  to  America.  The 
favorable  food  crop  of  last  year,  coupled  with  the  exercise  of  some  re- 
straining influences,  have,  in  comparison  with  the  previous  year,  some- 
what narrowed  the  stream  of  emigration  from  (Germany.  But  a  short 
crop  of  cereals,  a  temporary  lull  in  the  demand  for  German  numufact- 
ures,  of-  any  other  slight  disturbance  in  the  equilibrium  of  events  in  the 
Empire,  would  swell  the  current  of  German  emigration  to  the  United 
States  to  dimensions  never  before  known. 

CREFELD   TEXTILE   INDUSTRIES. 

There  are  now  about  00,000  ])ersons  of  all  classes  employed  in  the 
various  branches  connected  with  the  textile  productions  of  Crefeld  and 
its  immediate  vicinity.  Dyeing  and  finishing  is  done  in  large  establish- 
ments located  in  the  city. 

Of  the  00,000  persons  named  about  50,000  are  weavers,  and  only  a 
very  small  portion  of  these  reside  and  work  in  the  city  of  Crefeld.  A 
very  large  per  cent.,  90  perhaps,  of  the  fine  silk,  half  silk,  velvet,  and 
plush  goods  produced  in  this  district  are  made  on  hand  looms,  which 
are  owned  and  located  in  the  houses  occupied  by  the  weavers.  This 
business  is,  therefore,  properly  designated  here  as  "house  industry." 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  327 

The  introduction  of  power-looms  into  factory  buildings  is  rai)idly  in- 
creasing, threatening  still  more  gloomy  times  for  the  poor  hand-loom 
weavers^  but,  up  to  the  present  date,  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods, 
power-looms  have  not  been  able  to  compete  in  quality  with  hand-loom 
products. 

THE   HOMES    OF   THE   WEAVERS. 

The  homes  of  the  weavers  are  scattered  over  an  area  of  country  perhaps 
20  miles  in  diameter,  Crefeld  being  in  the  center.  They  are  to  be  found 
located  in  clusters,  which  make  jn^etty  little  villages,  picturesquely  situ- 
ated. The  dwellings  are  uniformly  built  of  rough,  brown-burnt  brick, 
and  are  only  one-story,  high  with  attic  rooms  for  sleeping  i)urposes. 
By  each  window  on  the  ground  floor  is  generally  located  one  of  their 
clumsy,  primitive-looking  looms.  Under  the  guidance  of  wise  regula- 
tions the  house  lots  in  these  numerous  villages  are  surveyed  and  so 
located  that  in  the  rear  of  each  dwelling  is  provided  a  liberal  piece  of 
land  which  is  to  be  used  as  a  garden.  Besides  this  a  generous  air  space 
divides  the  houses,  where  sunshine,  flowers,  fruit-trees,  and  foluige 
may  purify  the  air  that  circulates  around  the  homes  of  these  incessant 
toilers. 

Their  dwellings,  uniform  in  size,  areusully  located  on  one  broad  ave- 
nue, which  the  Government  has  fringed  and  decked  with  over-arching 
shade  trees.  These  highways  are  always  kept  scrupulously  clean  and 
in  excellent  condition  in  every  way.  In  the  winter  plants,  bearing 
bright  and  cheerful  flowers,  may  be  seen  growing  luxuriantly  in  the 
windows  of  most  of  these  humble  cottages,  and  in  summer  flowering 
vines  with  fresh  foliage  creep  up  the  rough  brown  walls  and  hang  pend- 
ant from  the  eaves  and  portals  of  the  doors  and  windows,  giving  to  the 
exterior  an  air  of  comfort  and  jjicturesque  beautj^  most  agreeable  to 
the  eye. 

The  villages  are  connected  by  an  industrial  railroad,  so  called,  which 
encircles  the  district,  and  at  stated  hours  trains  run  for  the  convenience 
of  the  weavers,  who  daily  come  in  troops  to  bring  their  finished  work  to 
their  employers  in  the  busy  city,  and  take  away  new  warps,  fillings, 
and  i^atterns  for  future  work. 

Each  of  these  communities  has  its  "gasthaus,"  or  village  tavern, 
where  the  inhabitants  find  beer  and  their  employers  a  halting  j)lace 
when  they  go  out  to  inspect  the  work  of  their  employes. 

For  a  description  of  the  interior  aspects  of  these  homes  and  the 
thoughts  of  their  occupants,  I  refer  to  the  accompaniing  statement  of 
one  of  them,  who  is  a  fair  representative  of  the  average  of  all  who  have 
families  to  supi)ort. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  highest  degree  of  economy  in  the  art 
of  living  appears  to  have  been  attained  in  these  communities;  $2  per 
week  is  about  the  average  of  their  earnings,  after  having  labored  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  hours  per  day,  in  close  rooms  and  in  uncomfortable 
and  unhealthy  attitudes.  Though  their  children  are  astonishingly 
numerous,  the  streets  are  quiet,  and,  during  school  hours,  only  the  shut- 
tle and  the  rattle  of  the  loom  is  heard,  but  the  school-house  is  full. 
When  "school  is  out"  the  children  swarm  in  numbers  that  are  bewilder- 
ing. Andyet,  notwithstanding  thescanty  earnings  of  their  parents,  there 
is  no  appearance  of  squalid  poverty.  These  children  are  quiet,  polite, 
healthy,  and  neatly  clad,  and  their  uncomplaining  parents,  though  thin 
in  flesh,  and  in  appearance  always  wan  and  weary,  wear  tidy  garments. 
And  all  this,  with  average  health  and  excellenfc  school  culture,  where 


328  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

the  head  of  the  family  earns  but  $2  duriuff  a  week's  labor  of  seventy- 
two  or  eighty  hours.  I  imagine  that  the  little  gardens,  pure  air,  the 
sunshine,  flowers,  and  foliage  are  great  helpers  in  the  achievements 
resulting  from  these  economic  examples.  '-  •> 

The  employers  appear  to  be  humane  and  furnish  low  rents,  and.  with 
other  considerations,  favor  their  employes  as  much  as  they  can,  under 
the  present  condition  of  European  industries  and  the  surplus  labor  by 
which  they  are  surrounded.  The  Government  seems,  also,  diligent  iu 
the  performance  of  such  duties  and  works  of  aid  as  can  be  expected 
from  it,  but  the  result  still  shows  that  in  supporting  family  life  with 
some  comfort  the  utmost  stretch  of  intelligent  economy  has  been  at- 
tained in  the  homes  of  the  Crefeld  silk  weavers. 

In  their  experience  can,  I  think,  be  found  lessons  which  may  be 
studied  with  profit  by  those  who  govern  some  of  the  great  cities  of 
America  and  elsewhere,  as  well  as  by  the  working  classes  who  live  in 
them. 

The  weavers,  as  a  class,  are  industrious  and  economical  even  beyond 
the  force  of  necessity,  and  single  men,  notwithstanding  their  meager 
earnings,  manage  to  save  a  little,  but  as  soon  as  they  marry  their  sav- 
ings disappear.  The  deposits  in  the  Crefeld  savings  bank  amount  to 
$1,666,000,  and  this  money  belongs  mainly  to  weavers.  They  often 
work  for  the  same  employers  or  firms  during  their  life-time. 

INTERVIEWS  WITH   WEAVERS. 

Heiuricli  Wellnianiis,  -weaver,  St.  Hubert,  near  Crefeld,  in  reply  to  interrogatories, 
answered  as  follows  :  I  am  tbirty-uine  years  of  age,  and  bave  been  married  tbree 
years,  and  bave  a  family  consisting  of  a  wife,  tbree  cbildreu,  and  one  assistant.  I 
am  a  velvet  weaver,  and  bave  tbree  looms,  one  for  myself,  one  for  my  wife,  and  one 
for  my  assistant:  tbese  tbree  looms  are  set  up  in  one  room,  wbicb  is  about  15  feet  by 
12  in  size ;  tbis  room  is  also  onr  living  room,  wbere  we  cook,  take  our  meals,  and  do 
tbe  bousebold  work. 

Our  united  earnings,  per  week,  average  about  16  marks  (-$3.80),  or  8  marks  for  each 
loom.  I  also  receive  one-third  of  tbe  earnings  of  my  assistant,  wbicb  makes  our  total 
yearly  income  S226.81.     I  own  tbe  house  I  live  in,  and  tbe  garden  attached  to  it. 

Q.  Can  you  support  your  family  of  five  persons  on  your  earnings? — A.  Yes,  sir; 
we  manage  to  live  ujion  it  in  a  way. 

Q.  Please  explain  in  what  way  you  do  it,  and  give  details  if  convenient. — A.  I  do 
not  keep  an  account  of  tbe  cost  of  our  different  living  expenses  ;  I  only  know  that  I 
work  all  tbe  time,  and  cannot  save  anything  for  old  age  or  sickness.  In  summer  I 
work  from  4  o'clock  iu  tbe  morning  until  9  o'clock  in  the  eveuing  ;  iu  winter  from  7 
o'clock  in  tbe  morning  until  1)  o'clock  in  the  evening.  I  have  worked  at  my  trade 
since  I  was  fifteen  years  of  age — twenty-four  years. 

During  tbe  nineteen  years  previous  to  my  marriage  I  saved  .540  marks ;  with  that 
sum  I  bought  the  land  my  house  stands  upon ;  my  house  and  garden  is  mortgaged  for 
the  money  I  borrowed  to  build  the  house;  the  vegetables  we  raise  are  our  chief  sup- 
port ;  I  do  not  know  bow  we  should  live  without  our  garden  ;  nearly  all  weavers  who 
have  a  family  have  the  i)ri  vileges  of  a  garden  which  belongs  to  the  bouse  they  live  iu. 

Q.  Do  weavers  generally  own  tbe  houses  they  live  iu? — A.  Not  generally;  many 
do,  but  their  houses  are  usually  mortgaged  to  tlie  employers,  who  accept  a  low  rate 
of  interest  on  the  same  ;  those  who  do  not  own  their  bouses  are  furnished  with  homes 
by  their  employers  at  small  rents ;  it  is  very  difficult  for  a  weaver  who  has  a  family 
to  live  without  incurring  debts. 

Q.  Do  your  earnings  represent  a  fair  average  of  the  earnings  of  other  weavers  in 
this  village? — A.  Yes,  sir;  I  think  they  do.  I  am  contented  if  we  save  enough  lo  pay 
the  interest  upon  the  mortgage  on  onr  house.  I  do  not  expect  to  save  anything  for 
old  age.  There  is  no  use  bothering  ourselves  with  thoughts  about  that.  In  fact, 
weavers  bave  not  much  occasion  to  think  of  old  age,  for  they  very  seldom  reach  it. 
If  they  do,  they  must  receive  suj>i)ort  from  the  town.  Life  is  not  very  attractive, 
but  we  make  the  most  of  it,  and  thank  God  for  what  it  gives  us. 

Q.  Do  you  regard  your  business  as  unhealthy  ;  and,  if  so,  explain  why? — A.  Yes,  sir; 
it  is  unhealthy  because  we  are  always  obliged  to  work  in  a  stooping  position,  and  in  a 
close  and  warm  room,  and  we  cannot  aftord  to  purchase  food  sufficiently  nutritious  and 
strengthening  (kriiftig)  to  sustain  us  in  doing  such  work. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  329 

Q.  Of  what  does  your  food  consist  ? — A.  At  7  o'clock  a.  iii.  we  have  coffee  and  bread, 
and  sometimes  butter;  at  10  o'clock  a.  m.,  coffee  or  beer  and  bread;  at  12  o'clock, 
Bonp,  vegetables,  and  sometimes  bacon;  at  4  o'clock  p.  m.,  coffee,  bread,  and  some- 
times butter;  at  8  o'clock,  for  supper,  potatoes  only.  This  is  about  the  way  that  all 
weavers  live  in  this  locality. 

Q.  To  what  extent  is  your  wife  able  to  assist  you  at  the  loom  ? — A.  Well,  she  does 
the  best  she  can,  but  a  weaver's  wife  nearly  always  has  a  child  in  her  arms. 

Q.  Are  wages  now  higher  or  lower  than  they  were  five  years  ago? — A.  Wages  re- 
main the  same,  but  somehow  my  earnings  don't  go  as  far  as  they  did  five  years  ago. 
I  think  some  kinds  of  provisions  are  higher  now  than  then. 

In  order  to  exhibit  a  more  complete  picture  of  the  life  aud  views  of 
weavers,  I  give  the  following  testimony  of  one  who  is  unmarried  and 
•who  lives  and  works  in  the  city : 

Julius  Feldger,  weaver,  of  the  city  of  Crefeld,  in  reply  to  iuteirogatories,  answered 
as  follows:  I  am  twenty-nine  years  of  age  and  unmarried ;  I  am  a  silk  weaver,  aud 
have  worked  at  that  business  since  I  left  school  at  fourteen  years  of  age. 

Q.  Where  is  your  place  of  business  ? — A.  I  work  at  home  upon  my  own  loom,  as  do 
nearly  all  weavers  in  aud  around  Crefeld. 

I  work  by  the  piece,  i.  e.,  so  much  per  "stab"  of  120  centimeters  (about  IJ  yards). 
I  work  from  thirteen  to  fourteen  hours  per  day,  and  earn  about  15  marks  (|3.57)  per 
week. 

Q.  Is  that  about  the  average  earnings  of  other  weavers? — A.  No,  sir;  but  very 
few  weavers  earn  15  marks  per  week.  I  am  regarded  as  an  expert  workman,  and  am 
favored  with  a  choice  from  the  best  paying  work  on  high-cost  goods.  I  think  the 
average  earnings  of  all  weavers  ranges  between  8  and  10  marks  (about  $2)  per  week. 

Q.  Canyon  support  yourself  comfortably  upon  your  earnings? — A.  That  depends 
upon  the  view  which  one  takes  of  what  you  call  "  comfort."  I  get  on  from  year  to 
year,  as  a  single  man,  without  suffering.  I  can  obtain  with  my  earnings  the  actual 
necessities  of  life,  with  a  little  to  spare  for  beer  and  cigars.  Some  people  would  call 
that  comfort;  but  that  is  a  quality  of  existence  which  those  interested  will  estimate 
for  themselves  according  to  the  standard  by  which  they  measure  the  purchasing 
power  of  15  marks  a  week. 

EXPENDITURES. 

Q.  Your  earnings  appear  to  be  780  marks  ($185.64)  a  year.  Please  explain  the  uses 
you  make  of  this  money  during  that  period. — A.  For  one  pretty  good  suit  of  clothes 
I  pay  $14.28  ;  for  my  rooms  and  board,  $123.76;  for  beer,  cigars,  theater  and  lottery 
tickets,  $47.60 ;  total,  $185.64.  I  suppose  I  might  save  a  mark  a  week  for  the  savings 
bank,  but  I  don't.  I  would  like  to  be  married,  but  that  is  a  luxury  that  my  earnings 
will  not  afford. 

Q.  Have  you  in  your  mind  any  plans  or  hopes  for  bettering  your  condition  in  the 
future  ? — A.  I  have  no  plans,  for  to  make  plans  without  means  or  money  would  be  ab- 
surd. I  don't  really  see  anything  better  before  me  than  simple  existence  and  labor. 
Yet  I  have  hopes. 

LOTTERY   TICKETS   AND   HOPE. 

Q.  Upon  what  are  your  hopes  based  ? — A.  I  hope  to  draw  a  prize  in  a  cathedral  or 
church  lottery. 

Q.  Do  you  often  purchase  lottery  tickets  ? — A.  Yes,  sir ;  quite  often. 

Q.  Do  others  also  of  your  class  often  invest  in  lottery  tickets  ? — A.  Oh,  yes  ;  nearly 
all,  more  or  less. 

Q.  Are  lotteries  numerous  in  Germany  ? — A.  Yes,  indeed.  Nearly  all  the  great 
cathedrals  that  are  unfinished  or  need  repairs  "run  lotteries."  There  are  also  many 
other  kinds  of  lotteries,  and  nearly  all  workingmen  and  girls  buy  tickets. 

Q.  Did  you  ever  draw  a  prize  ? — A.  No,  sir ;  I  never  did. 

Q.  Do  you  know  of  any  one  who  has  drawn  a  prize  in  any  of  these  numerous  lot- 
teries ? — A.  No,  sir;  but  I  have  read  in  newspapers  of  such  happenings. 

Q.  Such  business  may  be  good  for  the  churches,  but  don't  yon  think  it  is  bad  for  the 
poor  workingman? — A.  No,  sir;  I  do  not.  With  a  lottery  ticket  in  our  pockets  we 
have  hopes,  without  it  we  have  none;  and  hope  is  a  stimulus  which,  in  this  country, 
a  laboring  man  very  much  needs. 

Q.  Do  you  regard  the  possession  of  a  ticket  in  a  cathedral  lottery  as  a  manifesta- 
tion of  your  faith  in  the  church  ? — A.  My  faith  would  be  stronger  if  I  drew  a  prize. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

Q.  What  political  rights  do  you  enjoy  as  a  citizen  of  Germany  ? — A.  I  don't  pay 
taxes  enough  to  entitle  me  to  vote  at  all  elections.  My  political  rights,  therefore, 
don't  amount  to  much.     I  would  have  to  own  property  and  pay  taxes  to  the  amount 


330  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

of  12  to  40  marks  in  order  to  vote  at  city  elections.  One  nuist  have  property  and  pay 
taxes  here  iu  order  to  enjoy  what  yon  call  "  political  rij^hts."  I,  therefore,  take  very 
little  interest  in  snch  matters.  The  general  election  laws  are  too  complicated  for  my 
understanding. 

WOKKINGMEN   AND   LOTTERY  GAMBLING. 

After  listeuing-  to  tbe  above  statement  regarding  lotteries  and  lottery 
tickets,  I  made  some  further  investigations  with  a  view  of  learning  to 
what  extent  tbe  working  classes  iu  this  part  of  Germany  indulged  in 
such  a  si)ecies  of  gambling.  From  the  places  where  lottery  tickets  are 
sold  it  was  ascertained  that  workinjjf  men  and  women  and  maid  servants 
•were  their  ])rincipal  jiatrons.  It  is  seldom  that  tickets  are  purchased 
by  those  who  can  afford  to  imj^eril  their  money  in  such  enterprises,  but 
the  passion  among  the  poorer  classes  for  risking  their  scanty  earnings 
iu  lottery  tickets  of  various  kinds,  has  developed  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  can  be  truthfully  said  to  be  one  of  the  causes  that  makes  poverty  and 
distress  conspicuous  among  them.  So  far  as  I  can  learn,  the  Govern- 
ment has  placed  no  restraints  ui)on  this  evil  which  takes  the  bread  from 
the  mouths  of  the  needy,  while  at  the  same  time  it  leaves  its  impress  of 
immorality  and  improvidence  where  lessons  of  ])rudeuce  and  frugality 
should  be  especially  inculcated. 

The  Government  does,  I  believe,  prohibit  the  purchase  of  tickets  in 
lotteries  that  are  organized  outside  of  its  own  dominions;  but  those 
within  the  Empire  are  too  numerous  to  be  catalogued,  and  from  these 
the  state  receives  an  income  tax  iu  some  form.  Among  the  principal 
and  most  popular  are  the  Prussian,  the  Saxon,  the  Braunschwig,  and 
Hamburg  lotteries.  Then  follow  those  of  the  great  cathedrals  at 
Cologne,  (Jim,  and  Speierische,  and  the  Koyal  Kirchenbau  (church- 
buil(ling)  lottery  at  Munich. 

These  are  liberally  advertised  with  artistic  illustrations,  oue  of  which 
represents  brilliant  silver  liued  clouds,  above  which  rise  the  cross  and 
spire,  and  iu  front  of  these  an  angel  is  floating  ou  outspread  wings  and 
passing  down  bags  of  gold  to  the  fortunate  peasants  who  have  pur- 
chased tickets. 

The  above  are  but  a  few  of  those  that  are  iu  existence  iu  Germany. 
In  the  windows  of  stationers,  book  sellers,  cigar-shops,  and  <lrinking- 
saloons  are  exhibited,  in  attractive  forms,  these  tickets  of  hope  which 
are  so  alluring  to  the  working  classes. 

ELECTION   LAWS   EXPLAINED. 

I  append  a  brief  explanation  of  the  operation  of  the  Gernuiu  election 
laws  as  alluded  to  by  the  last  witness,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  what 
rights  under  them  tlie  working  classes  have. 

Every  German  citizen  who  is  twenty-five  years  old,  not  a  bankrupt 
or  uiuler  i)olice  supervision,  or  a  pauper,  has  a  right  to  vote  iu  the  state 
whfire  he  lives  for  members  of  the  Imperial  Parliament. 

Every  Prussian  citizen  twenty-four  years  of  age,  ]H)ssessing  the  same 
qualifications  as  above,  is  entitled  to  vote  for  members  of  the  Prussian 
Parliament. 

The  election  of  members  to  the  Imperial  Parliament  is  a  direct  one, 
by  ballot,  whereas  the  election  for  the  Prussian  Parliament  is  an  indi- 
rect viva  voce  one,  the  original  electors  being  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  the  amount  of  Government  taxes  they  pay,  each  class  rep- 
resenting the  same  amount  of  taxes.  These  classes  electa  certain  num- 
ber of  electors,  and  this  l)ody  elects  the  member  of  Parliament. 

Every  town  is  divided  into  election  districts,  which  must  not  embrace 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  331 

less  than  750,  nor  more  than  1,749  inhabitants.  In  eacb  election  dis- 
trict there  are  three  classes  to  be  represented  and  each  class  must  elect 
two  electors,  or  six  for  the  entire  district. 

To  illustrate  the  operation  of  the  law  I  will  state  how  it  works  in 
Crefeld.  At  the  last  election  for  members  of  the  Prussian  Parliament 
the  original  electors  (the  voters)  were  divided  into  three  classes,  as  fol- 
lows: 500  first  class,  electing  100  electors;  1,200  second  class,  electing 
100  electors,  and  12.000  third,  class  electing  100  electors.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  500  original  electors  of  the  first  class  paid  the  same  amount 
of  Government  taxes  as  1,200  of  the  second  class  and  12,000  of  the  third 
class. 

No  original  elector  has  a  right  to  vote  for  more  than  two  electors,  and 
these  must  be  from  his  class  and  from  his  district.  The  electors  must 
belong  to  the  same  district  as  the  original  voters.  In  this  way  a  wealthy 
citizen,  like  Mr.  Krupp,  for  instance,  in  Essen,  could  only  vote  for  two 
electors,  even  if  he  paid  one-tbird  of  all  the  Government  taxes  levied 
upon  his  district. 

According  to  the  three-class  system  he  would  seem  to  have  a  class 
entirely  to  himself.  But  in  such  a  case — which  rarely  happens — the  re- 
maining two-thirds  would  be  again  divided  into  three  parts  or  classes, 
so  that  money  influence  alone  cannot  predominate,  nor  can  the  just  in- 
fluence of  property  be  unduly  suppressed. 

In  order  to  have  a  vote  for  the  municipal  elections  the  voter  must 
have  in  the  town  where  he  lives  a  dwelling-house  of  his  own,  or  pay 
from  6  to  30  marks  land  tax,  or  from  12  to  3(5  marks  ($3  to  $8.50)  Gen- 
eral Government  taxes.  This  rule  is  fixed  ditt'erently  in  different  towns. 
In  Crefeld  12  marks  is  the  minimum,  and  the  original  voter  must  be 
twenty  four  years  of  age  and  over.  The  election  is  direct,  but  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  third-class  system,  the  same  as  for  members  of  the 
Piussian  Parliament. 

It  will  be  observed,  therefore,  that  property,  or  taxable  worth,  is  the 
power  that  chooses  Prussian  legislators.  The  working  classes  have,  it 
is  true,  a  vote,  but  the  value  and  influence  of  that  vote  is  measured  by 
the  amount  of  taxes  it  pays,  as  is  seen  by  the  operation  of  the  law  in 
Grefeld,  where  500  property-holders  in  the  first  class  choose  just  as 
many  electors  as  12,000  working  men  in  the  third  class. 

In  choosing  members  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  every  German  citi- 
zen has  the  right  to  vote  except  soldiers  in  active  service,  and  persons 
who  are  non  compos^  or  under  the  ban  of  the  law  for  crime. 

A  dyer's   TESTIMONY. 

Johaiin  Brewer,  of  Crefeld,  au  expert  silk-dyer,  in  reijlj^  to  iuterrogatories,  said: 

1  am  thirty-eight  years  of  age ;  I  am  a  silk-dyer,  and  have  been  engaged  in  that  busi- 
ness for  twenty-four  years ;  I  learned  my  business  in  Crefeld,  and  have  never  been  out 
of  that  city  except  for  short  walks. 

Q.  Are  you  married,  and  have  you  a  family  ? — A.  Well,  I  think  so  ;  I  have  a  wife, 
and  up  to  date  have  had  eleven  children  ;  two  are  dead  and  nine  are  living  with  me 
at  home.  My  oldest  child  is  sixteen  and  my  youngest  three  years  of  age.  Six  of  them 
go  to  school,  and  my  two  oldest  girls,  one  fifteen  and  the  other  sixteen  years  of  age, 
are  working  at  home  as  silk-winders. 

I  receive  per  week  $4.28;  our  regular  working  hours  are  from  6  o'clock  a.  m.  to  12, 
and  from  1.30  to  7  p.  m  ;  we  are  allowed  30  minutes  at  8  o'clock  a.  ni.  for  breakfast, 
and  at  4  p.  m.  30  minutes  for  vespers  or  lunch,  making  12  full  hours'  work  per  day. 
The  wages  I  receive  are  considerably  more  than  the  average  of  dyers'  wages.  No 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  last  five  years  in  the  rate  of  wages  paid  dyers.  I  do 
n(jt  think  our  net  earnings  are  quite  as  much  now,  because  living  costs  more. 

For  breakfast  I  have  co flee  and  bread,  and  sometimijs  butter;  for  dinner  I  have 

2  ounce^s  of  meat,  generally  pork,  with  vegetables  ;  for  supper,  coffee  and  bread,  and 


332  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Boraetimes  potatoes.  I  cannot  attord  meat  for  my  family.  My  long  day's  work  makes 
a  little  meat  nec«ssary  for  myself. 

If  I  am  not  sick  I  earn,  durinjr  the  year,  $;222.T().  My  two  girls,  together,  earn 
$2.14,  and  if  not  sick,  per  year,  .$111.88,  making  our  united  earnings,  .$334.1.'). 

I  ])ay  per  year  for  rent,  .$:{7.1'i  ;  for  food  for  mj  fannly  of  11  persons,  ,$!221).19,  an  aver- 
age of  $21  f(jr  each  person  per  year,  or  41  cents  per  week,  or  (I  cents  ])er  day  ;  for  cloth- 
ing, .$49.30  ;  for  school  books  for  six  children,  $1 1.90 ;  for  doctor's  bills,  last  year,  $3.57 ; 
for  municipal  taxes,  $0.72;  for  dues  to  Sick  Man's  Aid  Society,  .$1.42;  for  dues  to 
Burial  Society,  $1.24;  for  beer  forniy  self,  $1H.  5(5;  for  fuel  and  petroleum  oil,  $12.41. 
Total,  $359.(i(i. 

Q.  Your  expenditures  appear  to  exceed  your  earnings.  How  do  you  provide  for  the 
deficit? — A.  If  we  cannot  get  through  the  year  on  our  united  earnings  I  am  assisted 
by  private  benevolence  frolu  well-to-do  i)(0))le  or  by  the  poor  board.  In  case  I  am 
sick  I  receive  $1.50  ])er  week  from  the  Sick  Man's  Aid  Society,  of  which  I  ,im  a  mem- 
ber. Assistance  to  this  extent  is  only  granted  to  the  head  of  a  family  who  is  a  mem- 
ber. I  also  pay  5  cents  per  week  for  my.self  and  wife  to  the  burial  society,  Avhicli  is  a 
sort  of  private  insurance  company,  and  insures  means  for  a  decent  burial.  Should 
one  of  us  die  the  survivor  receives  $42.84. 

Q.  Do  you  pay  cash  for  supplies  for  your  family? — A.  No,  sir.  Inducements  are 
held  out  by  small  dealer.s,  who  keep  everything  needed  for  household  purposes,  for 
us  to  accept  credit,  aud  when  one  has  commenced  under  this  system  it  seems  difficult 
to  withdraw  from  it.  Of  large  dealers  I  could  purchase  much  clieaper  for  cash.  Dyers 
who  receive  the  same  wages  that  I  do  pay  a  municipal  tax  of  6  marks  per  year. 

Q.  Are  there  any  prospects  in  view  which  promise  a  better  condition  of  life  for 
yon? — A.  If  my  children  turn  out  well,  and  do  not  marry  too  early  in  life,  they  will 
help  me,  should  I  reach  old  age.  If  they  follow  the  example  of  most  of  our  poor 
young  people  I  shall  be  worse  off  than  I  am  now,  which  is  bad  enough. 

Q.  Do  your  observations  show  that  the  working  classes  of  Germany  marry  earlier 
than  what  you  call  "the  well-to-do  classes?" — A.  Oh,  yes:  and  I  regard  this  custom 
combined  with  the  habit  of  drinking  spirits,  which  prevails  in  this  community,  as 
the  great  curse  of  the  working  classes. 

Q.  Can  you  assign  any  reafiou  for  the  existence  of  the  custom  and  habits  you  speak 
of? — A.  I  haye  au  opinion  upon  the  subject.  The  well-to-do  classes  have  the  means 
of  interesting  and  amusing  themselves.  A  workiiigman  or  woman  who  must  labor 
twelve  or  more  hours  per  day  for  a  scanty  existence  have  no  such  resources.  Saving 
with  a  view  of  providing  for  their  future  pleasures  or  happiness  is  almost  hopeless. 
So,  they  seek,  impulsively,  for  whatever  possible  happiuess  seems  attainable  by  them. 
A  wife  and  a  dram  shoii  can  always  be  secured  by  the  poorest  workingmau,  and  he 
flies  to  the.sc  as  his  only  resource.  If  a  dyer  or  weaver  should  not  take  a  wife  until 
he  had  saved  enough  money  to  buy  a  little  house  and  garden,  dyers  and  weavers  in 
this  locality  would  rarely  ever  marry.  Marrying  in  poverty  has  its  evils,  but,  in  my 
opinion,  it  is  better  for  society  than  not  marrying  at  all. 

Q.  Do  you  think  that  the  habits  of  drinking  spirits  injures  the  workingman  more 
than  beer  drinking  ? — A.  Certainly.  It  is  infinitely  worse.  The  only  harm  that  comes 
to  a  working  man  from  drinking  lager-beer  is  the  loss  of  the  money  he  pays  for  it. 
It  is  not  so  with  spirits,  which  puts  the  devil  into  a  workingmau. 

Q.  Is  your  occupation  a  healthy  one? — A.  No,  sir;  working  in  acids  is  very  uu- 
healtliy  business,  and  a  dyer's  life  is  short. 

Q.  Do  you  visit  places  of  amusement,  theaters,  &c.  ? — A.  No,  sir.  I  have  not  the 
means  to  enable  me  to  do  so.  I  wish  I  had.  I  think  my  life  aud  health  would  be 
better  for  it.  If  Crefeld  had  a  tiue  public  garden,  centrally  located,  after  the  style 
of  most  other  large  cities  in  Germany,  and  would,  on  holidays,  furnish  good  music  for 
a  very  snuill  entrance  fee,  it  would  bo  a  source  of  great  hajipiness  to  workingmen  and 
their  families,  and  ])rovide  a  satisfying  source  of  enjoymtint,  which  thousands  of  them 
now  seek  in  the  drinking  saloons.  I  don't  complain.  The  Government  aiul  well-to- 
do  people  do  what  they  can  for  us.  But,  if  they  would  j)rovide  for  us  this  source  of 
entertainment,  and  do  less  in  some  other  directions,  I  think  the  city,  and  its  rich  and 
poor,  would  be  the  gainers  in  many  ways. 

STRIKES. 

Strikes  are  almost  unknown  among  operatives  in  textile  industries  in 
this  district.  The  weavers  work  by  tlie  piece,  and  the  endless  and  chang- 
ing variety  of  goods  ])rodnced,  and  the  wide  range  in  prices  paid  are 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  strikes.  As  weavers'  work  Is  done  in  their  own 
houses  ea(;h  regards  himself  as  a  master  icor7:man.  They  are  iiulepend^ 
out  of  each  other,  and  not  dependent  uj)on  any  one  emi)loyer.  If  they 
are  not  satisfied  with  one  they  accept  work  from  another.     The  employer 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY 


333 


is,  as  a  cousequence,  obliged  to  be  considerate  with  bis  workmen,  in 
order  to  retain  tbeir  services.  These  conditions,  conpled  with  the  fact 
that  there  is  always  a  surplus  of  labor,  secures  harmonious  relations 
between  employer  and  employ^,  and  makes  strikes  among  weavers  and 
dyers  in  this  part  of  Germany  nearly  impossible.  ,  /j  j;jij^;[] 


A  printer's  testimony. 


Julius  F.  Giaaf,  printer,  of  Crefield,  replied  as  follows  to  questions  which  he  was 
requested  to  answer:  I  am  44  years  of  age,  and  have  a  wife  and  6  children ;  I  am 
foreman  in  a  newspaper  composition  room  ;  I  have  been  eogaged  iu  the  printing  busi- 
ness for  29  years. 

Wages  of  compositors  in  Crefield  range  from  $3.57  to  .$5.71  per  week ;  in  nearly  all  other 
towns  iu  Pm.ssia  they  are  paid  by  the  piece.  The  regular  rates  paid  for  piece-work  \m 
30  pfenuige  (7  cents)  for  1,000  ens,  and  double  that  price  for  rule  and  figure  work. 
1,000  German  ens  is  equivalent  to  500  P^nglish  ems.  Compositors  can,  on  an  average, 
set  np  or  compose  from  12,000  to  15,000  ens  per  day,  of  9^  hours  work.  Proof-readers 
receive  per  week  from  $6.42  to  $7.14.  Pressmen  on  hand  machines  receive  from  $3.57 
to  $4.28  ;  and  pressmen  who  have  charge  of  steam-presses,  30  marks  per  week  ($7.14). 
Foremen  of  composition  rooms  are  usually  paid  about  $8.56  per  week,  and  a  day's  work 
throughout  Prussia  is  91  hours. 

Compositors  and  pressmen  with  families  find  it  very  difficult  to  live  upon  their 
wages  unless  their  wives  can  earn  something  by  working  in  some  other  business,  such 
as  windings  or  warping  in  silk  manufactories.  This  ispossible  in  Crefield,  but  in  other 
towns  it  is  very  difficult  for  them  to  find  employment,  and  as  a  result  printers  with 
families  have  a  very  hard  tussle  with  existence.  I  never  knew  a  German  printer  who 
had  a  family  that  was  able  to  save  a  penny.  Unmarried  printers,  of  course,  get  on 
pretty  well. 

Nearly  all  pressmen  are  members  of  a  pressmen's  union  association,  which  extends 
all  over  the  Empire.  When  members  of  this  association  are  sick,  they  receive  $3.57 
per  week ;  and  in  case  they  fail  to  secure  employment,  after  making  proper  etforta  to 
do  so,  they  receive  from  the  association  24  cents  per  day.  Members  of  the  pressmen's 
union  must  pay  to  the  association  as  dues  36  cents  per  week.  Pressmen  in  Germany 
rarely  live  beyond  forty  years  of  age. 

Compositors  in  this  country  are  not  of  a  roving  disposition,  and  generally  remain 
in  one  position  during  their  lives.  I  never  knew  but  one  who  emigrated,  and  he  went 
to  America. 

Compositors  are  the  most  intelligent  of  Germany's  workingmen,  and  many  of  them 
become  editors  and  men  of  prominence,  but  very  rarely  emjiloyers,  for  want  of  capitaL 

Coiupositors'  apprentices  receive  the  first  year,  72  cents  per  week,  and  provide  for 
themselves;  second  year,  96  cents;  third  year,  $1.20,  and  fourth  year,  $1.44.  Press- 
men's apprentices  receive  1  mark  per  week  more,  because  their  work  is  uncleanly  and 
unhealthy. 

Retail  prices  of  provisions  of  the  kind  and  quality  usually  purchased  for  consumption  by  the 

working  classes. 


Articles. 


Beef,  ox per  poiind . 

Beef,  cow do. .. 

Veal do. .. 

Pork do... 

Sides  of  pork,  without  bone do . . . 

Ham do... 

Bacon do . . . 

White  sausage do. . . 

Brown  sausage do... 

Blood  pudding do . . . 

Eggs per  dozen . 

Potatoes 100  pounds. 

Butter per  pound . 

Cheese do.. . 

Cauliflower per  piece . 

Black  bread per  pound . 

"Wheat  flour  bread do. .. 

Coffee  berries,  burnt .do... 


Price. 


Cts. 
16 
15 
14 
14 
19i 
23 
19 
19 
19 
14 
24 
72 
31 
21 
10 

2 

3 
42 


Articles. 


Lard per  pound. 

W  hite  sugar do... 

Salt do... 

Vinegar per  quart. 

Olive  oil do . . . 

Peas do.. . 

Beans do... 

Wheat  flour do... 

Milk per  quart. 

Butter-milk do. .. 

Pepper per  pound. 

Eice. do. .. 

Herring each. 

Dried  tish per  pound. 

Haddock do . . . 

Onions do . . . 

Barley,  for  soup do . . . 

Cabbage per  head. 


Prioe. 


Cte. 
19 
II 

i 

66 

19 

6 

5i 

*i 

2* 

38 

9 

24 
12 
10 

3i 

5i 

3 


334  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

A  butcher's  testimony, 

Leopold  Briicl<inaii,  bntclier,  of  Cnfeld,  nns^verod  as  follows  the  questions  addressed 
to  liiiii :  I  am  a  .Tcwisli  buh-licr,  and  liavc  been  many  years  in  the  business. 

Q.  Is  there  any  peculiarity  abont  the  business  of  a  "Jewish  bntclier"todistin2:nisb 
it  from  others? — A.  Yes,  sir.  A  "Jewish  buteher"  must  be,  to  some  extent,  a  scientitic 
man,  and  his  ofilicc^  is  regarded  as  an  )m)>ortant  one.  He  is,  in  accordance  with  the 
Jewish  laws,  appointed  by  the  r.abbi.  Ilis  duty  is  to  cut  the  throat  of  tlm  animal, 
carefully  examine  its  lunj;s  and  heart,  and  then  give  a  certificate  deciarinjf  whether 
the  meat  is  healthy  or  otherwise.  After  this  the  butcher's  assistant  takes  off  the 
skin  and  cuts  the  liody  into  four  parts,  iu  which  condition  it  is  delivered  to  the  retail 
dealer.  The  butcher  receives  a  fee  of  12  cents  for  kiHin<r  cows  And  oxen,  and  6  cents 
for  killiuf^  sheep  and  calvits.  Tlie  wajjes  paid  a  bufchcr's  assistant  are  usually  10 
marks  ]ier  week,  including  board  and  lodgings.  In  addilion  to  this  he  is  allowed,  as 
a  perquisite,  the  blood  of  animals  and  the  feet  of  calves,  from  which  he  receives  two 
or  thiee  marks  per  week.  The  wages  ])aid  to  assistants  liy  Christian  butchers  are  the 
same  as  those  I  have  named,  and  the  working  time  is  from  6  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.,  with  au 
intervening  half  hour  for  dinner. 

Q.  Has  thore  been  any  material  change  in  the  prices  of  meat  during  the  past  five 
years? — A.  The  price  of  beef,  mutton,  and  veal  remains  abont  the  same,  as  follows: 
The  entire  carcass  of  dressed  beef,  with  the  exception  of  the  tenderloin,  sells  for  65 
pfennige  (ITiJ  cents)  per  pound.  The  average  price  of  veal  and  mutton  is  alsotifjpfen- 
nige  (l.^)|  cents),  and  pork  is  60  pfennige  (14^  cents)  perpouud,  which  is  from  20  to  25 
per  cent,  less  than  it  was  a  year  ago. 

Q,  What,  in  your  opinion,  is  the  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  price  of  pork? — A.  I 
think  it  is  in  consequence  of  the  present  low  price  of  grain  and  flour.  Bakers  seem  to 
})j-ef'er  the  imported  article  to  ihat  of  domestic  growth.  Farmers  have  therefore 
thought  it  more  profitable  to  feed  their  grain  to  hogs  than  to  market  it  at  present 
prices.  The  result  is,  nearly  all  farmers,  during  the  past  year,  liave  largely  increased 
their  stock  of  hogs. 

Q.  Has  it  occurred  to  you  that  the  prohibition  of  the  importation  of  American  pork 
into  the  German  Empire  may  have  stimulated  the  business  of  raising  hogs  to  such  an 
extent  that  overproduction  has  been  made  apparent  to  buyers? — A.  No,  sir;  that  has 
not  occurred  to  me.     It  may,  nevertheless,  be  true. 

Q.  Has  the  talk  abont  trichin;Te  iu  foreign  pork  and  the  numerous  cases  of  trichino- 
sis which  have  taken  place  from  eating  German  pork  lessened  the  consumption  or  de- 
mand for  that  article  of  food  in  Germany? — A.  It  may  have  done  so  for  a  moment 
only,  but  that  "  scare"  is  now  entirely  forgotten  and  the  demand  for  pork  is  greater 
than  ever. 

Q.  Are  butchers,  in  a  business  point  of  view,  prosperous? — A.  Cattle-butchers,  so 
called,  areconterted  if  they  get  through  the  year  without  making  debts;  i)ork  butch- 
ers do  a  fair  paying  business,  and  manufacturers  of  sausage  get  rich. 

FARMING  AND  FARMING  LANDS. 

The  farm  referred  to  in  the  following  interview  is  located  in  the  cen- 
ter of  ii  ])rosperons  farming  district.  The  land  has  a  valne,  i)er  acre, 
abont  eqnal  to  the  average  of  other  farm  lands  in  Ehenish  I'rnssia, 
and  the  crops  produced  upon  it  are  such  as  aie  most  common  in  North- 
ern German}'.  Beetroot  farming  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  a  spe- 
cialty in  the  vicinity  of  Crefeld. 

A  farmer's   TESTIMONY. 

Peter  Krantzer,  farmer,  of  Vennikel,  near  Crefeld,  in  reply  to  interrogatories  gave 
the  following  infoimation:  I  am  foity  years  of  age,  and  have  been  engagt  d  in  the 
business  of  farming  all  my  life;  my  family  consists  of  four  persons,  myself,  wife, 
brother,  ami  sister.  My  farm  eml)raccs  .'')0  acres  of  fairly  good  land,  with  comfortable 
brick  dwt;iling,  and  barns  and  outhouses  of  ample  dimensions.  I  employ  one  man 
and  one  maid  servant.  This  h(dp,  with  two  horses,  is  all  the  force  I  need  for  my  farm, 
every  acre  of  which  is  under  thorough  cultivation. 

Q.  What  are  the  products  of  your  farm  ? — A.  I  am  engaged  in  general  farming,  and 
produce  rye,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  sugar-beets,  vigetables,  milk,  butter,  and  some 
fruits.  I  am,  to  some  extent,  engaged  in  the  breeding  and  raising  of  hogs,  of  which 
at  present,  I  have  but  thirty  ;  1  have  also  ten  cows. 

Q.  Will  you  pleiisc  state  what  portions  of  your  farm  are  devoted  to  different  prod- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  335 

nets? — A.  Four  acres  are  devoted  to  pasture;  10  to  clover,  for  hay;  25  acres  to  rye, 
■wheat,  and  barley,  and  11  acres  To  oats,  vegetables,  and  snj^ar  beets. 

I  generally  raise  sugar-beets  for  tlie  pnipose  of  feeding  them  to  my  cows,  as  I  ob- 
tain a  more  abundant  milk  product  from  them  tban  from  any  other  food.  When, 
however,  the  market  price  for  sugar-beets  reaches  1  mark  (^4  cents")  or  more  for  100 
pounds,  I  find  a  better  and  more  satisfactory  profit  in  selling  them  to  manufacturers 
of  sugar. 

Q.  What  is  the  average  amount  in  weight  of  sugar-beets  you  produce  per  acre  ? — A. 
Taking  the  average  of  tive  years  I  ])rodnced  about  300  centners  (15  tons)  per  acre,  and 
I  regard  that  as  a  satisfactory  yield,  as  it  gives  rae,  at  1  mark  per  centner,  300  marks 
per  acre  ($71.40). 

Q.  flow  do  yon  prepare  sugar-beets  for  feeding  to  your  cows? — A.  They  arc  crushed 
or  cut  by  machinery  into  thin  slices,  and  mixed  with  the  bran  of  wheat  or  rye  ilour. 
Slicing  the  beets  i-i  much  to  bo  preferred  to  cutting  them  into  small  square  pieces. 
For  producing  milk  of  good  quality  I  tiiid  no  food  for  cows  which  equals  this. 

Q.  How  much  and  what  kind  of  manures,  or  fertilizers,  do  you  use  per  acre  to  pro- 
duce such  a  crop? — A.  I  spread,  per  acre,  twenty  one-horse  cart  loads,  ten  in  spring 
and  ten  in  autumn.  I  plow  in  this  manure  immediately  after  spreading  it.  Slieep 
and  cow  manure  are  the  very  best  fertilizers  for  sngar-lieets  ;  horse  or  stable  mannres 
is  altogether  too  dry  and  healing.  As  an  additional  fertilizer,  I  sometimes  spread  four 
or  tive  English  quarters  (about  one  ton)  per  acre  of  iila3ter  after  the  manure  has  been 
plowed  iu. 

I  select  the  drye.st  portion  of  my  land  for  sugar-beets,  and  plow  it  at  least  four 
times,  making  the  soil  fiue  and  loose  before  I  plant.  The  land  should  never  he 
plowed  wlieu  it  is  wet. 

Q.  Do  you  raise  successive  crops  of  sugar-beets  upon  the  same  land? — A.  Oh,  no. 
Three  or  four  years  at  least  of  other  crops  should  intervene  before  planting  the  same 
land  again  ^\hh  beets.  For  intervening  crops  wheat  or  similar  grain  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

Q.  What  kind  of  crops,  in  your  opinion,  exhausts  or  impoverishes  the  soil  quick- 
est?— A.  Oats,  even  more  than  sugar-beets. 

Q.  Have  you  made  the  sul'ject  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  different  crops  a 
study,  and,  if  so,  for  how  long  a  time?— A.  Yes,  sir;  1  have  given  the  subject  much 
attention  for  more  than  twenty  years.  When  1  lease  a  piece  of  ground  for  a  single 
year,  as  I  sometimes  do,  I  always  plant  it  wifh  oats.  I  often  do  this  to  save  my  own 
land  from  impoverishment  when  I  wish  to  produce  a  crop  of  oats.  My  two  horses, 
ten  cows,  and  thiity  hogs  furuish  me  with  all  the  fertilizers  I  need  for  my  farm. 

Q.  What  kind  of  food  do  yon  prepare  for  your  hogs?— A.  Until  they  are  three 
months  old  I  feed  them  sour  inilk  and  refuse  from  the  house;  after  that  age  I  feed 
them  potatoes  mixed  with  buckwheat  and  rye  flour  ami  slops,  cooked.  I  pour  over 
this  mixtine  sour  milk  enough  to  make  it  moist. 

Q.  Where  do  yon  raise  and  keep  your  ho>:s? — A.  In  small  pens  with  cement  floors 
near  the  stable  of  the  cows.  Tliis  is  the  custom  of  farmers  all  over  Germany,  as  in 
this  way  we  can  utilize  our  space  under  the  barn  better  than  iu  any  other  way.  The 
pens  are,  I  think,  healthy  when  kept  clean. 

Q.  Does  the  sunshine  ever  reach  the  pens  where  yon  keep  your  hogs? — A.  No,  sir. 
They  have  sonu'.  light,  but  ne\-er  sunshine. 

Q.  Is  the  iirice  of  pork  at  this  time  higher  or  lower  than  it  was  a  year  ago? — A.  It 
is  considerably  lower.  We  farmers  thought  that  we  should  get  a  much  better  price 
after  the  iui[iorfa' ion  of  AnuMicau  ])ork  had  been  piohibited. 

Q.  What  are  farm  lands  in  y(uir  vicinity  worth  per  acre  ? — A.  At  this  time,  without 
buildings,  abont  600  uuirks  (!|i43). 

Q.  What  amount  of  niom-y  have  you  invested  in  your  farm,  including  buildings 
and  im))rovements?— A.  About  4.">,000  maiks($10,710).  It  would  not,  however,  sell 
at  thi  stime  for  uuu-e  than  3(5,000  marks.  Farming  lauds  iu  our  vicinity  appear  to  be 
depreciating  in  value. 

Q.  What  amount  of  taxes  do  you  pay  upon  your  farm? — A.  I  pay  a  municipal  tax 
of  I.'iO  marks  ($35.70),  and  a  general  or  land  tax  of  150  marks,  making  300  marks 
($71.4(1). 

Q.  What  are  your  net  savings  per  year  from  your  farm  ? — A.  My  net  savings  have 
been,  per  year,  about  GOU  marks  (1142. bO)  since^  ]b70— 14  years.  If  I  get  my  living', 
pay  my  taxes,  and  keep  out  of  debt,  I  am  satisfied.  Farming  is  poor  business.  I 
don't  think  farmers,  on  an  average,  save  more  than  1  per  cent,  on  their  investments. 
Our  land  now  requires  so  much  mauure,  which  is  very  expensive,  that  profits  are 
small. 

Q.  What  are  the  average  wages  paid  youremploy^s? — A.  I  pay  my  man  180  marke 
($4<i.84)  a  year,  and  my  housemaid  150  marks  ($35.70)  a  year,  which  is  about  the  av- 
erage paid  by  farmers  in  general. 

The  working  hours  are  as  follows  :  From  March  to  May,  from  6  o'clock  a.  m.  to  6 
o'clock  p.  m.     From  June  to  September,  from5  o'clock  a.  m.  to  7  o'clock  p.  m. 


336  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  are  farmers'  tables  usually  supplied,  and  at  what  honra 
takeu  ? — A.  For  breakfast,  which  is  taken  before  bcgiuninG;  work,  wo  usually  have 
milk  thickened  witd  wheat  flour,  and  bread  and  butter.  For  dinner,  at  12  o'clock, 
meat-souj),  with  vegetables  and  bacon.  At  7  o'clock,  supper  of  potatoes  and  bread, 
and  sometimes  butter. 

A  laborer's  TESTIMONY. 

Y.  Peltzer,  of  St.  Hubert,  near  Crelield,  laborer  on  Government  highways,  in  reply  to 
questions  propounded  to  him,  replied  as  follows :  I  am  seventy-three  years  of  age,  and 
have  been  employed  in  repairing  Government  highways  for  a  long  time. 

I  receive,  per  month,  as  wages,  30  marks  ($8.50),  and  no  supplies  of  any  kind  are 
furnished  me.  I  begin  work  at  0  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  linjsh  at  7  p.  m.,  and  am 
allowed  half  an  hour  for  my  dinner.  I  take  my  breakfast  before  I  begin  work,  and 
my  supper  after  I  have  finished.  I  have  a  wife  and  7  children — 4  sons  and  3  daugh- 
ters, who  are  now  grown  up  men  and  women.  They  have  all  left  me,  and  myself  and 
my  wife  are  living  alone. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  support  yourself  and  wife  on  the  432  marks  ($102.72)  which  yoa 
receive  per  year  ? — A.  I  am  obliged  to  do  it.  I  have  no  other  resource.  It  is  tough 
business,  but  complaints  are  useless  w'here  there  are  no  remedies. 

Q.  Are  your  seven  children  all  living  ? — A.  They  are  all  living,  married,  and  have 
families. 

Q.  Do  you  not,  at  your  time  of  life,  receive  any  assistance  from  your  children  f — 
A.  No,  sir.  They  have  a  pretty  hard  time  of  it  in  supporting  themselves.  Our  chil- 
dren can't  help  us  much.  Mine  are  as  good  and  dutiful  as  any  of  those  of  my  neigh- 
bors, but  I  cannot  say  that  they  have  ever  been  of  any  service  or  benefit  to  me, 
beyond  the  pleasure  which  a  parent  enjoys  from  loving  his  children  and  having  them 
around  him.  We  care  for  them  and  send  them  to  school,  as  required  by  law,  until 
they  are  fourteen  years  of  age.  We  sometimes  make  an  etTort  to  send  them  a  year 
or  two  longer  than  the  legal  period,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  a  life  of  usefulness 
higher  than  that  of  their  poor  parents.  But,  almost  immediately  after  leaving 
school,  the  girls  marry,  and  as  soon  as  our  boys  begin  to  be  of  actual  service  to  as 
they  are  called  into  the  army,  where  they  remain  three  years.  There  they  learn  only 
the  business  of  a  soldier,  and  unlearn  all  of  home  life  they  knew  before,  and  when 
they  return  they  must  begin  and  learn  anew  some  trade  or  business  th^it  will  give 
them  a  living.  Before  they  are  ready  to  do  this  they,  too,  marry,  and  with  a  family 
on  their  hands  go  on  with  the  struggle  of  life  as  I  have  done. 

Q.  Is  your  experience  a  type  of  that  of  others  of  your  class  ? — A.  Yes,  sir.  I  think 
it  fiiirly  represents  the  experience  of  a  large  portion  of  the  laboring  classes  of  Ger- 
many, with  this  exception,  that  few  of  them  have  had  so  many  years  of  it  as  I  have. 

With  occasional  exceptions,  we  have  for  breakfast  cofl:'ee  and  black  bread  ;  for 
dinner,  vegetables  and  soup ;  for  supper,  buttermilk  and  potatoes.  We  sometimes 
have  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  cup  of  coftee  between  these  meals.  When  too  old  and 
weak  to  work  the  town  must  take  care  of  us, 

CO-OPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION. 

There  are  no  iucorporated  manufacturing  companies  in  Crefeld.  The 
business  of  manufacturing  is  wholly  conducted  by  firms  or  individuals. 

Differences  arising  between  weavers  and  manufacturers  are  referred 
for  settlement  to  the  Rhenish  "  Gewerbegericht,"  a  court  of  judicial  au- 
thority, composed  of  manufacturers,  overseers,  and  weavers. 

The  "  Niederrheinische  Weber-Union  "  is  an  association  composed  of 
about  six  hundred  master- weavers.  It  has  an  official  existence,  and  was 
organized  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  its  own  members  and  others  in 
the  i)urchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life  at  wholesale  prices.  They  also 
own  looms  on  which  they  manufacture  silk  goods  for  sale. 

The  "Niederrheinische  Weberbund"  is  an  association  organized  under 
royal  sanction  for  the  following  purposes  :  (1.)  To  establish  uniform  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  education  of  boys  who  are  to  become  weavers, 
and  to  select,  prepare,  and  aid  thosfe  apt  scholars  who  have  exhibited 
qualifications  that  especially  fit  them  to  enter  the  Royal  Textile  High 
School.  (2.)  To  establish  "  Ilulfekasse  "  (help  savings  bank),  and  to  aid 
widows,  orphans,  and  other  relatives  of  deceased  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation.    (3.)  To  secure  for  the  "Hillfekasse"  depositors  and  contri 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE— GERMANY.  337 

biitions  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  old  and  infirtn  i^eople  who  have  no 
resources  of  their  own.  (4.)  To  establish  uniformity  in  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations which  govern  silk  and  velvet  manufacturers,  and  to  protect  the 
interests  of  workingmen  by  securing  equality  in  rates  of  wages ;  also 
to  arbitrate  between  manufacturers  and  their  employes  when  differences 
arise  between  them,  especially  at  those  periods  wheu  business  is  very 
active  or  very  dull.  Also  to  establish  rules  and  lay  out  work  for  its 
subordinate  societies,  of  which  there  are  many.  Each  of  such  societies 
must  pay,  half-yearly,  into  the  treasury  of  the  "  Weberbund  "  30  pfen- 
nigs (7  cents)  for  each  of  their  members. 

The  "Weberbund"  publishes  a  newspaper  for  general  circulation 
among  employers  and  the  working  classes.  Any  irregularities  or  dis- 
honorable transactions  occurring  among  manufacturers,  employers,  and 
employes  is  immediately  described  and  the  details  given  through  the 
columns  of  this  paper. 

The  owners  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  which  there  are  steam- 
engines  and  machinery  are  obliged  to  have  their  employes  insured 
agaiust  accident,  so  that  they  may  be  sure  of  a  certain  sum  in  case  they 
are  disabled.  If  death  follows  in  consequence  of  injuries  received  on 
the  premises,  the  widow,  or  next  of  kin,  obtains  an  annual  pension. 

In  each  Government  district  there  is  a  trades  union,  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  directors  to  visit  the  different  manufactories  located  therein,  and 
see  that  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  are  not  overworked. 

In  Crefeld  there  exists  a  large  charitj^  society  which  has  divided  the 
city  into  seventeen  districts.  Each  district  has  a  sub-society,  consist- 
ing of  fourteen  members  and  a  president,  and  each  member  is  as- 
signed to  a  smaller  district.  Their  duty  is  to  canvass  their  districts 
once  in  fourteen  days  and  see  that  the  worthy  poor  are  not  neglected. 
All  members  must  give  gratuitous  services  and  agree  to  be  diligent  in 
the  performance  of  the  duties  assigned  them. 

But  few  weavers  emigrate  to  other  countries.  Those  who  do  gener- 
ally go  to  Paterson,  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  ;  but  nearly  all  express 
disappointment  after  having  worked  there  a  short  time,  because  in  Vic- 
tory life  there  they  do  not  possess  the  freedom  which  house- weavers  in 
German}  enjoy ;  and  manj^  of  them,  sooner  or  later,  return  to  their  na- 
tive country. 

INSURANCE  AGAINST   SICKNESS. 

The  Imperial  Parliament  of  Germany  has  very  recently  passed  and 
promulgated  a  law  making  insurance  by  working  people  against  sick- 
ness co7npulsory.  There  are  points  in  this  somewhat  remarkable  enact- 
ment which,  I  think,  will  be  interesting  to  the  laboring  classes  of  the 
United  States.  I  give,  therefore,  an  epitome  of  the  law,  as  follows: 
All  laborers,  mechauics,  or  other  people  who  work  for  wages,  or  for  a 
salary,  are  required,  under  certain  penalties,  to  be  insured  against  sick- 
ness. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  insurance  institutions  provided  for  this 
purpose.  First,  the  "Gemeinde-Krankenversicherungskassen,"  a  com- 
munal (or  city  or  town)  insurance  society,  which  insures  against  sick- 
ness all  working  people  who  are  not  insured  in  some  other  similar 
institution.  In  this  society  the  person  insured  is  assisted  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  (1.)  By  being  provided  with  medical  attendance,  medi- 
cines, care,  «&;c.,  from  the  commencement  of  illness.  (2.)  In  case  the 
person  insured  is  wholly  unable  to  work,  moneyed  assistance  is  granted 
amounting  to  one-half  of  the  average  local  daily  wages  paid  to  persons 
in  the  same  trade  or  calling.  The  payments  are  for  every  working  day, 
92  A— LAB 22 


338  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

and  begin  the  third  day  after  sickness,  and  continues  until  recover^-,  or 
for  a  period  not  longer  than  thirteen  weeks  ;  or,  if  deemed  advisable  by 
the  managers  and  physicians,  treatment  and  board  in  a  hospital  is  pro- 
vided in  lieu  of  moneyed  assistance. 

In  case  family  or  relatives  are  dependent  for  maintenance  upon  the 
wages  of  such  person,  a  sum  equivalent  to  half  of  the  money  allowance 
is  in  addition  paid  to  them. 

The  rate  of  the  daily  local  wages  is  fixed  by  Government  ofdcials, 
and  separate  rates  are  established  for  young  people,  women,  and  adult 
workmen. 

The  insurance  premium  fixed  by  the  communal  authorities  cannot  ex- 
ceed li  per  cent,  of  the  daily  local  wages,  and  must  be  fixed  at  that 
rate  unless,  for  special  reasons,  it  is  decided  otherwise.  In  case  premi- 
ums should  not  cover  the  exj^enses  incurred  for  relief,  the  city  or  town 
of  which  the  insured  is  a  resident  is  required  to  advance  the  deficiency. 

If  the  yearly  balance  sheet  shows  that  the  official  rate  of  1^  per  cent, 
premium  does  not  cover  the  expenses,  the  premium  may  be  raised  to  2 
per  cent.  Any  excess  accruing  from  premiums  is  put  into  a  reserve 
fund.  Should  the  excess  continue  the  premiums  may  be  reduced  or  the 
usual  allowance  for  relief  increased  by  a  resolution  passed  by  the  com- 
munal authorities.  Jf  such  action  is  not  had,  the  Government  can,  by 
decree,  lower  the  rate  of  premiums. 

Several  communities  (towns)  may  unite  in  establishing  an  "  insurance 
union."  Very  small  communities  are  required  by  the  Gov^ernment  to 
unite  for  such  a  purpose. 

Communities,  cities,  and  towns,  are  empowered  to  authorize  the  or- 
ganization of  special  associations  of  persons  in  their  respective  districts, 
of  not  less  than  one  hundred  persons,  who  may  insure  according  to  the 
provisions  of  this  act.  These  special  "unions"  must  consist  of  persons 
belonging  to,  and  employed  in,  one  trade.  Insurance  unions,  including 
various  trades  may  be  established,  provided  there  are  at  least  one  hun- 
dred insurers  in  each  trade  represented.  Associations  of  less  than  one 
hundred  i)ersons,  may  be  established  by  presenting  to  the  Government  sat- 
isfactory evidence  of  the  soundness  and  safety  of  their  organizations. 

All  working  people  become  members  of  one  of  these  insurance  unions 
on  the  day  they  accei)t  service  as  an  employ^  in  the  district  where  it  is 
located. 

Kelief  or  payments  are  granted  as  follows  :  (1.)  In  the  basis  of  wages 
paid  by  the  trade  or  calling  to  which  the  members  belong,  provided 
such  wages  do  not  exceed  the  sum  of  3  marks  (7l'  cents)  per  working 
<lay.  (j5.)  The  same  rate  of  assistance  is  allowed  to  women  in  child- 
birth for  a  period  of  three  \veeks  from  date  of  sickness.  (3.)  In  case  of 
the  death  of  a  member,  a  sum  equal  to  twenty  times  the  amount  of  his 
local  daily  wages,  is  allowed  for  burial  expenses,  &c. 

"  Average  daily  wages"  are  determined  by  the  ruling  rates  paid  in 
trades  or  callings,  but  in  no  case  can  they  exceed  4  marks  (05  cents) 
per  day,  nor  be  less  than  the  average  rate  of  wages  prevailing  in  the 
locality  where  the  member  or  the  person  insured  resides. 

The  established  amount  of  relief  and  the  time  for  which  it  is  granted 
may,  for  good  and  sufficient  reasons  duly  recorded,  be  extended  by  the 
authorities  as  follows: 

(1.)  For  a  term  of  one  year  instead  of  thirteen  weeks. 

(2.)  Three-quarters  of  the  average  daily  wages  may  be  allowed  instead 
of  one-half. 

(3.)  Patients  in  hospitals  who  have  no  families  or  relatives  dependent 
upon  them,  may  be  allowed  a  sum  in  addition,  equal  to  one-eighth  of 
their  weekly  wages. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  339 

(4.)  To  women  in  child-birth  relief  may  be  granted  for  a  period  of  six 
weeks  instead  of  three  weeks. 

(5.)  Medical  treatment,  care,  &c.,  may  be  granted  to  families  of  mem- 
bers and  to  relatives  depen^lent  npon  them. 

(6.)  In  case  of  death  a  sum  equal  to  forty  times  that  of  one  day's  local 
wages  may  be  granted. 

(7.)  In  case  of  the  death  of  the  wife  or  child  of  a  member  there  may 
be  allowed  for  the  wife  two  thirds  and  for  the  child  one-half  the  amount 
to  which  a  member  would  be  entitled. 

The  dues  or  contributions  to  be  paid  to  these  local  insurance  unions 
(Ortskrankenkasseu)  are  to  be  fixed  at  such  a  percentage  of  the  average 
daily  wages  as  will  cover  expenses  for  relief,  management,  and  a  reason- 
able reserve  fund. 

The  rules  for  the  management  of  the  insurance  unions  must  be  pre- 
pared by  the  municipal  authorities  in  conjunction  with  representative 
members  of  such  unions. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  UNION   INSURANCE   ASSOCIATIONS. 

Employers  are  required  to  send  to  the  managers  of  associations  the 
names  of  persons  in  their  employ  within  three  days  after  they  enter  or 
leave  their  service. 

Employers  are  also  required  to  pay  the  premiums  for  their  workmen 
weekly  ;  they  are  obliged  also  to  pay  one-third  of  the  premiums  assessed 
ujion  their  employes. 

Employers  are  authorized  to  deduct  from  the  weekly  wages  of  their 
workmen  the  amount  due  from  them  for  premiums. 

Those  who  emi)loy  more  than  fifty  persons  are  permitted  to  establish 
an  insurance  union  (Fabrikkrankenkasse)  for  themselves,  and  if  their 
busines  is  dangerous,  or  detrimental  to  health,  they  are  obliged  to  do  so. 
Should  they  neglect  to  organize  such  an  union  they  are  compelled  to 
pay  to  the  communal  association  a  sum  equal  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  wages 
earned  by  their  workmen,  such  percentage  being  fixed  by  Government 
officials. 

CONDITION  OF   THE  IRON  AND   COAL   MINES. 

In  the  district  of  Essen — the  agency  attached  to  this  consulate — the 
iron,  coal,  and  mining  industries  so  far  surpass,  in  magnitude,  all  others 
that  they  rule  the  rates  of  wages  paid  workmen  employed  in  difierent 
pursuits.    To  the  latter,  therefore,  only  a  brief  reference  will  be  made. 

There  are  few  localities  in  the  world  that  contain,  per  square  mile, 
so  manj'  working  people  as  the  coal  and  iron  district  of  which  Essen  is 
the  center.  There  the  fluctuations  in  the  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes  are  sudden  and  very  great,' for  the  reason  that  a  slight  distur- 
bance in  the  elements  of  trade  connected  with  the  industries  peculiar 
to  that  locality  affects  the  entire  laboring  community,  who  cannot  live 
a  sim/le  day  without  employment.  In  periods  of  "dull  times"  there  is, 
therefore,  much  suffering  among  the  working  chisses,  so  much,  indeed, 
as  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  Government  which  has  taken  certain 
steps  with  a  view  to  bettering  their  condition.  But  up  to  this  date  not 
much  success  has  attended  these  efforts. 

In  trades  other  than  those  of  mining  and  iron  and  steel  manufactur- 
ing a  first-class  workmen  receives  from  15  to  20  marks  ($3.57  to  $4.76) 
per  week,  and  an  assistant  receives  from  12  to  15  marks.  The  hours  of 
work  are  frem  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  7  o'clock  in  the  evening, 


340  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

with  intervals  of  half  an  hour  for  breakfast,  one  bour  for  dinner,  and 
half  an  bour  for  4  o'clock  vespers.  In  tbese  heavy  industries  female 
labor  cannot  be  employed.  With  earnings  so  small,  the  head  of  a  family 
without  the  assistance  of  bis  wife,  except  in  household  duties,  finds  it 
impossible  to  live  without  deprivations  which  amount  to  absolute  suf- 
fering in  his  entire  family. 

The  women  and  children  must  tax  their  feeble  efforts  to  the  utter- 
most in  earning  something  to  procure  the  necessities  which  meager 
health  and  decencies  require. 

The  women  "  hire  themselves  out "  some  hours  each  day  for  domestic 
work.  Some  children  obtain  their  food  by  rendering  light  services  for 
neighboring  families,  others  by  gathering  scraps,  waste,  and  rttbbish, 
and  still  others  by  begging. 

HOW   THE   MINERS  LIVE. 

The  food  of  these  people  consists  of  bread  and  vegetables  only.  It 
is  very  seldom,  indeed,  they  obtain  for  themselves  a  bit  of  meat. 

They  dwell  in  one  or  two  rooms  in  small  lodgings  located  in  the 
suburbs  of  the  town,  and  pay  as  rent  therefor  from  $20  to  $28  per  year. 
Unmarried  men  can  exist  without  much  discomfort.  They  board  and 
lodge  with  the  better  situated  families,  have  somewhat  better  food,  and 
save  a  little  for  amusements. 

The  plan  of  distributing  among  families  the  single  men  as  boarders 
and  lodgers,  instead  of  having  separate  accommodations  for  them,  has 
been  productive  of  a  condition  of  morals  so  bad  that  the  police  authori- 
ties have  been  forced  to  issue  stringent  ordinances  regulating  the 
manner  in  which  lodgers  shall  be  received  and  cared  for  by  these  fami- 
lies. It  is  said  that  a  watchful  police  supervision  is  necessary  in  order 
to  maintain  proprieties  which  belong  to  civilized  life. 

Some  owners  of  mines  and  large  industrial  establishments  have 
arranged  boarding-houses  expressly  for  single  men,  and  will  not  permit 
families  under  their  control  to  receive  boarders  or  lodgers. 

The  poor  people  referred  to  above  are  generally  clad  in  raiment  ob- 
tained by  alms,  or  by  purchase  from  dealers  in  old  clothes  of  the  lowest 
class. 

It  seems  proper  to  remark  that  the  condition  of  the  working  classes 
in  the  mining  districts  above  mentioned,  especially  with  regard  to  their 
habits  and  manner  of  living,  are  an  exception  to  those  prevailing  among 
communities  of  poor  people  of  different  callings  in  other  localities. 

Wages  in  the  mining  districts  have  advanced  about  5  per  cent,  since 
1878,  but  the  prices  of  living  have  increased  in  a  corresponding  ratio. 
It  cannot  be  said,  therefore,  that  the  wage  condition  of  miners  has  im- 
proved. Neither  does  there  appear  to  have  been  any  improvement  in 
the  moral  status  of  this  class  of  laborers. 

The  relations  between  emi)loyers  and  employes  become  less  harmo- 
nious as  these  iiulustries  develo])  and  draw  together  large  communities 
of  one  class  of  laborers.  Attachment  to  rules  and  ordinances  become 
looser  as  numbers  increase. 

Labor  organizations  and  trades  unions,  though  talked  of,  have  not 
yet  been  formed  among  them.  This  fact  is  partly  due  to  the  restraining 
influences  and  more  perfect  discii)line  and  order  preserved  by  the  great 
establishment  of  Krupp,  and  partly  to  the  influence  and  work  of  the 
Christian  social  union  societies,  which  are  under  the  united  guidance  of 
both  Evangelical  and  Catholic   clergymen.     These  societies  are  very 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


341 


active,  and  are  doing  most  excellent  service  in  behalf  of  the  mental 
and  physical  welfare  of  the  laboring  classes  in  this  locality,  and  their 
good  work  will  probably  continue  if  they  do  not  allow  themselves  to 
be  involved  in  political  strifes  which  are  so  contagious  and  constantly 
threatening  among  these  people. 

STRIKES. 

Strikes  among  miners  very  rarely  occur,  for  the  reason  that  they 
have  no  time  to  strUce.  Existence  for  a  day  without  work  is  impossible. 
"The}'  must  i)ump  or  drown."  Workingmen  purchase  the  necessaries 
of  life  when,  where,  and  of  whom  they  desire.  Payments  of  wages  are 
made  weekly,  and  cooperative  societies  under  the  direction  of  working- 
men  are  unknown  in  this  part  of  Prussia. 

COAL   AND    COAL-MINING   INDUSTRIES, 

Essen,  on  the  Ruhr,  is  the  chief  center  of  the  "Netherrhenish-West- 
falian"  coal-fields,  which  constitute  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  Gov- 
ernment districts  of  Dortmund.  These  coal-fields  are  the  most  impor- 
tant on  the  whole  continent  of  Europe.  Their  importance  as  a  mining 
district  can  be  measured  bj-  the  number  of  miners  employed  and  the 
amount  of  coal  mined.  In  the  year  1883  98,000  miners  produced 
28,000,000  tons  of  coal  in  this  district  alone.  The  extraordinary  growth 
of  this  industry  dates  from  1852,  when  2,000,000  tons  were  produced. 

The  following  table  shows  the  increase  of  production  and  the  number 
of  miners  employed  during  the  preceding  twenty-five  years,  namely, 
from  1858  to  1883 : 

Table  showing  the  increase  in  coal  production  from  1858  to  1882,  and  the  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  miners  employed  during  thai  time.  ' 


i 

Production 

Value  in 

Valae  in 

No  of 

^ 

Production 

Value  in 

Value  in 

No.  of 

in  tons. 

marks. 

dollars. 

miners. 

^ 

in  tons. 

marks. 

dollars. 

miners. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

1858 

4,  093,  427 

85,  293,  627 

$8, 161,  883 

31,  455 

1871 

12, 461,  759 

88,  750,  215 

$21,  122,  511 

62,342 

1859 

3,  983,  023 

24,  620.  305 

7,  049,  633 

29, 156 

1872 

14, 1,54,  427 

121,  642,  650 

28,  950,  951 

67,  540 

18B0 

4,  490,  066 

27,  246,  480 

6,  434,  662 

28,  463 

1873 

16, 127,  096 

176,718,297 

42,  0.58,  955 

78,  214 

1861 

5,  212,  852 

27,  625,  767 

6,  574,  933 

30,  609 

1874 

15,  251,  933 

167,576,592 

39,  926,  069 

81,  077 

1862 

6, 128,  791 

29,  118,285 

6,  930,  152 

32,  034 

1875 

16,  698,  .543 

120,  505,  474 

28,  C80,  303 

81,  639 

1863 

6,  772,  841 

29,  252,  934 

6,  962,  128 

32,  538 

1876 

17,  636,  757 

107,573,241 

25,002,431 

81,  438 

1864 

8,  037,  705 

36,  265,  504 

8,631,190 

37,  869 

1877 

17,  723,  091 

87,  659,  746 

20,  863,  020 

73,  725 

1865 

9,  165,  675 

45,  758,  904 

10,  890,  619 

42,  280 

1878 

19,  208,  942 

85,  540,  033 

20,  358,  528 

74,  718 

1866 

9,217,884 

47,291,653 

11,  2  J5,  411 

43, 104 

1879 

20,  380,  420 

84,  661,  346 

20, 149,  399 

76,  992 

1867 

10,516,012 

54,  326,  344 

12,  929,  670 

47,  786 

1880 

22,  495,  204 

102,  951,  858 

24,  502,  522 

80, 152 

1868 

11,226,747 

56,  853,  405 

13,  531, 110 

48,  862 

1881 

23,  644,  755 

108,  382,  .563 

25,  795,  050 

83,  330 

1869 

11,  812,  530 

61,  751,  769 

14,  696,  921 

51,  628 

1882 

25,  873,  428 

118,607,736 

28,  228,  641 

94,554 

1870 

11,  570,  556 

67,  069,  089 

15,  962,  543 

50,  457 

MINERS'  WAGES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  rate  of  wages  paid  miners  from  1879  to 
1883.  The  four  quarters  of  each  year  are  given  in  order  to  exhibit  the 
rapid  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  labor  and  the  rates  paid  therefor. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  these  wages  are  only  paid  after  the  ex- 
penses for  tools,  powder,  dynamite,  oil,  and  certain  established  contri- 
butions to  the  "  miners'  aid  societies  "  have  been  deducted. 

While  the  rate  of  wages  enumerated  appear  to  be  very  low  for  labor 
so  hard,  unpleasant  and  dangerous,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the 


342 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


miner  works  in  reality  bnt  eight  hours  per  day,  while  workingmen  em- 
ployed in  other  occupations,  labor  on  an  average  from  eleven  to  twelve 
hours  per  day. 

Table  showing  daily  wages  of  minerafrom  1879  to  1883. 


Wages  of 

Alio 

ther 

Workmen 

Young 

people 

miners  of  coal 

■workmen  en- 

employed out- 
side of  the 

from 

. 

and  stono, 

gaged 
in  the  mines. 

14  to  16  years 

Aveiitgo. 

Tear  and  quarter 

with  tenders. 

mines. 

of  age. 

of  year. 

Marks. 

Cents. 

Marks. 

Cents. 

Marks. 

Cents. 

Marks. 

Cents. 

Marks. 

Cents. 

1879. 

First  nnarter 

SecoDQ  quarter  . . . 

2.61 

62 

2.10 

50 

2.22 

53 

1.04 

25 

2.38 

57 

2.54 

60 

2.05 

49 

2.20 

52 

1.00 

24 

2.32 

55 

Third  quarter 

2.49 

59 

2.02 

.48 

2.20 

51 

1.  UO 

24 

2.29 

55 

Fourth  quarter  . . . 

2.57 

61 

2.04 

48 

2.17 

51 

1.00 

24 

2.33 

5S 

1880. 

First  nuaiter 

SecoiKt  quarter  .. 

2.72 

65 

2.06 

49 

2.19 

52 

1.02 

24 

2.40 

57 

2.69 

64 

2.09 

,'-)0 

2.21 

53 

1.01 

24 

2.42 

58 

Tiiird  quarter   . . . 

2.65 

63 

2.10 

50 

2.22 

53 

1.03 

24 

2.43 

58 

Fourth  quarter  ... 

2.74 

65 

2.10 

50 

2.19 

52 

1.02 

24 

2.44 

58 

1881. 

First  quarter 

Second  quarter  . . . 

2.74 

65 

2  08 

49 

2.22 

53 

1.02 

24 

2.44 

58 

2.74 

65 

2.09 

50 

2.24 

53 

1.02 

24 

2.44 

58 

Third  quarter 

2.79 

66 

2.10 

50 

2.26 

54 

1.02 

24 

2.47 

5» 

Fourth  quarter  . . . 

2.89 

69 

2.13 

51 

2.24 

53 

1.03 

24 

2.53 

60 

1882. 

First  quarter 

2.94 

70 

2.15 

51 

2.26 

54 

1.03 

24 

2.57 

61 

Second  quarter  . . . 

2.94 

70 

2.16 

51 

2.29 

55 

1.03 

24 

2.58 

61 

Third  quarter 

3.05 

72 

2.22 

53 

2.32 

55 

1.05 

25 

2.65 

6» 

Fourth  quarter  . . . 

*3.38 

80 

2.26 

54 

2.33 

55 

1.07 

25 

2.70 

64 

*  Miners  of  coal  and  stone  earn  about  one-third  more  than  their  tenders  and  assistants,  so  that  tho 
former  now  earn  about  3.50  to  4  marks,  and  the  latter  about  2.50  to  3  marks  per  day,  when  em- 
ployed under  contract. 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  EMPLOYERS  AND  EMPLOYES. 

Nearly  all  mine-owners  in  the  Essen-Dortmund  district  are  associated 
under  the  name  of  "  Verein  fiir  bergbaulichen  Interessen"  (union  for  the 
interests  of  mining).  The  object  of  this  association  is  to  iinprov^e  the 
welfare  and  culture  of  mining  peo))le.  Its  founders  believe  that  a  sound 
and  prosperous  industry  can  only  exist  when  the  relations  between 
employer  and  employe  are  based  upon  feelings  of  reci})rocal  trust  and 
contidence,  and  for  this  reason  they  exercise  a  powerful  intluence  over 
the  management  of  all  mines  in  the  distiict.  When  disagreements 
between  mine-owners  and  miners  occur,  the  government  of  this  associa- 
tion intervenes  and  an  ami(;al)le  adjustment  usually  follows.  The  party 
in  the  wrong  is  notitied  and  the  decision  is  seldom  questioned,  and  thus 
relations  of  mutual  confidence  are  preserved  between  owners  and  miners, 
and  strikes  among  workmen  are  now  of  rare  occurrence. 

This  association  also  looks  after  the  management  of  schools  and  the 
education  of  miners'  children. 


HABITS  OF  MINERS. 


The  various  charitable  and  "help  institutions"  established  by  mine- 
owners,  similar  to  thos<i  existing  among  weavers,  have  had  the  tendency 
to  promote  contentment  and  s()l)riety  among  workmen.  The  recent 
enactment  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  which  provides  that  every  work- 
ingman   shall    be   insured   against   sickness   and   accident,  has   been 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.    -  343 

especially  salutary  in  makiug  them  steady  and  trustworthy.  They 
know  that  in  case  of  sickness,  accident,  or  death  they  are  provided  for, 
and  these  considerations  have  removed  many  of  the  terrors  which  en- 
compass the  life  of  a  laboring  man. 

CO  OPERATIVE  SOCIETIES. 

Co-operative  societies  do  not  exist  under  the  direction  of  the  work- 
people themselves.  Many  institutions,  however,  are  established  by 
mine-owners  for  the  benefit  of  workmen.  Among  these  may  be  named 
the  "  Knappschaftsverein "  (miners'  union)  and  the  ,"  Knappschafts- 
kassen"  (savings  society).  These  societies  are  charitable  in  their  object, 
and  are  intended  to  promote  savings  for  sick  days  and  old  age.  Em- 
ployers and  employes  contribute  to  these  savings  societies  in  nearly  equal 
proportions,  as  follows:  In  1882  mine-owners  contributed  $54:5,971.09  5 
during  same  time  miners  contributed  $551,416.11. 

In  the  year  1882  5,014  families  lived,  for  a  mere  nominal  rent,  in 
houses  which  were  built  by  the  managers  of  fifty  mines. 

Suppl}^  stores  are  founded  by  mine  owners,  and  are  beneficent,  not 
only  because  they  provide  a  good  quality  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
cheai)ly,  but  for  the  reason,  also,  that  miners  are  forced  to  yay  cashy 
and  are  thus  prevented  from  indulging  in  the  ruinous  habit  of  contract- 
ing debts. 

LIVING  EXPENSES   OF   MINERS. 

As  an  example  of  the  condition  of  miners  in  Germany,  and  the  way 
they  live,  I  give  the  following  information  obtained  from  a  miner,  fifty- 
seven  years  of  age,  who  is  no  longer  able  to  work,  and  who  has  a  wife 
and  eight  children.  Three  of  his  children,  two  girls  and  a  boy,  are  now 
adult  persons,  and  of  the  other  five,  the  youngest  is  three,  and  the 
oldest  thirteen  years  of  age.  This  man  receives  from  the  "  Knappshaft- 
skassen  "  (poor-miners'  fund)  a  pension  for  himself  of  270  marks  and  for 
his  wife  and  children  90  marks  per  year.  Schooling  for  the  five  younger 
children,  medical  attendance  and  medicines  are  also  provided  free  of 
expense  by  the  institution  above  named.  The  son,  who  lives  with  his 
parents,  earns  900  marks  per  year,  thus  making  the  total  income  of  the 
family  1,260  marks  ($300)  per  year  j  and  this  sum  is  expended  as  fol- 
lows: 

Rent  for  two  rooms  in  the  country  and  half  an  acre  of  ground $35  70 

Clothing  per  annum 57  12 

Fuel  per  annum 13  56 

Taxes  per  annum 6  18 

Food  per  annum 177  78 

School-books  per  annum 4  76 

Miscellaneous 4  76 

Total 299  88 

This  would  give  for  the  whole  family  about  2  marks  (48  cents)  per  day 
for  nine  persons,  or  5J  cents  for  each  person. 

It  should  be  added  that  this  miner,  like  most  others  of  his  class,  has 
the  use  of  a  piece  of  land  upon  which  he  raises  vegetables.  In  this  case, 
as  with  the  weavers,  the  garden  appears  to  be  the  salvation  of  the 
family. 

The  daily  meals  of  this  family,  and  the  time  of  taking,them,  averages 
about  as  follows :  For  breakfast,  at  6  o'clock,  cottee  and  black  bread 
and  butter  (on  Sunday  white  bread).  For  lunch,  at  10  o'clock,  black 
bread  and  butter.     For  dinner,  at  12  o'clock,  potatoes,  in  which  a  small 


344  LABOR    IN   EUROPE GERMANY. 

piece  of  bacon  is  boiled.  For  vespers,  at  4  o'clock,  cofiFee,  ^vith  black 
bread  and  butter.  For  supper,  at  7.30  o'clock,  soup  made  of  milk  and 
tbe  remains  of  tlie  dinner. 

The  custom  amonfj  German  workingmen  of  eating  five  or  more  times 
a  day  arises,  no  doubt,  from  the  fsict  that  their  food  is  light  and  lack- 
ing in  nourishment,  and  must,  therefore,  be  taken  at  short  intervals. 

SAFETY   OF   WORKING  PEOPLE   IN  MINES. 

The  German  Government  has,  for  many  years  i)ast,  manifested  a  very 
deep  interest  in  securing  safety  for  those  who  labored  in  the  coal  mines. 
Formerly  the  whole  administration  of  the  mines  and  their  management 
was  under  the  control  of  Government  officers  who  dictated  the  means 
of  safety  to  be  employed.  In  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  how- 
ever, the  general  management  of  mines  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
owners  themselves,  but  all  matters  relating  to  the  safety  of  the  work- 
men were  controlled  by  civil  officers  under  a  chief  inspector  appointed 
by  the  local  government.  When,  however,  the  dangers  arising  from 
fire-damp  increased,  by  reason  of  the  greater  extent  and  depth  of  the 
mines,  the  Government  appointed  a  scientific  commission,  called  the 
"  Fire-damp  Commission,"  with  its  headquarters  at  Essen,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  study  the  nature  and  causes  of  danger,  and  to  discover  and 
test  means  which  would  be  efficient  in  resisting  and  preventing  it. 
This  commission,  after  having  patiently  and  with  great  thoroughness 
investigated  the  subject,  established,  in  connection  with  the  mining 
school  at  Boehum,  a  chemical  laboratory  for  the  purpose  of  making  ex- 
periments and  testing  safety  lamps,  ventilators,  and  other  apparatus 
used  for  purifying  the  air  in  mines. 

This  mining  school  was  established  by  aid  of  the  Government,  but  in 
1864  it  was,  by  act  of  Parliament,  transferred  to  the  mine  owners. 

The  object  of  this  thoroughly  equipped  and  useful  scientific  institution 
is  to  cultivate  all  the  sciences  relating  to  mining  and  the  safety  of  miners, 
and  to  constantly  examine  the  condition  of  the  air  and  the  methods 
adopted  for  the  ventilation  of  mines. 

]3isasters  from  exi)losions,  or  other  causes,  are  rarely  heard  of  in 
German  mines,  and  their  exemption  from  dangerous  elements  is  largely 
due  to  the  watchfulness  of  the  management  of  this  school  and  the  safe- 
guards it  recommends. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT  WAGE   RATES. 

Waf/cs  in  1878  and  in  1883. — A  careful  investigation  relative  to  varia- 
tions in  the  rates  of  wages  ])revailing  in  1878  and  1883showsthat  there 
has  been  no  substantial  change  in  the  n)ining,  iron,  and  steel  manufact- 
uring districts  of  (iennany. 

In  his  great  establishment  at  Essen,  Mr.  Krn])p,  who  employs  in  his 
machin('-shoi)s  and  manufacturing  de])artnients,  about  ten  thousand 
men,  reports  that  the  average  wages  i)aid  j)er  day  to  his  mechanics  in 
1878  was  3.41  marks  (81  cents),  and  in  1883  the  average  wages  paid  to 
the  same  class  of  workmen  was  3.53  marks  (84  cents),  a  difference  of 
about  3.;i  ])er  cent.  But  the  cost  of  living  has  increased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  no  gain  in  favor  of  the  workmen  can  be  recorded. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  average  ])rice8  in  Essen  in  1878  and 
1883  of  certain  staple  articles  of  food  which  were  sui)i)lied  to  workmen 
in  those  years.     The  variations  are  slight,  but  it  will  be  observed  that 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


345 


the  average  increase  is  large  enough  to  neutralize  any  increase  in  the 
price  of  wages  : 

TaJ)le  showing  average  price  in  1878  and  1883  of  certain  staple  articles  of  food  and  household 

supplies  furnished  to  miners. 


Articles. 


Average 

price 
in  1878. 


Average 

price 
in  1883. 


Batter !        $0  2.^  $0  27 

Coffee 27  20 

Hulledbarley 04  |  03 

Beana 03  i  03 

Peas    03  !  04 

Lentils 04  i  06 

Dutch  cheese 15  17 

Buckwheat [  03]  03 

"Wheat  grits '  05  05 

Wheat  flour 04  i  04 

Vermicelli '  07  i  07 

Prunes 08  '  07 


Articles. 


Average    Average 

piice  price 

in  1878.     in  1883. 


Rice $0  04 

Turnips I  04 

Salt I  02 

American  lard 1  11 

Hard  soap :  07 

Soft  soap 05 

Westphalian  bacon j  17 

American  bacon 10 

Granulated  sugar j  15 

Powdered  sugar '  11 

Eapeseed  oil i  16 

Petroleum  oil 05 


$0  04 
03 
02 
16 
06 
04 
21 
15 
14 
11 
14 
04 


PREVAILING  CUSTOMS   IN  KRUPP'S  ESTABLISHMENT. 

During  the  suininer  season  firemen  in  the  Krupp  works  are  supplied 
with  cold  coffee  and  vinegar  at  intervals  during  the  day,  at  the  ex- 
X)euse  of  the  establishment,  and  each  of  the  melters,  puddlers,  strikers, 
and  other  workmen  employed  in  connection  with  heated  metals  are  furn- 
ished fi  ee  with  one-eighth  of  a  quart  of  brandy  per  day.  Those  workmen 
who  are  employed  in  the  open  air  are  supplied  free  with  water-proof 
overcoats.  Firemen  are  furnished  with  spectacles,  high  boots,  and 
coarse  linen  covers  for  arms  and  hands. 

Mr.  Krupp  has  provided  3,208  dwellings,  each  with  a  small  garden, 
for  families  of  workmen  emploj  ed  by  him.  These  dwellings  are  occu- 
pied by  16,200  persons.  This  shows  an  average  of  five  families  to  each 
dwelling. 

The  rent  paid  per  annum  by  occupants  is  as  follows : 

For  2  rooms  and  a  cellar $21  to  $25 

For  3  rooms  and  a  cellar 28  to    38 

For  4  rooms  and  a  cellar 43 

For  5  rooms  and  a  cellar 50 

For  2  rooms  in  barracks 14  to    21 

Working  hours  for  firemen  are  from  6  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  For  all  other 
workmen  from  6  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m. 

Prussian  Elementary  School  System. 

(opinions  of  crefeld  teachers.) 

The  regulations  for  the  government  of  Prussian  elementary  schools 
are  fixed  by  ministerial  decrees.  U])  to  the  present  time  no  school  laws 
have  been  passed  by  the  Prussian  Parliament.  The  management  and 
control  of  such  schools  is  vested  in  the  department  of  education,  with 
full  })0wers. 

All  children  in  Prussia  are  obliged  to  attend  school  after  they  are 
six  until  they  are  fourteen  years  of  age,  or  attain  an  adequate  educa- 
tion by  private  teaching,  or  in  other  educational  institutions.  The 
schools  contain  one  or  more  classes  according  to  the  size  of  the  com- 
munity where  they  are  located.  In  common  schools  (Volksschule) 
children  of  the  first-class,  between  six  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  are 
taught  by  the  same  teachers,  and  the  number  of  children  must  not  ex- 
ceed eighty. 


346  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

In  small,  poor  communities,  which  cannot  aftbrd  the  salary  for  a  sec- 
ond teacher,  half-day  schools  are  established,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Government,  in  which  the  children,  divided  in  two  sections,  are  taught 
alternately  by  the  same  teacher. 

AVhere  there  are  several  teachers  in  one  school  the  lessons  are  given 
in  different  class-rooms.  The  maximum  number  of  scholars  in  one  class 
must  not  exceed  eighty. 

Large  schools  are  usually  subdivided  into  a  lower,  a  middle,  and  a 
principal  department.  The  teacher  of  the  latter  is  generally  the  head 
master,  who  has  the  management  of  the  school.  The  other  teachers, 
called  class-teachers,  are,  in  most  cases,  subordinate  to  the  head-master, 
who,  by  order  of  the  Government,  communicates  with  his  direct  supe- 
riors, and  keeps  them  au  fait  about  everything  concerning  the  school. 
Communications  to  the  class  teachers  are  made  through  the  head  mas- 
ter, who  is  expected  to  regard  his  relations  toward  them  as  that  of  an 
older  and  more  experienced  colleajiue  and  adviser. 

The  subordinate  position  of  the  class  teachers  often  lead  to  disagree- 
ments between  them  and  the  head  master,  a  regretable  circumstauce  for 
which  no  remedy  has  been  as  yet  provided. 

During  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  lady  teachers  have  been  employed 
in  some  communities.  Now  and  th(?ii  complaints  are  heard  that,  not- 
withstanding the  great  conscientiousness  with  which  these  ladies  en- 
deavor to  fulfill  their  duties,  the  average  results  do  not  appear  to  be 
satisfactory.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  employment  of  lady 
teachers,  which  is  here  yet  an  experiment,  can  be  maintained. 

Concerning  the  separation  of  the  sexes  in  schools  more  experience  is 
needed  before  passing  final  judgment.  Both  systems  of  combined  and 
separate  classes  are  being  thoroughly  tested.  In  schools  with  several 
classes  the  separation  of  the  sexes  in  the  higher  classes  is  found  to  be 
decidedly  preferable. 

Schools  have  been  recently  established  in  which  no  difference  is  made 
regarding  the  religious  beliefs  of  pupils.  In  such  schools  religious  in- 
struction for  different  denominations  is  separately  given.  In  general 
instruction,  however,  all  pupils  take  part.  These  schools  are  called 
"Simultan,  or  ParitJitische  Schuleu."  An  opposition  movement  has 
been  already  organized  against  these  schools  by  both  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  and  petitions  are  being  presented  to  the  minister  of  edu- 
cation in  favor  of  separate  school  buildings  for  Catholics  and  Protest- 
ants. 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  the  results  expected  from  the  establish- 
ment of  "Simultan"  schools  have  not  been  realized,  so  far  as  religious 
peace  is  concerned.  The  feud  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  has 
become  intensified  in  many  quarters,  and  there  have  been  frequent  discus- 
sions and  bitter  feelings  engendered  between  pupils,  between  tetichers, 
between  teachers  and  pupils,  and  also  between  teachers  and  parents. 
For  these  reasons  the  Government  has  already  abolished  most  of  such 
schools,  and  those  remaining  will  most  likely  share  the  same  fate. 

The  elementary  schools  in  Prussia  draw  their  pupils  mostly  from  the 
laboring  and  artisan  class. 

Preparatory  schools.  Ilegret  is  expressed  that  many  of  the  better 
situated  peoj)le  send  their  children  into  the  prej)aratory  classes  attached 
to  the  higher  schools,  such  as  the  Kealschule,  Kealgymnasium,  and 
Gymnasium,  instead  of  to  the  common  schools,  where  rich  and  poor 
would,  so  far  as  instruction  is  concerned,  stand  upon  the  same  level. 
The  prei)aratory  schools  thus  referred  to  seem  to  shar[)en  social  dis- 
tinctions between  classes,  and  even  in  very  early  youth  begin  to  create 
feelings  of  cast  and  acrimonious  divisions  which  grow  with  maturity. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  347 

They  lead  children  to  au  erroneous  estimate  of  the  life,  character,  and 
purposes  of  people  and  communities,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  distinc- 
tions which  these  preparatory  schools  apparently  maintain  between 
rich  and  poor  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  jjrowth  of  some  of  the  de- 
plorable evils  connected  with  the  social  condition  of  peoples  in  civilized 
states  at  the  present  time. 

Committees  and  school  inspectors. — In  small  places  communities  elect 
committees  to  represent  them  in  school  matters.  In  lar^e  places  com- 
mittees are  chosen  from  members  of  the  board  of  aldermen  and  com- 
mon council.  The  state  exercises  its  right  of  superintendence  through 
local  and  district  school  inspectors.  These  were  formerly  chosen  almost 
exclusively  from  the  clergy  at  large,  but  always  including  the  local 
ministers  and  their  superintendents.  During  the  last  ten  years  they 
have  been  supplanted  by  lay  inspectors,  who  in  many  cases  are  chosen 
from  the  most  highly  educated  teachers  and  ])rofessors  whose  culture 
had  prepared  them  for  an  educational  sphere  entirely  different  from  that 
in  which  tliey  were  called  upon  to  act.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  sup- 
pose these  gentlemen  were  often  wanting  in  a  correct  and  practical 
understanding  of  those  elementary  branches  which  were  too  far  below 
their  standard  of  culture  to  be  properly  appreciated.  It  is  in  this  part 
of  Prussia  deemed  to  be  in  the  interest  of  schools  and  teachers  to  select 
inspectors  from  the  practical  and  experienced  teachers  of  elementary 
schools. 

iSchool-buildings  and  northern  light. — Numerous  modern-built  school- 
houses  have  been  constructed  on  principles  of  supposed  sanitary  science. 
In  many  districts  they  are  palatial,  airy,  and  well  ventilated.  But  it 
is  a  curious  fact  that  it  has  been  regarded  as  very  important  to  arrange 
these  buildings  in  such  a  way  that  the  children  have  the  benefit  of  light 
coming  only  from  the  north.,  when  reason  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
every  room  in  a  school-house  should,  if  possible,  have  the  advantage 
of  the  purifying  influences  of  sunshine.  Many  experienced  teachers  do 
not  consider  this  arrangement  as  wise,  and  are  of  opinion  that  the 
sun's  rays  might  be  softened,  when  desirable,  by  curtains  or  other  con- 
veniences easily  applied. 

Boolis,  etc. — In  many  communities  books  and  other  school  articles  for 
needy  children  are  provided  by  the  school  board  free,  and  sometimes 
also  clothing,  in  order  to  make  them  appear  respectable  and  tidy,  and 
for  the  purpose,  also,  of  removing  all  excuses  for  not  attending  school. 

According  to  recent  decrees,  each  school  is  obliged  to  keep  a  record 
for  inspection. 

Each  class-room  is  provided  with  a  list  containing  the  names  of  the 
pupils,  a  plan  of  teaching,  showing  what  is  to  be  taught  in  certain  times 
in  the  different  branches,  and  what  has  been  accomplished  up  to  a  cer- 
tain date.  A  plan  of  lessons  is  also  exhibited,  showing  how  the  lessons 
are  distributed,  also  a  list  giving  the  names  of  pupils  who  have  been 
absent  from  school,  to  which  is  attached  the  date  of  absence  and  the 
reason  therefor.  If  children  are  kept  out  of  school  by  their  jiarents, 
without  substantial  reason  submitted  to  the  teacher,  they  are  entered 
in  this  list.  For  the  first  offense  they  are  only  admonished,  but  if  re- 
peated a  money  fine  is  exacted. 

Course  of  instruction. — In  elementary  schools  the  following  subjects 
are  taught:  Keligion,  German  language,  and  reading,  writing,  gram- 
mar, composition,  orthography,  arithmetic,  elements  of  geometry,  draw- 
ing, historj^,  geography,  natural  history,  and  gymnastic  exercises  for 
the  boys  and  needle- work  for  the  girls. 

The  lower  classes  receive  twenty  lessons  a  week  and  the  higher  classes 
thirty-two  lessons,  as  follows:  Four  lessons  each  for  religion,  arithrae- 


348  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tic,  aud  real  science,  and  from  eight  to  ten  lessons  in  German.  The  re- 
maining time  is  reserved  for  secondary  objects  of  instruction,  which 
takes  about  two  liours  weekly. 

The  instruction  in  the  Protestant  religion  is  confined  to  giving  the 
pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible  and  the  creeds  of  a  i>articular  faith, 
holy  history,  reading  of  the  Bible,  the  catechism,  hymns,  and  prayers. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  Catholic  religion  is  the  same,  so  far 
as  the  subjects  are  concerned.  In  most  places  the  local  minister  teaches 
the  catechism  in  the  class-rooms.  For  the  language  lessons  High  Ger- 
man is  taught,  with  a  view  of  enabling  children  to  express  themselves 
proi)erly  and  to  understand  more  correctly  the  terms,  pronunciation, 
and  writing  of  the  more  cultured  classes. 

The  whole  course  of  instruction  is  found  in  the  Eeadiug-books  in  use 
in  the  schools. 

Instruction  in  arithmetic  aims  {it  giving  the  pupils  a  capacity  for  per- 
forming the  business  duties  of  a  daily  life,  including  the  use  of  fractious 
quickly  and  correctly.  The  money,  measure,  and  weight  systems  of 
various  countries  are  taught  and  practiced. 

Instruction  in  geometry,  calculation  of  surfaces,  cubic  measure,  &c., 
is  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  intend  to  become  artisans.  Instruction 
in  drawing  is  regarded  as  a  valuable  exercise  for  the  hand  and  eye  of 
the  pupils,  aud  is  deemed  of  especial  advantage  to  those  who  intend  to 
become  mechanics,  builders,  &c.  In  geography  the  children  are  made 
familiar  with  the  German  Empire  aud  the  principal  countries  of  the 
world.  In  mathematical  geography  only  the  first  elements  are  ex- 
plained in  the  higher  classes.  Instruction  in  history  is  confined  to  that 
of  Prussia  and  the  new  German  Empire.  Instruction  in  natural  his- 
tory aud  natural  philosophy  explains  everyday  occurrences  and  intro- 
duces to  children  a  knowledge  of  natural  bodies  that  are  known  to  be 
useful  or  injurious  to  mankind. 

In  the  singing  lessous  choral,  and  other  songs  are  practiced,  aud  pop- 
ular and  patriotic  songs  are  taught  which  are  likely  to  be  remembered 
by  the  children  through  life,  and  thus  the  love  of  "Vaterland"  is  kept 
warm  in  the  hearts  of  its  people. 

Instruction  in  gymnastics  is  given  according  to  rules  expressly  pre- 
pared for  elementary  schools.  In  larger  tow  us  special  halls  are  cou.- 
structed  for  this  purpose. 

Lessons  in  ladies'  handiwork  are  intended  to  teach  the  girls  knit- 
ting, sewing,  mending,  and  other  industries  useful  in  practical  life. 

Whether  the  minds  of  such  children  are  able  to  completely  master 
the  numerous  studies  i)rovided  lor  them  in  the  year  1877  by  the  minis- 
ter of  education  is  a  matter  of  much  doubt.  Many  teachers  and  j)  eda- 
gogical  pai)ers  are  now  discussing  the  subject  of  "overburdening"  in 
connection  with  the  plan  of  the  minister  of  instruction.  It  is  the  gen- 
eral opinion  that  the  course  of  studies  ])rescribed  is  by  far  too  extensive 
and  complicated  to  be  understood  by  the  children  in  elementary  schools. 

As  a  consequence,  it  has  been  clearly  observed  that,  when  compared 
with  former  periods,  instruction  has  become  less  thorough;  that  the 
pui)il's  knowledge  of  the  subjects  he  has  studied  is  clouded  and  indis- 
tin(;t,  and  that,  while  he  has  a  smattering  of  much,  he  understands 
nothing  clearly,  and  that  which  he  has  learned  is  soon  forgotten. 

Many  teachers  com])laiii  that  too  much  attention  is  given  to  real  sci- 
ences in  detriment  to  the  more  useful  subjects  of  rea<ling,  writing,  and 
arthmetic.  An  eminent  Prussian  teacher  recently  said:  "(3ur  element- 
ary schools  have  ceaised  to  be  such,  and  are  becoming  elementary  real 
schools,"  which  he  regarded  as  a  total  misapprehension  of  the  pur- 
poses aud  uses  of  primarj'^  schools. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


349 


Admission  to  schools  takes  place  only  once  in  each  year,  and  in  this 
way :  The  names  of  the  children  are  taken  from  the  ofiicial  register  of 
births,  and  are  then  assigned  by  the  school  board  to  certain  schools. 

School  terms  are  provided  for  in  spring-  and  autumn  after  the  pupils 
have  passed  a  verbal  and  written  examination  before  the  local  inspector. 

Qualification  of  teachers. — Teachers  are  qualified  for  their  position  as 
such  in  a  seminary,  where  they  are  obliged  to  remain  for  a  period  of 
three  years.  Many  are  prepared  for  the  seminary  course  in  special 
schools  under  Government  inspection.  The  following  constitutes  the 
prescribed  course  of  study  in  these  seminaries :  Pedogogical  science,  re- 
ligion, German  language,  history,  mathematics,  geometry,  natural  his- 
tory, natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  geography,  drawing,  writing,  gym- 
nastics, and  music. 

Instruction  in  the  French,  English,  and  Latin  languages  is  not  com- 
pulsory. After  having  finished  the  seminary  course,  students  are  obliged 
to  undergo  an  examination,  which,  if  satisfactory,  qualifies  them  to  take 
provisional  charge  of  a  position  in  a  school. 

Two  years  as  the  earliest  and  five  years  as  the  latest,  after  the  first 
examination,  teachers  are  required  to  pass  a  second  examination  in  one 
of  the  seminaries  in  the  Government  district  in  which  they  are  employed 
in  order  to  obtain  a  certificate  of  qualification  to  hold  a  permanent  school 
office. 

Teachers'  salaries. — There  are  no  established  rates  fixed  for  salaries  of 
teachers.  In  cities  they  receive,  during  a  term  of  twenty  years,  salaries 
ranging  between  900  and  2,400  marks  ($214  to  $571),  according  to  time 
of  service.  Teachers  in  the  country  and  in  the  small  towns  receive 
much  less.  All  receive  pensions  after  ticenty  years''  service,  but  the  rate 
is  not  fixed. 

Discipline. — While  the  discipline  in  Prussian  schools  appears  to  be 
regarded  as  satisfactory,  the  Government  is,  nevertheless,  opposed  to 
corporal  punishment,  which  is  now  permitted  only  in  exceptional  cases, 
and  it  contemplates  its  total  abolishment.  Teachers,  however,  think 
that  the  abolition  of  corporal  punishment  will  tend  to  make  the  children 
effeminate,  and  discipline  more  difficult.  They  express  the  opinion  that 
a  teacher  ought  to  be  the  representative  of  parents;  and,  as  it  is  their 
right  and  duty  to  chastise  their  children  when  necessary,  teachers  think 
they  ought  to  enjoy  the  same  privilege  when,  in  their  Judgment,  dis- 
cipline and  the  interests  of  education  require  it. 

Eegarding  the  support  of  schools  custom  varies.  Many  towns  include 
the  expenses  for  schools  in  their  annual  budgets,  while  in  others  the 
parish  defrays  the  expenses.  In  very  many  cases  the  State  grants  sub- 
sidies. 

teachers'  salaries. 

In  order  to  give  an  accurate  idea  of  the  compensation  received  by 
teachers  in  Prussian  schools  I  give  a  list  of  those  paid  in  the  various 
schools  of  the  city  of  Crefeld,  as  follows : 


School  offices. 


Inspector  of  city  schools 

1  secretary 

11  head  masters each.. 

3  head  masters do 

5  head  masters do 

1  head  master 

2  head  masters each.. 

6  head  masters do 

96  class  teachers  each  from  1,200  to  2,100 marks average.. 


Salaries 

in 
marks. 


5,500 
2,150 

^,550 
2,400 
2,280 
2,160 
2,100 
2,  040 
1,650 


Salaries 

m 
dollars. 


$1,  309  CO 
511  70 
606  90 
571  20 
544  64 
514  08 
499  80 
485  52 
392  70 


350 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


The  bead  master  of  every  school  is  furnished,  in  addition  to  his  sal- 
ary, with  a  free  residence,  which  represents  a  yearly  value  of  360 
marks,  equal  to  $85.  There  are  fifty-two  female  teachers  in  the  Cre- 
feld  schools,  who  receive  salaries  as  follows : 


School  offices. 


6  class  teachers  each . . 

17  class  teachers flo 

10  class  teachers do  ... 

19  class  teachers do 


Salaries     Salariea 

in  ill 

marks,    j   dollars. 


1,650 
1,500 
1,350 
1,200 


$392  70 
357  0« 
321  30 
285  6t 


EXPENSES   OF   PRUSSIAN   CITY   GOVERNIttENTS. 

For  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  actual  expenses  for  salaries  in  a 
Prussian  city  of  about  90,000  inhabitants  I  give  the  following  list  of 
all  officials  connected  with  the  city  government  of  Crefeld,  and  the 
amount  of  compensation  officially  attached  to  each  position  : 


Offices. 


Salaries 

in 
marks. 


Salaries 

in 
dollars. 


Mayor    

Deputy  mayor 

First  seciftary 

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel 

3  assistant  secretaries  each. 

All  wance  to  each  for  lodging  and  fuel 

Registrar  . 


1  assistant 

2  assistants each . 

Principal  registering  officer 

Assistant       

Clerk  of  the  chancery 

City  treasurer 

Clerk  in  treasurer's  office 

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel 


POLICE  DEPARTMENT. 

Inspector  of  police  

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel 

1  commissary  of  police 

1  commissary  of  police 

1  commissary  of  police 

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel 

1  commissary  of  police 

1  secretary - 

1  secretary 

1  secietaiy 

1  assistant 

1  assi  slant 

Clerk  of  the  chancery  

Subiuspector  of  police 

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel 

3  subin-ipectors  of  police each. 

Allowance  for  lodging  and  fuel     do. . . 

1  sergeant  of  police    

1  sergeant  of  police 

4  sergeants  of  polii^e each  . 

12  sergeants  of  police do  .. 

29  policemen do . . . 

OTJIEU  0FPICKK8. 

City  arch itcct 

1  assistant 

1  assistant 

Surveyor 

2  assistants        i 

Principal  assistant 

Snrvej'or  of  high  ways    

Allowance  for  lodging    

Assistant  surveyor  of  highways 

City  gardener     ...         

Allowance  for  residence 

City  chemist  .    

Surveyor  of  public  markets 


.each.. 


10,  r^oo 

7,000 
4,600 

360 
2,600 

360 
1,500 
1,650 
1,500 
2,500 
1,650 
1,050 
4,200 
2,200 

360 


4,500 

360 
3,200 
3,400 
2,800 

360 
2,700 
2,400 
2,000 
1,800 
1,600 
1,500 
1,300 
1,650 

300 
2,500 

300 
1,  5u0 
1,  3.50 
1,  275 
1,200 

900 


6,900 
2,  450 
2,000 
4,000 
1,800 
2,450 
1,950 

300 
1,200 
1,350 

450 
3,000 
1,950 


^2,  499  00 
1,  666  00 
1,094  80 

85  68 
618  80 

85  68 
357  00 
392  70 
357  CO 
595  00 
392  70 
249  90 
999  60 
533  60 

85  68 


1,071  00 

85  68 
761  60 
809  20 
666  40 

85  08 
642  60 
571  20 
476  00 
428  40 
380  80 
357  00 
309  40 
391  70 

71  40 
357  00 

71  40 
357  00 
321  30 
303  45 
285  60 
214  20 


1,  642  20 
583  10 
476  00 
952  00 
428  40 
585  10 
464  10 
71  40 
285  60 
321  30 
107  10 
714  00 
464  10 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
GENERAL  TRADES. 


351 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Brick-layers 

Hod-carriers . 
Masons , 

Tenders 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters  

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants . . . 

Carpenters 

Gas-litters 


Hours  of  labor 
per  week. 


Weekly  wages. 


Summer.  Winter. 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers , 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Book-binders 

Brick-makers,  during  day- 
light. 

Tenders  or  helpers,  dur- 
ing daylight. 

Brewers 

Butchers , 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Street  railway  conductors  . . 
Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters. 

Cab,  carriage,  &c 

Street  railway 

Dyers '. 

Engravers 

Furriers  .   

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseshoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &.C.,  day 
and  night. 

Highway  laborers  

Lithographers 


Tailors  

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  "  house  industry" 

Stone-cutters 

Safe-makers) 

Weavers  in  factories 


PRINTERS. 

Compositors 

Proof- readers 

Pressmen 

Foremen  of  compositors 

Steam-press  engineers 

Helpers   

Compositors'     apprentices, 
first  year. 


78 
84 
63 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 
119 


57 


Lowest.  Highest.   Average. 


78 
84 
63 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 
119 


84 

78 

84 

78 

119 

119 

69 

69 

66 

66 

63 

63 

78 

69 

69 

69 

69 

63 

63 

$4  28 

4  00 

5  00 

4  28 

5  71 
4  25 
3  57 
3  57 
3  00 
3  57 

3  00 

4  00 
3  57 


95 
3  57 
2  86 

2  86 

3  90 

2  57 

1  43 
70 

3  57 
3  57 

2  38 

3  10 

4  28 
3  57 

3  57 

4  66 

95 

2  62 
4  20 

3  33 
3  50 

3  57 

1  43 

4  28 
3  57 

3  57 

2  57 

2  15 

4  76 


3  57 
3  80 
2  86 

2  38 

3  57 
3  57 
2  38 


3  58 


6  43 
3  58 
8  58 
6  43 
2  00 
72 


$5  00 

4  00 

5  95 
5  71 
7  14 
5  00 
5  00 
5  00 

4  00 

5  00 

4  00 

5  25 
5  00 


2  14 
4  00 
4  28 

4  28 

5  60 

3  57 

2  98 
1  90 
5  71 
5  95 

3  38 

3  50 
5  00 
5  00 
5  00 

4  66 

1  07 
4  28 
4  20 

4  76 
7  00 

5  71 

2  64 
7  14 
4  28 
7  14 

3  76 

2  15 

14  28 


5  00 
7  60 
3  57 
3  57 
5  00 
5  50 
5  24 


5  71 


7  14 
4  30 
9  10 
7  14 
4  00 
72 


$4  64 

4  00 

5  47 

5  00 

6  43 
4  62 
4  28 


1  55 
3  78 
3  57 

3  57 

4  75 

3  07 

2  25 

1  30 

4  64 
4  76 

2  88 

3  30  i 

4  65 
4  28  i 
4  28 
4  66 

1  01 

3  45 

4  20 

4  05 

5  25 

4  64 

2  04 

5  71 

3  92 
5  35 
3  16 

2  15 
9  52 


Remarks. 


Board  free. 

Lodging  free. 

Do. 

With  board  and  lodging. 
Board  free. 

Board  free. 


Including  Sundays. 

With  board  and  lodginf 
Without  board. 
Work  7  days  per  week. 


Board  free. 


4  53 
3  81 


4  64 


6  78 
3  9t 
8  84 
6  78 
3  00 
72 


Lodging  free. 


Highest  sum  is  for  artists 
with  exceptional  tal- 
ents. 


Piece-work. 

Occasionally  expert  Ja- 
qiiaid  weavers  earn 
higher  wages. 

Compositors  at  piece- 
work receive  7  cents 
for  1,000  ens,  which  ia 
equal  to  500  ems. 

Hand-pressmen. 

Steam-pressmen. 

Second  year$l  per  week  ; 
third  year $1.24;  fourth 
year  $1.43. 


352 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

FEMALE  EMPLOYES. 


Occupations. 


Milliners < 

Sewing  niacliine  operatives 
Seamstresses < 

Dressmakers < 

Clerks  in  dry-goods  stores  < 

Clerks  in  offices 

Nurse-girls 

Cooks 

Assistants 

Head  farm  servants 

Assistants 

Chambermaids  

Head  of  sales  departments 

in  large  stores. 
Artists  in  dressmaking 


Hours  of   labor 
per  week. 


"Weekly  wages. 


Summer.  ^Winter.  Lowest.!  Highest. 


72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
90 
112 
112 
62 
62 


72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
72 
90 
112 
112 
62 
62 


$1  43 
3  00 
1  90 
1  19 
1  90 
1  19 

1  90 
3  57 

2  50 

3  ,57 
59 

1  00 
50 
71 
47 
62 
10  00 

8  00 


$2  38 
4  75 

3  87 
2  38 
2  85 
2  38 

2  85 

4  28 

3  00 

4  28 
75 

1  50 

75 

82 

56 

1  00 

25  00 

21  00 


Average. 


$1  90 
3  87 
2  88 

1  78 

2  37 

1  78 

2  37 

3  95 

2  75 

3  95 
67 

1  25 
63 
76 
52 
80 
17  50 

14  50 


Remarks. 


"With  board. 
"Without  board. 

Do. 
"With  board. 
"Without  board. 
"With  board. 
Without  board. 

Do. 
"With  board. 
Without  board. 
With  board. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Without  board. 

Do. 


AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 


Occupations. 

Hours  of  labor 
per  week. 

Weekly  wages. 

Remarks. 

Summer. 

Winter. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

87 
87 
87 
87 
87 
87 
87 
87 

87 
87 
87 
87 
69 
69 
69 
69 

84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 
84 

84 
84 
84 
84 
63 
63 
63 
63 

$2  38 

$2  38 

$2  38 
1  66 
1  19 

95 
1  66 
1  33 

95 

With  board*  and  lodging. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

95 

And  allowance  of  food  for 

1  43 

1  67 

1  55 

1  90 

96 

1  19 

3  14 

2  32 

4  43 

3  32 

ten  sheep. 
With  board  and  lodging, 

Men  in  charge  of  cattle 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Transient  laborers  (male).. 
Transient  laborers  (female). 
Transient  laborers  (male) . . . 
Transient  laborers  (female) . 

2  85 

3  14 

4  28 
3  14 

3  43 

2  50 

4  57 

3  50 

Board  without  lodging. 

Do. 
Without  board  or  lodging. 

Do. 

*  Daring  the  harvest  season  farm  hands  are  allowed  meat,  beer,  and  salads.at  principal  meals. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
KAILROAD  EMPLOYES  A:ND  MACHINISTS. 


353 


Occupations. 

Hours  of   labor 
per  day. 

Weekly  wages. 

Eeinarks. 

i 
Summer.  Winter. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Average. 

RAILROADS. 

14  to  18 

14  to  18 

14  to  18 
14  to  18 

14  to  18 

14  to  18 
14  to  18 
14to18 

$5  43 

4  76 

5  35 

2  86 

3  09 

5  95 

4  46 
3  09 

6  28 
6  28 
3  78 

In  case  of  sickness  they 

receive  oue-third  dailj 
wages. 
Do. 

14  to  18     14  to  18 

14  to  18 
14  to  18 
14  to  18 

11 
11 
11 

14  to  18 
14  to  18 
14  to  18 

11 
11 
11 

ROLLING    MILLS     AND    CAST- 
STEEL  WOKKS. 

$8  57 
8  57 
4  00 

$4  00 
4  00 
3  57 

Mechanics  working  by  fire. . 
Common  laborers 

J.  s 

POTTER, 

Consul, 

United  States  Consulate, 

Crefeld,  April  30,  1884. 


DANTZIC. 


REPORT  BY  CONSULAR-AGENT  OOLLAS. 

Part  I. — Male  labor. 

The  rates  of  wages  are  given  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  accompany- 
ing forms. 

COST   OF  LIVING. 

The  prices  for  the  necessaries  of  life  are  so  very  variable,  and  indi- 
viduals have  so  many  ways  in  which  they  can  satisfy  their  bodily  wants, 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  state  the  prices  i^aid  for  their  require- 
ments. The  lower  class  of  laborers  live  chiefly  on  potatoes,  rye  bread, 
rice,  gruel,  salt  herrings,  and  occasionally  a  piece  of  bacon,  and  use  as 
beverage,  coffee  or  chicory  water.  Sometimes  fish  or  sjirats  are  plenti- 
ful, an(l  are  then  largely  consumed.  The  expense  is  about  7^  to  12J 
cents  daily ;  clothing  comes  to  $7  to  $9  per  annum  ;  rent,  $1  per  month. 
The  better  class  of  workmen  or  laborers  enjoy  a  piece  of  meat  occasion- 
ally ;  live  on  16  to  24  cents  per  diem  ;  clothe  themselves  for  $15  to  $18, 
and  pay  $25  to  $35  rent  a  year. 

HABITS  OF  THE  WORKING  CLASSES. 

The  better  part  of  the  working  classes  are  steady  and  trustworthy,  par- 
ticularly when  married  ;  but  amongst  the  lower  workmen  steadiness  is 
not  over-frequent  although,  generally  speaking,  trustworthy.     Saving 
is  a  rarity,  the  earnings  not  being  such  as  to  permit  it,  but  the  inducement 
92  A— LAB 23 


354  LABOR  IN  EUROPE— GKRMANY. 

for  spending,  in  tlie  sliape  of  pothouses,  beer  and  spirit  shops,  dancing- 
houses,  tea  gardens,  »S:c.,  is  very  great,  Druukeuuess  is  rather  j)reva- 
lent.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions,  but,  on  tlie  wlioh*,  there  are  few 
who  save  money. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER    AND   EMPLOY]E. 

The  feeling  between  employd  and  employer  is  satisfactory,  especially 
with  those  wlio  are  permanently  kept  in  work,  their  welfare  depending 
on  a  regular  income. 

ORGANIZATION,    STRIKES,   FOOD    PURCHASES,   AND    OO-OPERATIVE   SO- 
CIETIES. 

The  organization  of  labor  takes  place  according  to  the  demand.  In 
times  of  activity  all  goes  on  well.  Capital  has  little  or  nothing  to  do 
in  this  respect. 

Strikes  are  not  known  here.  They  have,  it  is  true,  taken  place  sev- 
eral times,  but  they  did  not  last  long,  and  ended  in  the  discomfiture  of 
the  laborer. 

Working  people  are  free  to  purchase  their  food  where  they  choose; 
there  is  no  restriction  imposed  on  them  in  this  respect.  Wages  are  paid 
daily  or  weekly. 

Co-operative  societies  do  not  exist  here.  There  is  a  union  here, "  Con- 
sumption Union,"  where  parties  who  are  subscribers  receive  a  ticket 
whereby  thej'  have  a  small  advantage  in  the  purchase  of  their  necessi- 
ties, but  it  is  not  generally  used. 

GENERAL   CONDITION  OF   THE  WORKING  CLASSES. 

The  better  class  of  working  people  have  decent  homes,  that  is,  sepa- 
rate lodgings  for  themselves.  Their  homes  are,  according  to  their  pro- 
pensities, clean  or  otherwise.  The  food  is  potatoes  with  an  occasional 
piece  of  meat,  fish,  bacon,  grnel,  pearl  barley  with  a  piece  of  butter  or 
lard  ;  the  clothes  are  fairly  decent,  but  there  are  not  many  chances  of 
their  bettering  their  condition  as  soon  as  children  appear.  There  are 
unions  or  associations  where  they  pay  a  certain  sum  weekly  or  monthly 
and  from  which  they  receive  a  certain  allowance  in  case  of  sickness  or 
accident.  The  lower  grade  of  workman  earns  too  little  to  save,  besides 
he  is  improvident  and  sptMids  his  money  at  the  beer-shop.  The  moral 
condition  is  low,  there  being  too  many  inducements  for  seduction.  In 
the  winter  soup  kitcliens  are  established,  and  a  quart  may  be  obtained 
for  14  cents,  but  an  aversion  thereto  exists  from  false  pride. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

A  workingman  who  receives  about  73  to  78  cents  a  daj',  can,  when 
his  wife  assists  liini,  live  very  decently,  even  with  two  or  three  children. 
The  wifeeains  from  UO  to30(!entsas  needlewoman,  charwoman,  washer- 
woman, attendant,  and  the  like,  only  the  employment  is  not  always  i)er- 
nianent.  Kent  is  about  $30  to  35,  clothing  $40,  food  and  fuel  $130  to 
$150,  taxes,  school,  «S:(;.,  differ  greatly. 

Coffee  is  the  usual  beverage  throughout  the  day,  but  the  husband 
takes  a  glass  of  beer  or  s|urits  at  times. 

Saving  is  rare,  especially  when  there  are  children.     In  case  of  sick. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  355 

ness  23  to  40  cents  a  week  are  received,  according  to  tlie  terms  of  the 
association  subscribed  to. 

Tliere  are  no  jiarticular  means  furnished  for  people  in  case  of  accident, 
and  em|)h)yers  do  not  concern  themselves  about  their  employes' affairs. 

Workinginen  who  pay  a  certain  amount  of  tax  are  entitled  to  a  vote 
for  the  nomination  of  an  elector  for  the  House  of  Deputies,  but  each 
native  who  is  of  a<;e  may  vote  direct  for  a  member  to  the  Diet. 

The  share  of  taxation  borne  by  the  working  classes  is  inconsiderable. 

People  eiuigrate  under  the  impression  that  they  will  better  their  con- 
dition. Mechanics  and  agricultural  laborers  form  the  chief  portion  of 
the  emigrants. 

Pakt  11. — Female  labor. 

About  200  to  COO  females  are  em|)loyed  in  the  Royal  Gun  Manufactory 
and  Artillery  Workshop,  according  to  the  demand;  100  to  150  for  the 
making  of  cigars,  sorting  tobacco,  &c.;  50  to  00  for  the  fabrication  of 
lucifers;  30  to  40  in  the  glass  works;  100  or  so  in  sorting  rags,  and  20  to 
30  are  engaged  in  the  sugar  manufactories  day  and  night,  according  to 
their  size,  during  the  campaign.  In  the  summer,  when  grain  supplies 
are  large,  and  working  of  them  in  the  open  air  takes  place,  some  hun- 
dreds of  women  are  employed. 

The  number  of  laundresses,  shop  assistants,  clerks,  milliners,  seam- 
stresses, artists,  musicians,  &c.,  it  is  impossible  to  arrive  at,  but  of  late 
there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  shape  of  book  keepers,  cashiers,  &c., 
who  are  content  with  less  pay  than  males,  by  which  the  latter  are  obliged 
to  reduce  their  claims.  Wages  var^^  greatly — female  manual  labor  may 
be  taken  at  20  to  20  cents  per  day  of  10  to  12  hours.  There  is  no  par- 
ticular provision  made  in  case  of  sickness  except  when  an  association  is 
regularl}'^  subscribed  to.  In  cases  of  perfect  destitution  the  party  is 
taken  to  the  hospital,  at  the  expense  of  the  town.  There  are  physicians, 
"poor  doctors,"  who  are  obliged  to  give  gratuitous  advice  to  the  neces- 
sitous, and  who  receive  a  certain  annual  sum  for  it  from  the  authorities. 

In  the  country  all  females  are  obliged  to  work  in  the  fields,  barns, 
stables,  &c.,  and  in  case  of  accident  or  sickness  are  prov^ided  for  by  the 
owner  of  the  estate. 

Morality  must  not  be  estimated  too  high. 

Wages  have  not  increased  of  late  years,  and  at  present  there  are  many 
hands  unemployed. 

There  are  compulsory  schools,  and  children  have  to  attend  them  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours  per  day  up  to  a  certain  age. 

In  a  garrison  town  like  Dantzic,  where  there  are  about  5,000  to  6,000 
soldiers,  females  are  ex[)osed  to  great  seduction. 

The  life  and  limb  law  now  under  discussion  in  the  Diet  will  afford  more 
protection  to  the  working  classes  when  passed. 

PETER  COLL  AS, 

Consular  Agent. 

United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Dantzic,  May  26,  1884. 


356 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


GENERAL  TRADES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  »ixty-three  hours  in  Dantzic. 


Occnpationa. 


Lowest. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TKADE8. 


Bricklayers 

Hod  carriers. 
Masons 

Teuders 

Plasterers     

Teudei-s 

Slaters  


Eoot'ers , 

Truders  — 

Plumbers 

Assistants  . 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers. 


Blacksniitlis. . . 
Strikers... 
Bookbiudei's  . . 
Brick-makers  . 
Brewers 


Butiliers 

Brass  founders. . 
Cabinetmakers  . 
Cont'octioners. .. 

C  igar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

ill 


Disti 
Drivers  . 


rs. 


Draymen  and  teamsters. 

Cab  and  carriafje 

Street  railways 


Dyers . 
Engravers 
Furriers  . . 
Gardeners. 
Hatteis 


Tlorsesboers 

Jewelers 

Liiboreis,  porters,  (fcc. 

Lirbographers 

Millwrigbts. 

Nail-makers. (hand). . 
Potters 


Piinters  

Teachers,  public scliools 

Saddle  and  harness  makers. 

Sailmakers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 


I'ailors     

Ti'legrajdi  operators 

Tin.smitlis 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills). 


' Per  annum. 


4 
3 
2 
2 
5 
4 
4 
4 
*120 
3 
3 
2 
3 
3 
5 
3 
2 


$4  24 
2  43 
5  00 
2  43 

4  24 
2  43 
.5  71 

5  00 
2  43 
7  14 

4  24 

5  00 
5  00 


5  00 
5  00 

3  hi 
5  00 
7  14 
5  00 
5  00 
5  00 
5  71 
5  00 

2  85 

4  24 
4  24 
4  24 

3  57 
3  57 

3  57 

4  24 
3  57 
7  14 

5  71 
3  57 

3  57 
5  00 

4  86 
3  57 

3  57 
7  14 

5  00 
5  00 
5  00 

'1,4.50  (M) 

4  24 
4  24 

3  57 

4  24 
4  24 
7  14 
4  24 
2  85 


FOUNDRIES,  MACHINE-SHOPS,  &C. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-three  hours  in  foundriis,  machiue-sho2)s,  and  iron-works  in 

Dantzic. 


Lowest. 


$4  24 
3  57 
2  43 


Highest. 


$5  71 
4  24 
2  85 


Average. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


357 


GLASS-WORKS 

All  bauds  in  glass-works  are  paid  by  piece  work,  and  earn  from  $19  to 
$28.50  per  niontb,  exclusive  of  bouse  rent,  wbicb  tbey  get  free  on  tbe 
premises.  Workiug  bours  per  week  are  very  irregular,  accordiug  to 
demand.  Girls  atteudiug  tbe  workmen  are  paid  36  cents  per  day  of  ten 
hours. 

RAILWAY  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  engaged  on 
the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  ^c.)  in  Dantzic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Station-nia«ter 

Station  nia.ster'8  assistant 

Clerk,  booking  office 

per  annum . . 

do  ... 

.!!.!!!!.!..!! .......  do ! ! ! . 

$600  00 
457  00 
312  00 
360  00 
421  00 
219  00 
229  00 
36 

$815  00 
600  00 
437  00 
435  00 
564  00 
276  00 
300  00 
42 

$707  00 
528  00 
374  00 
397  00 

do  . 

492  00 

do.... 

247  00 

Ticket-taker,  door-opener 

do.... 

259  00 
39 

SHIP-YARD  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  day  of  ten  hours  in  shijy-yards  {distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood  ship- 
building) in  Dantzic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Wooden  vessels : 

$0  52 
83 
24 
71 
47 
47 
60 

60 
47 
60 
47 
71 

$0  83 
95 
36 
83 
62 
60 

$0  67 

89 

30 

77 

55 

54 

Iron  ships : 

71 
60 
71 
60 
95 

65 

53 

63 

53 

83 

SEAMEN' rf   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
rjrer  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Dantzic. 


Occunations. 


Lowest 


Highest.   Average. 


Sailing  vessels: 

Master 

Mate 

Boatswain 

A  lile  seaman 

Ordinary  seaman 

Cook  and  steward 

Boy 

Steamships : 

Master , 

Mate , 

Chif  f  engineer 

Second  engineer 

Fireman 

Cook  and  steward 

Able  aeumaa 

Ordinary  seaman 

Carpenter  and  boatswain 
River  boats : 

Master 

Mate 

Assistant  


$28  50 

21  00 

14  00 

10  00 

7  00 

9  50 

4  00 

28  50 

21  00 

42  00 

24  00 

7  50 

9  50 

9  50 

7  00 

10  50 

23  00 

20  00 

6  50 


$15  00 

$15  50 

11  00  1 

10  50 

7  50 

7  25 

10  50 

10  00 

4  50 

4  25 

43  00 

'42' 50 

25  00 

24  50 

8  00  : 

7  75 

10  50 

10  00 

10  50  , 

10  00 

24  00 
21  00 

7  50 


10  75 

23  50 

20  50 

7  00 


The  masters  of  sailing  vessels  are  allowed  2  per  cent,  and  those  of  steamers  1  per  cent,  of  the  gross 
amount  of  freight,  besides  their  pay  and  board. 


358  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

STORE    AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  in  stores,  wholesaJe  or  rctaH,  to  males  and  females,  in  Dantzic. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  I  Highest.   Average. 


Males  : 

Sliop  assistants 

Apju'eniices 

Feiiialis : 

Sliop  assistants ,. 

Ai>j>rcntice8 

Milliners 

Head  niillioera 


$14  00 

$23  00 

$18  00 

3  GO 

4  00 

3  00 

14  00 

21  00 

17  00 

2  00 

4  "0 

3  OO 

14  00 

17  00 

15  OO 

18  00 

21  UO 

19  00 

HOUSEHOLD    WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  household  .<<erva)its  in  Dnntzir,.' 


Occupations. 


Cook per  annum. 

Housemaid do  . . 

Lady  lielps do  .. 

Butler  per  month . 

Coachman do . . . 


Lowest. 

$2.5  00 

21  00 

42  00 

8  60 

8  60 

Highest. 


$37  50 
28  00 
50  00 
11  50 
11  50 


Averace. 


$3<  25 
24  .50 
49  m 
10  05 
10  05 


*  "With  dinner  and  lodgings  and  a  present  at  Christmas  of  $2  to  $5. 
AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Farm  servants  (cotters)  are  engaged  by  the  half  year  or  year,  have  a 
cottage  with  a  room,  closet,  and  fire-liearth,  besides  a  piece  of  land  for 
potatoes,  and  one  for  other  vegetables.  They  receive  9.]  cents  i)er  day 
in  the  winter,  and  10^  cents  in  the  snininer.  He  has  to  jnovide  for  a 
laborer  (hiring  harvest  time,  and  Iiis  wife  is  obliged  to  work  dnring 
a  i)art  of  the  afternoon.  His  children  may  assist,  for  which  extra  pay 
is  given.  Tiie  farm  laborer  receives  lOf  cents  and  victnnls  sniiplietl 
fiitm  tiie  fatin.  He  sleeps  in  the  barns  or  stables.  Wages  and  work 
differ  greatly,  according  to  the  district  and  time  of  the  year. 

CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 


Wages  paid  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Dantzic. 


■  Occupations. 


Lowest.      Highest. 


Head  liursoniaster jier  annum. . '  .$3,  570  00 

Burjjomaster do 1,  785  00 

Aldermen do....  1,21!)  00 

Secretiirios do 571  00 

Clerks  do....  214  00 

Dire.torof  (ire  police. ' do 929  00 

Insjiccliir  of  fire  poli('e do  .. .  667  00 

Chief  liremen permouth..  20  (lO 

Fiiemen    do  . .  12  50 

P(di<;e  inspector do 14  50 

Do     do...  11.50 

Drivers   do '  1 1  50 

Scavengers do |  10  75 

Inspector  of  river  police do ]  18  00  ' 

Policemen ;...do 11  50  | 


$!,.572 

00 

8.-6  00 

428 

00 

1,070 

0(1 

710 

00 

22  00 

14 

50 

16  00 

12 

50 

12 

50 

11 

50 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


359 


GOVERNMENT  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  employes  in  Government  departments  and  offices  (exclusive  of 
tradesmen  and  laborers)  in  Dautzic. 


Occupationa. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$36  00 
18  00 
14  00 

$72  00 
21  00 
19  00 

$54  00 

19  00 

16  00 

TRADES   IN   GOVERN3IENT   EMPLOY. 

Wages  paid  by  the  day  of  ten  hoars  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  employ  in 

Dantzic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$0  38J 
60' 

$0  44 
71 

«0  414 
C5i 

Artisans  who  can  work  at  the  machines 

'    At  the  gun  manufactory  and  artillery  workshop,  females  are  employed  for  making  cartridges  and 
the  polishing  of  arms,  steel,  &c.,  at  18  to  25  cents  a  day. 

PRINTERS'   WAGES. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  2)aid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  xjress- 
men,  proof-readers,  <^c.)  in  Dantzic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$3  00 

2  50 

4  50 

70 

$4  50 
3  00 
5  00 
1  20 

.$3  75 

4  75 

Apprentices -     - -- - -   . 

95 

DRESDEN. 

JiEPOIiT  BY  CONSUL  MASON. 

Absence  from  my  post  and  the  delays  and  p'eat  difBculties  experi- 
enced in  obtaining-  satisfactory  and  reliable  information  has  occasioned 
the  apparent  delay  in  replying-  to  "  Labor  Circular,"  issued  from  the  De- 
partment of  State,  February  15,  ultimo. 

RATES   OF  WAGES   AND   COST   OF   LIVING. 

The  rates  paid  for  labor  of  every  class  have  altered  very  little  since 
our  report  in  1878.  The  cost  of  living  has  not  materially  changed,  while 
the  laborers  continue  to  live  in  their  own  peculiar  and  frugal  way,  rye- 
bread,  gruel,  cheese  of  the  province  and  tlie  inevitable  beer,  constitut- 
ing their  principal  articles  of  food,  while  tlesh  of  animals,  when  eaten, 
is  generally  in  the  form  of  sausage. 


HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  on  the  whole  are  good ;  they  are 
patient  and  laborious,  though  slow  and  tardy  in  their  movements;  and, 
while  not  overimprovideut,  they  seldom  accumulate,  as  their  wages  are 


360  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

low  and  one  mij^lit  say  at  fixed  rates,  enabling  them  only  in  rare  in- 
stances to  lay  nj)  for  the  "  rainy  day."  Yet  they  seem  cheerful  and 
happy,  and  always  ready  for  enjoyment,  after  work-hours  or  holidays, 
and  indulge  in  the  dance  to  a  late  hour  of  the  night. 

FEELING  HETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYE. 

The  feeling  among  employers  and  their  employed  is  generally  good, 
and  many  old  mills  and  manufactories  are  oi)erated  and  worked  by  the 
descendents  of  the  original  proi)rietors  and  their  workmen.  Often  a 
little  village  rises  around  the  mill  and  for  generations  they  live  and 
delve  and  die  there. 

ORGANIZATION   OF   LABOR. 

The  labor  is  not  organized,  as  with  us  and  in  England,  hence  capital  of- 
fers no  counter-organization.  Strikes  are  r;\re,  and,  often  unknown  in 
whole  interests  and  districts,  have  never  organized  against  theiremi)loy- 
ers.  The  laborer  is  always  paid  in  the  currency  of  the  country,  and  free 
to  expend  it  in  any  way  and  any  where  he  chooses  for  the  necessaries 
of  life.  But  it  is  not  unusual,  in  retired  inaccessible  locations,  for  the 
company  to  furnish  at  cheap  rates  the  requirements  for  the  maintenance 
of  their  laborer's  family. 

No  co-operative  societies  have  been  formed  by  the  operatives  of  this 
district. 

GENERAL    CONDITION  OF   THE  WORKING  CLASSES. 

The  general  condition  of  the  working  people  of  Saxony  is  favorable; 
they  are  suitably  housed,  their  food  is  wholesome,  and  their  clothing 
comfortable.  The  chances  for  bettering  their  condition  is  not  great, 
and  many  of  the  most  enterprising  look  for  the  day  of  emigrating  to 
more  favorable  localities. 

I  hear  the  moral  condition  of  the  operatives,  especially  of  the  females, 
is  not  elevated,  and,  owing  in  a  great  degree  to  the  crowded  state  of 
their  villages  and  homss,  the  cases  of  illegitimate  births  among  them 
is  appalling. 

SAFETY   OF   EMPLOYES   IN   MILLS   AND   MINES. 

In  all  mills  and  manufactories  the  greatest  care  is  taken  for  the 
safety  of  the  operatives,  while  railroads  are  supervised  and  inspected 
every  mile  after  a  passing  train  to  detect  accidents  and  insure  safety  to 
life  and  projjerty.  The  system  of  mining  is  managed  on  the  most  ap- 
proved and  scientific  principU's,  and  regularly  inspected  by  government 
oflicials,  fully  competent  to  determine  the  condition  and  requirements 
of  their  dnily  inspections,  so  accidents  are  rare,  and  mining  interests 
are  very  tloiirisliing,  and  not  regarded  as  speculative,  as  with  us. 

POLITICAL    RIGHTS. 

The  political  rights  of  operatives  are  well  provided  for.  By  the  laws 
of  Germany  every  citizen  becomes  a  voter  at  the  age  of  twenty  live,  and 
they  are  alive  to  tiie  preservation  ami  extension  of  their  rights  and  privi- 
leges. "The  horny  hand  of  labor  and  the  hardened  muscle  of  toil "  are 
duly  regarded  and  courted  by  those  needing  their  votes,  and  their  voice 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  361 

for  reform  and  extension  of  everything  the  imagination  can  conceive 
of  is  heard  in  the  ro^'al  halls,  through  their  representatives,  along  with 
the  petitions  of  princes  and  field-marshals. 

TAXATION. 

The  working  people  bear  their  fall  proportion  of  taxation.  The  tend- 
ency of  legislation  with  regard  to  the  laboring  population  is  favorable, 
and  generally  fair  to  them  ;  indeed,  their  inliueuce  and  importance  as- 
serts itself,  and,  as  has  always  been  the  case  in  representative  govern- 
meuts,the  pressure  is  from  below  and  always  seeks  and  obtains  its  level 
far  above. 

CAUSES   OF   EMIGRATION. 

The  causes  of  emigration  are  as  varied  as  are  the  dispositions  and 
necessities  of  man.  I  should  say  the  most  enterprising  of  the  opera- 
tives emigiate,  seeing  or  hoping  for  a  better  and  more  profitable  field  for 
their  labtu's,  and  is  often  determined  by  the  success  of  friends  who  have 
preceded  them,  and  are  constantly"  urging  them  to  join  them,  while  their 
occupations  represent  every  art  and  labor. 

FEMALE  LABOR. 

I  am  unable  to  state,  or  to  form  an  approximation  of  the  number  of  wo- 
men and  children  employed  in  industrial  pursuits  in  this  district.  No  data 
is  furnished,  but  female  labor  enters  largely  into  various  pursuits.  There 
has  been  no  perceptible  increase  in  the  wages  paid  female  labor  during 
the  last  five  years,  neither  has  the  cost  of  living  been  advanced.  The 
effect  of  the  employment  of  females  in  many  occupations,  which  in  other 
countries  is  monopolized  by  males,  is  not  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
latter,  as  the  former  only  fill  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  army  absorbing  the 
time,  labor,  and  abilities  of  every  one  not  phj'sically  disabled  (for  there  is 
no  other  exception).  All  have  to  serve,  and  at  the  period  of  life  when  the 
mind,  in  its  plastic  state,  is  forming  the  shapes  and  habits  of  future  life. 

It  is  the  boast  of  the  Saxon  that  there  is  not  a  child  ten  years  of  age, 
of  sound  mind,  who  cannot  read  and  write,  in  the  whole  country.  The 
effect  here,  as  everywhere,  in  the  social  life  of  the  mill  aud  factory 
operatives,  is  deleterious,  while  their  physical  condition  is  sensibly  af- 
fected in  many  instances,  though  the  most  careful  overlooking  of  Gov- 
ernment ofiicials  is  afforded.  Ample  provision  is  made  for  them  in  sick- 
ness, and  the  hospitals  are  well  furnished  with  every  means  for  their 
careful  attendance  and  restoration  to  health. 

WOMEN  AND  DOG  TEAMS. 

An  imi)ortant  factor  in  the  labor  of  Germany  is  not  inquired  of  in 
the  circular— the  labor  of  dogs.  I  have  heard  it  estimated  that  the 
women  and  dogs,  hitched  together,  do  more  hauling  than  the  railroads 
aud  all  other  vehicles  added.  Hundreds  of  small  wagons  can  be  seen 
every  day  on  all  the  roads  leading  to  Dresden  with  a  dog,  as  "near 
horse,"  harnessed,  while  the  "off  horse"  is  a  woman,  with  her  left  hand 
grasping  the  tongue  of  the  wagon,  to  give  it  direction,  with  her  right 
hand  passed  through  a  loo])  in  a  rope,  which  is  attached  to  the  axle  of 
the  wagon,  binding  her  shoulder.  Thus  woman  and  dog  trudge  along 
together,  i)ulling  miraculous  loads,  in  all  seasons  and  in  all  sorts  of 
weather.    The  dog  is  well  fed  and  j)rovided  for.     In  winter,  when  the 


362 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


ground  is  cold  and  wet,  he  is  provided  with  a  good  warm  bed,  placed 
upon  the  pavement,  and  a  shawl  of  son)e  covering  thrown  over  him. 
Here  he  will  ])atiently  lie  until  time  to  return  home,  when  he  jumps  to 
his  feet,  wagging  his  tail,  and  harking  witii  very  glee  and  joy.  He  is 
always  ready  for  a  tight  with  any  otlier  "  team  "  he  meets  ou  the  high- 
way, and  it  is  always  anuising  to  see  the  woman's  elforts  to  keep  their 
dogs  a]»ait  from  deadly  battle.  These  heavy  loads  ])ulleil  from  the 
right  shoulders  of  the  women,  together  with  the  heavy  loads  they 
carry  upon  their  backs  in  large  panniers,  render  them  forever  hump- 
backed and  sloi)ing,  giving  them  often  at  the  age  of  twenty-tive  years 
the  ai)pearance  of  being  fifty, 

A  majority  of  the  farm  work  is  accomplished  by  female  labor,  and 
their  juimitive  imi)len)ents,  short  handled  hoes,  which  force  them  to 
work  all  the  day  in  a  stooping  position,  completes  the  deformity  already 
engendered  by  hauling  heavy  loads  in  ti  similar  i)ositiou,  and  trans- 
porting the  heavy  weights  in  baskets  resting  on  reclining  shoulders. 
Yet  these  women  are  descendants  of  the  matrons  who  bore  the  sohliers 
who  fought  under  Arminius,  and  baffled,  captured,  and  destroyed  the 
Koman  legions  in  the  forests  of  Germany  ;  and  they  themselves  are 
the  iiujthers  of  the  men  who  carried  victory  on  their  bayonets  from  the 
tields  of  Gravelotte,  Metz,  and  Sinlan  in  the  late  war  with  France. 

]  have  often  been  amused  at  the  look  of  indignant  surpris*^  of  our 
own  women  when  seeing  such  sights,  and  not  astonished  at  their  exe- 
crations and  maledictions  upon  the  svstems  which  require  such  things. 

JOSEPH  T.  xMASON, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Dresden,  July  25,  1884. 


general  trades. 

Wagei*  paid  per  week  in  Dresden. 

(Note— Tt  is  to  be  regretted  that  Consul  Mason  ilid  not  comply  with  the  in.«triictionvS  in  the  Depart- 
ment circular,  and  convert  the  marks  into  American  money.  The  German  mark  is  equivuleul  to  23.8 
ceut>.J 


Occupationa. 

Lowest. 

Hisheet. 

Average. 

ISUILDINt:  TKADES. 

Marks. 
10.20 

7.  ,06 
13.50 

7.00 

13.50 

8.40 
10.80 
10.80 

10.90 
10.  80 
10.  .50 
12.  00 
10.80 

9.00 
15.00 
12.00 

8.70 
12.00 

9.96 
12.00 

Marks. 
24.  (10 
12.  00 
23  00 
12.  00 

21.00 

12.00 
24.  iiO 
24.00 

16.00 
24.  00 
18.00 
24.00 
21.  00 
24.  00 
21.00 
18.  00 
18.60 
15.  00 
18.  00 
24.00 

Marks. 
15.20 

10.25 

18.00 

Tenders 

9.50 

Slale?8    I 

15.60 

Roof.M.s } 

10.80 

J  6.  33 

Gas-titters 

16.50 

OTIIElt  TK.VDEK. 

1.5.30 

14.  8.'> 

13.  50 

15.  60 

15. 10 

14.  .50 

Caliiiict-makers 

Ciinf'fctioncrs 

18.00 
1.5.00 
15.05 

13.50 

Ciitli-rs 

13.50 

Di.stillers 

16.50 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
Wages  paid  per  week  in  Dresden — Continued. 


363 


Occupation. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

OTHER  TRADES— continued. 
Driver.s : 

Marks. 
9.00 

Marks. 
24.00 

Marks. 
16.17 

11.40 

11.90 

7.  50. 
1.3.50 

6.00 

9.00 
13.00 

9.00 
10.20 

9.00 
10.20 
23.00 
12.00 

18.00 
21.00 
24.00 
18.00 
1.5.  00 
30.  00 
30.00 
18.00 
36.  00 
57.70 
21.80 

13  80 

16.80 

10.  80 

15.00 

14.30 

18.  00 

17.  75 

Nail-makers  (hand) 

15.00 
17.82 

Teachi'r.s,  public  schools 

40.  75 
15  00 

13  50 

13.50 

12.00 

9.00 

30.00 
30.  00 
21.00 

19.  .58 

Tailors    

1.5.  00 

13.50 

FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  in  factories  or  mills  in  Dresden. 


Occnpations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Factorie.s  : 

Marks. 

6.00 
4.80 
4.50 
3.00 

12.  OO 
8.40 

Marks. 

27.  00 
19.50 
12.00 
9.00 

24.00 
12.  00 

Marks. 
15  23 

8  75 

Boys         

7.50 

GiiLs        

5.32 

Mills : 

16.80 

10.20 

FOUNDERIBS,   MACHINE-SHOPS,    &C. 
Wages  paid  per  week  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-works  in  Dresden. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Iron  foundry  : 

Marks. 

10.80 
1.80 

9.90 
1.80 

Marks. 

24.00 
9.90 

36.00 
10.80 

Marks. 
15.60 

Bovs    

.5.40 

Machine  factories: 

16.74 

5.60 

GLASS-WORKERS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  glass-workers. 


Occnpations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Marks. 
1        10.  20 

Marks. 

27.  00 

12.00 

7.20 

Marks. 
13.80 

,5.  40 

7.80 

1          6.  00 

6.60 

364  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

MINES   AND  MINING. 

Wages  paid  per  annum  in  and  in  connection  iriih  mines  in  Dresden. 


Occupations. 


Foremen 

Hewera    

En'iine-men. 
Trammers  . . 
Day  laborers 


Lowest. 


Marks. 
940 
7U6 

892 
598 
606 


Highest. 


Marks. 

1,137 
916 
965 
670 
728 


Average. 


Marks. 
1,  035 
853 
930 
640 
650 


RAILWAY  EMPLOY]&S. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  raihcaif  emploi/e's  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  c«/*,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <!f~c.)  in  Dresden. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

Board  and  offices : 

Marks. 

4,500 
2,700 

Marks. 

12,  000 
4,200 

Mayks. 
7,245 

3,900 

2,  400 

5,460 

5.160 

Do               

2,650 

3,300 

2,975 

4.800 

3,516 

3,300 



3,600 

2,100 

2,400 

2. 250 

6,000 

3,300 

3,600 

3,450 

3,000 

1,600 

1,680 

1,440 

2,280 

l.-'^OO 

1,  056 

750 

912 

936 

804 

720 

678 

1,824 

2,076 

1,890 

2,  720 

1,920 

1,314 

1, 130 

1,  200 

1,080 

890 

840 

870 

1,712 

Railroad  a-ssistants 

1,904 
1,733 

2,  525 

1,695 

1,204 

891 

1,115 

1,016 

850 

804 

715 

1,  685 

1,200 

1,054 

890 

1,  839 
1,198 
1,035 

1,460 

],  165 

960 

720 

972 

964 

869 

1,358 

1,358 
1,360 

1,265 

ArlisatiH: 

1,166 

1,057 

916 

700 

676 

2,  5S9 

1,750 

1,  .550 

782 

730 

570 

720 

1,446 

840 

2,819 

1,810 

1,  640 

826 

876 

600 

840 

1,056 

766 

2.700 

1,778 

1,  584 

EniiiiKvdoaners  . .    

Tnick-puslicrs 

817 
804 

.581 

770 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

SHIP-YARD  WAGES. 


365 


Wages  paid  per  year  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  beltveen  iron  and  xcood  ship-building — in 

Drtsdcn. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

Marks. 

900 
1,038 
1. 021 

550 

Marks. 

1,540 

1,236 

1,535 

975 

Marks. 
1,205 

1,137 

1,202 

824 

1,236 

508 

344 

684 

STORE   AND    SHOP   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  in  stores  (wholesale  or  retail)  to  males  and  females,  in  Dresden. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Marks. 
960 
624 
480 

Marks. 
1, 6r.o 

780 
1,080 

Marks. 
1,230 

676 

780 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  jyer  year  to  household  servants  {tow7is  and  cities). 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Marks. 
450 

450 

Female  cooks 

600 

AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (eountry)  seirants  in    Lrisc^en  dinrici 

with  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


MALE. 

Managers per  annum. 

Head  servants do. .. 

Lower  servants do... 

Horse  boys do . . . 

Cow  herds  (boys) do... 

FEMALE. 

Housekeepers per  annum. 

Head  servants do  .. 

Second  servauts do... 

Lower  servants do  .. 

Day  laborers  (for  11  to  12  hours  daily) per  week. 


Average. 


165.  00 

127.  50 

10.5  00 

82.50 

9.50 


366 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Dresden. 


Occupations. 


Officers  of  the  community,  accountants: 

Chief  book-keeper,  inspector  of  taxes 

Secretary  

Comptroller 

Book-keeper 

Repistrars,  calculators,  clerks 

Tecliiiical  officers: 

Coiin-ielor  to  the  board  of  works  .   

Chief  engineer 

Arcliit.ct 

Assistant  ensrineer 

City  agriculturist 

City  gardener 

Trustee  of  road 

Heail  masons 

Building  comissaries 


Lowest 


Marks. 


3,300 
1,000 


Highest. 


1,500 
1,  620 
3,300 


Marls. 


Average. 


3,909 
3,  000 


2,250 
1,680 
4,500 


Marks. 

4,500 
4,200 
3,600 
3,  600 

1,900 

6,000 
5,500 
3.600 
2,400 
1,500 
3,000 
1,950 
1,650 


GOVERNMENT   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per   a7inuin  to  employefi  in  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusive  of 

tradesmen  and  laborers. 


Occupations. 


Privy  counselors  of  the  Government 

Counselors  of  the  Government 

Secretaries 

Registrars 

Clerks 

Calculators 

Servants 


Lowest. 


Marks. 
6,300 
4,800 
3,000 
2,250 
1,585 
2,400 
1,422 


Highest. 


Marks. 
9,900 
6,000 
4,000 
3,588 
2,182 
3,000 
1,815 


Average. 


Marks. 

7,920 
5,280 
3,530 
2,390 
1,950 
2,650 
1,500 


PRINTERS'  WAGES. 


Statement  sliowing  the  wages  paid  per  iveek  to  printers  {vompositors,  pressmen,  proof -readei'S, 

4'c.)  in  Dresden. 


Occupations. 


Printing-office  employ6s 

Male 

F'emale 

Boys 


Lowest. 


Marks. 

9.00 
6.00 
3.00 


Highest. 


Marks. 

36.00 
15.00 
9.00 


Average. 


Marks. 

17.75 
9.33 
5.47 


DUSSELDORF. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WAMER. 

In  submitting  my  report  on  the  condition  of  labor  and  wages  in  this 
consnlar  district,  I  would  state  that  it  was  quite  impossible  for  me  to 
obtain  all  tlie  statisti(;al  information  in  the  jiarticnlar  form  required  by 
the  Department's  labor  circular  of  February  15,  1S84.  The  manufact- 
urers, as  a  rule,  are  exceedingly  careful  about  imparting  any  kind  of 
information  to  outsiders  relative  to  their  business  affairs,  although  there 
were  some  who  responded  very  courteously  to  all  my  interrogatories. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  367 

Tlie  wages  given  in  the  table  liereto  annexed  on  the  general  trades 
having  been  obtained  direct  from  the  worUnieii,  they  shonld  be  a  pretty 
fair  representation  of  the  average  earnings  of  this  class  of  laborers. 

CONDITION   OF   TUE   WORKING   PEOPLE. 

The  working  classes  in  this  district  seem  to  be  pretty  well  contented 
with  the  present  prices  paid  for  their  labor.  During  the  past  few  years 
the  demand  for  labor  has  been  somewhat  on  the  increase,  and  if  wages 
have  not  advanced  proportionally,  there  has  been  no  comi)laint  about 
scarcity  of  enii)loynient.  Piece-work  is  preferred,  both  by  the  employes 
and  employers,  to  day  labor,  and  it  is  generally  adopted  whenever  it  is 
possible  to  be  done.  The  Gerniau  work-i)eople  are  comparatively  slow, 
and  the  employers  find  it  decidedly  to  their  advantage,  as  well  as  to 
that  of  the  laborers,  to  give  employment  in  this  way.  I  am  told  that 
they  do  considerably  more  work  and  consequently  earn  higher  wages. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYES  AND  EMPLOYERS. 

The  feeling  which  prevails  between  employe  and  employer  can  be 
said  to  be  tolerably  good.  Strikes  are  exceedingly  rare,  and  if  they 
occur  are  soon  ended.  The  employes  exhibit  little  stubbornness  in  being 
managed,  which,  together  with  the  great  amount  of  confidence  they 
place  in  their  employers  and  the  happy  understanding  that  seems  to 
exist  between  the  two  parties,  may  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the  chief 
causes  operating  against  the  prev^alence  of  discord  and  ultimately  strikes. 
Whenever  the  workmen  are  told  by  their  employers  that,  in  consequence 
of  hard  times  and  a  depiession  of  prices,  their  wages  will  have  to  be 
likewise  reduced  to  meet  the  exigencies,ithey  generally  accept  the  situa- 
tion without  any  eftbrts  at  resistance,  knowing  that  as  soon  as  their 
employers  can  atibrd  to  raise  their  wages  it  will  be  done. 

I  feel  safe  in  saying  from  m^^  own  observation  that  the  majority  of 
employers  in  general  are  very  liberally  inclined  towards  the  working 
classes,  and  give  them  aid  and  good  advice  in  every  possible  way. 

SAVINGS  FUNDS. 

It  is  required  by  the  laws  of  Prussia  that  every  manufactory  or  work 
shall  have  a  Kranken-Casse,  a  savings  fund  out  of  the  workmen's  wages 
for  their  aid  in  case  of  sickness.  The  employers  are  likewise  required  to 
contribute  to  this  fund.  Co-operative  societies  exist,  but  are  not  in  very 
great  favor.  The  work-people  are  left  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries 
of  life  wherever  they  like. 

COMPULSORY  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE. 

One  of  the  most  salutary  measures  consists  in  the  legal  compulsion  of 
parents  to  send  their  children  to  school  from  the  age  of  six  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  fourteenth  year,  girls  as  well  as  boys. 

Official  measures  are  also  being  taken  to  mitigate  intoxication  by  pro- 
hibiting the  sale  of  liquors  in  all  hotels  and  bar-rooms  after  11  o'clock 
in  the  night  to  <S  in  the  morning. 

THE   WORKINGMEN   IN   POLITICS. 

In  politics  the  work-people  in  this  district  may  be  said  to  have  scarcely 
any  opionion  of  their  own  and  to  be  ignorant  as  well  as  indifferent,  how- 
ever well  informed  they  may  be.     In  general  they  do  not  trouble  them- 


368 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


selves  in  the  least  about  elections.  At  the  time  of  elections  a  great 
many  of  them  stick  to  their  work  and  would  lather  forfeit  their  right  to 
vote  than  to  lose  their  wages.  Others  will  ask  their  employers,  or  are 
told  by  them  without  asking,  whom  they  are  to  vote  for.  Uthei  s,  again, 
an^  instructed  by  the  chai)lain  of  their  parishes  whom  they  should  elect. 
The  socialists  in  these  districts  don't  count  for  much. 


HOW   THE   WORK3IEN   LIVE. 

The  mass  of  the  working  classes  in  the  Rhineland  and  Westphalia  ap- 
pear to  care  very  little  about  laying  up  any  savings  tbr  future  necessity. 
it  may  be  said  that  they  live  from  hand  to  mouth. 

Families  of  from  tive  to  six  members  live  in  two  rooms,  for  which  rent 
is  paid  at  the  rate  of  $3.50  to  $4.28  per  month.  Their  meals  consist  of 
bread  and  coflee  for  breakfast,  boiled  meat,  potatoes,  and  vegetables  for 
dinner,  coffee  and  bread  again  at  4  o'clock,  and  bread  and  })otatoes  for 
supper.  Meat  is  a  very  scarce  and  luxurious  article  of  food  tor  them, 
which  they  very  seldom  enjoy  in  abundance.  Whenever  the  wife  can 
assist  her  husband  by  earning  a  little  wage  for  herself,  and  which  is 
very  frequently  the  case,  the  family  may  get  along  very  nicely. 

AVERAGE   WAGES. 

The  average  wages  paid  to  all  classes  of  workmen  employed  in  the 
various  manufacturing  industries  in  this  district  varies  from  52  to  GO 
cents  i)er  day.  Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Bueck,  of  Dusseldorf,  an 
economical  writer  of  great  prominence  and  general  secretary  of  the  In- 
dustrial Association  for  guarding  the  common  interest  of  the  industries 
in  the  lihineland  and  Westphalia,  1  have  been  furnished  with  the  fol- 
lowing very  valuable  statistics  of  the  average  wages  earned — to  which 
special  attention  is  called — during  the  business  year  1882-83  by  the 
workmen  engaged  in  00  iron  and  steel  works,  32  mines,  21  textile  fac- 
tories, 5  chemical  works,  4  glass  w^^rks,  3  sugar  refineries,  and  20  mis- 
cellaneous industries. 

In  the  iron  and  steel  works  there  were  employed  duriug  the  said  busi- 
ness year  04,709  w^orkmen,  of  which  3,490  were  youths  and  350  women. 
The  annual  earnings  were  as  follow's :  1,319  workmen  earned  between 
$142.80  and  6100.00;  7,910  between  $100.00  and  $190.40;  4,041  between 
$190.40  and  $214.20;  42,049  between  $214.20  and  $238;  5,205  between 
$238  and  $201.80;  2,747  between  $201.80  and  $285.00;  1,438  upwards 
of  $285.00. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  given  estimates  that  about  50  percent, 
of  these  w  orkmen  earned  between  $214.20  and  $238.  In  the  other  above- 
mentioned  85  manufacturing  industries : 


Number  of  workmen. 

Kange  of  earnioga. 

Number  of  workmen. 

Range  of  earnings. 

$il9  00  to  $142  80 
142  80           ICO  60 
166  60          190  41 
19U  40           214  20 
214  20           2158  00 
238  00           201  80 
201  80           285  00 

285  60 

36  youths 

$214  20        $2.'i8  e« 

G  8"'H  workmen             

17  Nouths 

261  80          285  60 

47  60             71  40 

1'' :i88  woikriii-n.           

71  40            85  20 

1,486  women 

95  20           lUt  00 

119  00           142  80 

142  80           lot)  60 

160  60           li)i)  40 

47  60            71  40 
71  40            95  20 
95  20           119  00 
119  00          142  80 
142  80          166  60 
190  40          '214  20 

190  40          211  20 

472  pills  

47  liO             71   40 

1,214  youths 

209  Kills 

42  j;irls 

71   40             95  20 
95  20           119  00 

119  00           142  80 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


369 


FOOD  PRICES. 


The  follow] II f]:  fig,ures  show  the  retail  price  per  pound  of  average 
quality  of  food  in  the  city  of  Dusseldorf : 


Articles. 

Cost  per 
pound. 

Articles. 

Cost  per 
pound. 

Bread : 

White 

Centg. 

4 

1.84 

3 

15  to  17 
19 
17 
17 

14  to  18 

Pork : 

Cents. 

20 

Blaik 

Lard 

20 

Brown 

Butter 

24 

Beef: 

26 

With  hones 

Cheo.se,  Dutch 

14 

Without  bones 

Coffee 

26 

Veal 

Ciifl're,  better  quality 

35 

Mutton 

10 

Pork : 

Potatoes 

1 

In  conclusion  I  will  say  that  the  great  mass  of  workmen  are  indiffer- 
ent to  the  i)iesent  legislation  in  regard  to  aid  and  insurance  institutions, 
which  seem  to  attract  their  attention  only  in  exceptional  cases. 

WM.  D.  WAMER, 
United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Dusseldorf,  May  17,  1884. 


GENERAL   TRADES. 
Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  sixty  hours  in  Dusseldorf. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TUAUE8. 

Brick-layers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons , 

Tend'Ts 

Plasterers     

Tenders  

Slaters  

Roijfers , 

TindiTS 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

OTHER  TKAUES. 

Bakei's  (board  and  lodginjis) 

Blackuniitlis 

Stiikers 

Book-l)iu(lers   

Brick-niakeis 

Breweis  (board  and  lodcincs) 

Butiheif  (lioaid  and  lodgings) 

Cigar-tuakers 

Coopers 

f  "ut  le) s 

Driv(  rs: 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  lail way 

Dyers   

Engravei's 

Caideners 

Battels 

Bors'shoers 

Jewelers 

Laborei  s,  porters,  &c 

Litlioi;iapliers 

Potleia 

Printers 

Tailors  

92  A— LAB 24 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  28 

$5  71 

3  14 

3  92 

4  28 

5  71 

3  14 

3  92 

4  28 

5  71 

3  14 

3  92 

3  92 

5  00 

4  28 

5  71 

3  14 

3  92 

3  92 

5  00 

3  14 

3  92 

3  57 

5  71 

4  28 

6  00 

1  19 

1  60 

4  28 

5  71 

3  57 

4  28 

4  28 

5  71 

4  28 

5  00 

1  4> 

2  14 

.      1  07 

1  78 

3  57 

4  28 

3  57 

G  42 

3  92 

5  71 

3  57 

5  71 

2  57 

3  57 

3  57 

4  76 

3  57 

5  00 

5  00 

7  14 

3  57 

5  00 

3  57 

5  71 

3  57 

5  71 

4  28 

7  14 

2  38 

4  5i 

4  28 

6  42 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

7  14 

3  57 

5  00 

Average. 


$5  00 
3  57 


4  28 

5  00 

3  50 

4  28 
3  50 

5  00 
5  00 


1  42 
5  00 

3  71 

5  00 

4  50 
1  78 

1  42 

3  92 

5  00 
5  00 

4  28 

2  75 

3  57 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 

4  28 

5  00 
5  71 
3  33 
5  00 

3  92 
5  71 

4  28 


370  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  Dusseldorf—Continwed. 


Occupation. 


Lowest.    Highest.  Average. 


Otiif.u  tuades— Continued. 

Paper-bangers 

Shoemakers 

Stone-cutters 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanners 

CopixTsiniths 

Gunsmiths 

"Wood-carvers  

"Wheelwrights 

File-cutters 

Painters ." 

Tiirnei  s 

Gilders 

Stai  r-buiklers 

Street-plasterers  

Barbers  (board  and  lodgings) 

Coaehmeu  (board  and  lodgings) 

Rope-makers 

Strict-railway  conductors 

t)ii;aiiiuakers. .. 

"Woodchoppers 


$3  57 

$5  00 

$4  28 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

4  28 

5  71 

5  00 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

3  92 

5  71 

4  25 

3  57 

6  40 

4  28 

3  57 

6  42 

4  28 

5  00 

7  14 

5  71 

3  92 

5  35 

4  28 

3  92 

5  00 

4  28 

3  57 

5  00 

4  28 

3  92 

5  00 

4  28 

4  28 

6  42 

5*00 

4  28 

5  71 

5  00 

4  28 

5  71 

5100 

90 

1  19 

1  07 

2  51 

2  87 

2  75 

3  57 

5  00 

3i57 

4  16 

5  13 

4  52 

4  28 

8  50 

5  71 

3  92 

4  28 

4  25 

COST   OF  LIVINa. 

Table  showing  the  average  annual  cost  of  living  to  different  classes  of  workmen  in  the  district 

of  Dusseldorf. 


Necessaries  of  life 


Rent  and  fuel 

Rent 

Fuel 

Food  and  fuel 

Food 

Clothing 

Kranken-casse 

Physician's  attendance 

Taxes  . 

Incidental  expenses 

Schooling  expenses 


Total 


FOUNDRIES,  MACHINE-SHOPS,  AND   IRON  WORKS. 

Table  showing  the  weekly  wages  earned  by  persons  employed  in  the  foundries,  machine-shops, 
and  iron  works  in  the  district  of  Dusseldorf. 

[Hours  of  labor,  sixty  to  sixty-six  per  week.] 


Occupations. 


Sand-model  formers . 
Mass-model  formers 
Loam-model  formers 

Heli)ers 

Casters 

Dressers    

Smelters   

Carpenters 

Assistants 

Boiler-makers 

Hcli)crs 

Machinist,  best 

Machinist,  ordinary 
Machinist,  inferior.. 

Foremen 

Laborers,  ordinary . . 


Wages  earned. 


,$4  28 
4  28 
3  57 

3  10 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 
8  33 

5  71 
8  33 

3  .57 
5  71 

4  28 
3  09 
8  23 
3  75 


to  $7  14 
8  56 

7  14 
6  50 

8  56 
5  71 
5  71 

9  87 

8  50 

9  87 
5  00 

10  00 
5  71 
4  28 

10  00 
4  50 


Occupations. 


WIRE-ROLLING  MILLS. 

"Wire-rolling  masters : 

First  class 

Second  class 

"Wire-rollers : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Puddlers : 

First  class 

Second  class 

"Welders  : 

First  class 


Second  class ;     5 


Third  class    

All  workmen  in  rolling  mills  . 
AU  workmen  at  blast  furnace. 


"Wages 

earned. 

$9  28  to  $14  28 
7  14    10  00 

6  42 
5  71 

10  00 
8  33 

6  42 

4  53 

8  56 
6  42 

8  56 
5  71 
4  28 
4  00 
3  75 

10  00 
8  53 
5  71 
4  50 
4  00 

LABOR  IN  HUKOPE GEKMANY. 


371 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 

Taih  shoiriiKj  lite  weckhj  WiKjcx  c(tnied  bi/  persoiiti  iviplojicd  in  faclorhs  or  inilln  in  Ihc  dis- 
trict of  JJitusiddorf. 

[Hours  of  labor,  sixty  to  sixty-six  por  week.] 


Occupations. 


"Wages  earned. 


Kailroail  coacli  factory :  I 

Carpentfis $3 

Blacksiiiitiis i     3 

Turners I     4 

Cu.shion-n  I  alters i     4 

3 
4 
3 


Varnishers  

Fironien     . .    

Laborers,  oi  dinary 

Sugar  refiuiug: 

Boilers... 7 

Paumeu I    7 

Sorters ]     4 

Packers j    4 

Firemen [ 

Women ;     2 

Boiler-masters    

Paperhangings  factory: 

Foremen   

Block-cutters  !    4 

Macbine-printers |     3 


to  $. 


1 

8  .^6 
8  5« 


Occupations. 


7 

14 

5 

71 

5 

71 

4  28 

8 

.56 

8 

56 

4 

28  1 

5  71 

4 

28 

3 

57 

0 

71 

0 

00 

6 

42 

5 

71  1 

Paperliangings  factory — Cont'd. 

Flockers 

Grounders 

Glossers 

(.'oliii -makers 

Ma<'liinist 

Firemen   

Laboiers,  ordinary 

Cotton  mills : 

Carders,  machine 

Spinners ... 

AVeavers 

Girls 

"Woolen  mills: 

Weavers 

Spinners 

Spoolers,  carders,  fullers,  and 
shearers  

Dressers 


"Wages  earned. 


3  57 

3  42 


3  57 

3  57 
3  28 
3  57 


4  28 
4  28 


3  09 

4  28 


to  $5  (10 
4  28 
4  28 
10  00 
10  00 
4  76 

3  87 

4  28 
4  28 

4  28 
2  85 

7  14 

5  71 

4  76 

8  56 


EAILWAY  EMPLOYES. 
Waaes  paid  per  month  to  railwaij  employe's  in  Busseldorf. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Shipping  foremen $25  00 

Porters"       

Switch-tenders  

Night  watchers  

Laboieis 

Locomotive  drivers 

Firemen 

Conductors 

Assistants 


00 

22  00 
11  90 
14  00 
45  25 
31  33 
29  75 

23  80 


Occupations. 


Brakemen 

Kailway  machine-shops: 

Foremen 

Smitlis  and  blacksmiths 

Turners 

PI  umbers 

Machine  polishers 

"V^arnisbeis 

Laborers 


Average. 


$22  61 

51  76 

15  38 

15  38 

13  60 

11  13 

13  GO 

11  13 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  month  to  household  servants  in  Dusseldorf. 


Occupations. 


Cooks 

Chambei  maids 
House  maids.. 
Man-servant... 
Coachmen 


Average. 


$9  00  U 

.$7  OO 

3  57 

3  17 

7  00 

17  85 

SHOP   AND   STORE   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  month  in  ivhoJesaJe  and  retail  stores  and  shops  in  Busseldorf. 


Occupations. 


Clerks : 

Men 

Women 

Travelers 

Counting-houses — 

Head  book-keeper*... 
Inferior  book-keepers 
Errand  boys 


Averagi 


$9  52 

7  14 
29  80 

to  $14  28 
10  71 
47  60 

60  00 

20  00 

7  00 

99  00 

35  70 

8  00 

*Geuerally  signing  by  procuration. 


372  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

ELBERFELD. 

REPORT  BT  VICE-CONSUL  VOX  WREDE. 
COST   OF   LIVING. 

The  follo^ving  are  the  average  prices  of  goods : 

Bread per  pound . .  $0  02i 

Butter do....  28^ 

Cheese do....  21 

Potatoes do 1 

Beans do 4^ 

Peas do 5f 

Vegetables  (cabbage) do 1^ 

Beef do....  \1\ 

Pork do 14 

Veal do....  12i 

Mutton do 12i 

Flour do 4 

Rice do ?i\ 

Salt do....  2i 

STATEMENT    OF   A  DYEE. 

Is  thirty-two  years  old,  with  wife  and  one  child  ten  years  old;  wages, 
$4.30  per  week : 

Rent,  two  rooms,  second  story $.32  84 

Clothing ■ 23  80 

Food,  per  week,  $2.85 148  20 

Municipal  taxes 71 

Contribution  to  workmen's  aid  society,  per  week,  14  cents 7  28 

Incidentals 10  77 

Total 223  60 

PAST  AND   PRESENT   WAGES. 

Not  much  difference.  AVages  and  general  conditions  are  rather  more 
favorable  to  the  workmen  at  present. 

HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING  CLASSES. 

;^  As  a  rule  the  workman  is  sober  and  trustworthy,  also  saving.  Com- 
paratively a  small  proportion  of  the  men  are  given  to  spells  of  intem- 
perance, and  these  occur  on  pay-days,  and  last  to  the  second  or  third 
da.y  after. 

Feeling  between  employe  and  employer  is  good. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

There  has  been  a  workmen's  hospital  fund  established,  to  which 
every  man  is  by  law  obliged  to  contribute  from  8  to  IG  cents  per  week, 
according  to  his  earnings.  In  case  of  sickness  or  accident  he  is  j)aid 
out  of  the  fund  from  75  cents  to  $1.50,  to  which  amount  the  employer, 
as  a  rule,  makes  a  voluntary'  addition. 

Strikes  are  rare  occurrences  in  this  district,  and  generally  not  advan- 
tageous to  the  laborer. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  373 

The  working  people  cjin  buy  tlie  necessaries  of  life  where  they  choose. 
They  are  generally  paid  weekly,  sometimes  semi-monthly,  and  in  silver 
and  nickel  coin. 

There  are  no  co-operative  societies  in  this  district. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   WORKING   PEOPLE. 

If  married  and  the  father  of  children,  they  have  to  live  very  econom- 
ically, aud  hardly  have  a  chance  of  saving  anything.  They  are  gene- 
rally healthy,  sober,  and  attached  to  their  families.  Unmarried  work- 
men, if  economical,  might  save  a  little. 

SAFETY   OF  EMPLOYES. 

The  respective  owners  or  companies  are  compelled  by  law  to  take  all 
necessary  precautious  to  insure  the  safety  of  their  employes.  Buildings, 
boilers,  machinery.  &c.,  are  inspected  from  time  to  time  by  Government 
officials  as  to  their  being  in  good  and  sound  condition. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

They  are  entitled  and  are  expected  to  vote  for  their  representative 
in  the  Eeichstag,  the  house  for  the  whole  German  union.  They  have  no 
right  1.0  vote  for  their  representative  in  the  Landtag.  In  the  latter  are 
discussed  only  the  affairs  of  Prussia  as  a  country  belonging  to  the  Ger- 
man Empire. 

CAUSES   OF   EMIGRATION. 

The  hope  of  bettering  their  pecuniary  position,  frequently  also  for  the 
purpose  of  evading  the  military  service.  The  emigrants  are  mostly  ag- 
riculturists aud  mechanics. 

FEMALE  LABOR. 

The  minimum,  maximum,  and  average  wages  i^aid  to  female  adults 
per  week  are  :  Minimum,  $1.50  ;  maximum,  $6  ;  averag<',  $2.90. 

The  hours  of  labor  are  from  7  to  12  m.,  and  from  1.30  to  7  p.  m.  On 
Saturday  generally  to  6  p.  m.  The  moral  and  physical  conditions  of 
such  employes  are  fair.  Xo  means  are  provided  for  the  improvement 
of  rhese  employes. 

In  case  of  fire  there  mostly  is  an  abundance  of  water ;  the  staircases 
are  wide  and  easy  of  access.  The  work  people  rarely  sleep  in  the  estab- 
lishments in  which  they  work,  aud  there  is  comparatively  little  danger 
for  their  safety  during  the  day-time  in  case  of  tire.  Naturally  great 
precautions  are  taken  everywhere  to  prevent  fires. 

For  women  there  is,  as  well  as  for  the  men,  a  fund  for  the  sick  and 
disabled.  Every  member  of  the  different  manufactories  and  other  es- 
tablishments is  obliged  to  contribute  to  this  fund  at  the  rate  of  from  4 
to  7  cents  per  week.  In  case  of  a  member  being  sick  or  disabled  a  cer- 
tain amount  is  paid  out  of  this  fund  for  her  care.  Besides,  it  is  custom- 
ary for  the  employer  to  pay  a  share  of  the  amount  necessary  in  such 
cases. 

There  has  been  a  slight  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the 
wages  paid  women  and  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 


374 


LABOR    IN    EUKOPE GERMANY. 


STATE   OF   EDUCATION. 

Nearly  all  tbe  women  can  read  aud  write,  and  they  are  obli^^ed  by 
law  to  t^end  their  children  to  school,  where  they  receive  the  benetit  of 
an  elementary  education  at  the  expense  of  the  state  when  the  parents 
are  too  poor  to  pa  v. 

FEEDERICK  YON  WKEDE, 

Vice-ComuL 
United  States  Consulate, 

Elberfeld,  August  27,  1884. 


general  trades. 

Wages  2)aid  per  iceek  of  sevenfy-fwo  hours  i)i  Elhcrfeld. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 

Brick-layers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters  

Rooters  

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

OTHER  TRADES. 

IJakpis 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Book-binders  

Brick-makers 

Brewers 

liiitchers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Coo|)or8 

Cntleis 

Distillers 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railway 

Dyerrt 

Engravei-8 

Furriers  

Gardeners 

Horse.slioers 

Laboicr.^^,  porters,  &,c 

LitlioK' 'I  pliers 

Milhvri;;lits 

Printers  

T(!a<;liers,  public  schools 

Saddle  an<l  harness  makers 

Tailors 

Teleiiiapli  operators 

Tinsmiths 

"Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Lowe 

St. 

Hight 

St. 

Average. 

$3 

80 

$0  25 

$4  55 

3 

20 

3 

80 

3  45 

3 

i)0 

6  40 

4  70 

3 

20 

3 

80 

3  45 

5 

40 

5 

75 

0  oa 

3 

20 

3 

80 

3  40 

5  3.T 

5  Go 

5  .-0 

5  40 

5 

80 

5  GO 

3 

20 

3 

70 

3  40 

4 

50 

4  90 

4  GO 

3 

10 

3 

60 

3  40 

4 

10 

4  90 

4  40 

4  00 

4  20 

4  10 

3 

.^)0 

4 

80 

4  15 

4 

20 

4 

80 

4  50 

3 

00 

3 

80 

3  20 

4 

00 

4 

50 

4  20 

5 

00 

5 

50 

5  35 

6 

10 

10 

00 

7  00 

3 

60 

4 

90 

4  20 

4 

50 

4  80 

4  GO 

5 

10 

5  90 

5  35 

3 

50 

4 

80 

4  20 

5 

00 

6 

00 

5  40 

4 

10 

5 

50 

4  60 

5 

00 

7 

50 

G  00 

3 

90 

4 

GO 

4  20 

4 

50 

4 

70 

4  GO 

4 

40 

4 

50 

4  45 

3 

00 

4 

50 

3  90 

6 

50 

12 

00 

8  00 

4 

00 

4 

90 

4  50 

2 

90 

5 

10 

4  00 

4 

20 

4 

SO 

4  50 

2 

HO 

3 

80 

3  50 

5 

00 

7 

00 

6  00 

4 

00 

4 

80 

4  50 

4 

30 

5 

00 

4  70 

7 

00 

35 

00 

15  00 

4 

10 

G 

20 

5  20 

3 

SO 

12 

00 

6  00 

4 

00 

5 

50 

4  75 

4 

10 

4 

70 

4  50 

4 

00 

7 

00 

5  00 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  tceeh  of  seventy-two  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Elberfeld. 


375 


Occupations. 


Lowest.     Highest.   Average. 


Masters  and  superintendents $8  00 

Undenuasteis 5  00 

Workmen |  3  00 

Women 2  00 

Children  over  fourteen  years 1  50 


$25  00  '  $14  00 

12  00  '  7  00 

4  5U  3  75 

2  75  ,  2  50 

2  75  I  2  25 


RAILWAY   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <|'c. )  in  Elberfeld, 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest.    Average. 


Ticket  printers $211  20 

Ticketortice  employes 211  20 

Statiou-mastets  249  90 

Brakeuieu  and  oilers 164  22 

Porters 1 92  78 

Kight-watchmen    . .  142  80 

Engineers 21120 

Conductors    ,  246  4U 

Freight  iug-masters I  235  62 

Guard-j    -  185  64 

Laborers {  142  80 

Employes  in  railway  car-shops 214  20 


$316  80 
246  40 
285  00 
235  62 
228  80 
142  80 
285  bO 
316  80 
249  90 
235  62 
249  90 
321  30 


$264  00 
228  80 
267  75 
199  92 
2U7  79 
142  80 
248  90 
281  60 
•242  76 
210  63 
196  35 
2C7  75 


STORE  AND  SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  pei-  week  of  seventy-two  hours  in   stoves  {wholesale  or  retail)  to   males  and 

females,  in  Elberfeld. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.     Highest. 


Clerks  and  salesmen... 
Girls  and  saleswomen 


Average. 


$3  00        $10  00 
1  50  5  00 


$7  00 
3  50 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  Itousehold  servants  {towns  and  ciliis)  in   Elberfeld. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.     Highest.    Average. 


Men: 

Coachmen 

Lackeys 

Gardeners 

Cooks  

Waiters 

General  household  duties. 
Women  : 

Cooks  

Kitchcnmaida 

Chaiiibfrniaids 

Gtiii  ral  household  duties. 


$11  90 
5  90 

4  80 
11  90 


$23  80 
10  60 
10  60 
29  75 

10  60 
19  04 

11  90 
5  90 
7  20 
7  20 


$19  04 
7  20 
9  00 

19  04 
9  00 

11  90 

7  00 

4  80 

5  90 
5  90 


376 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  vionlh  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (coin)try)  serrayits  near  Klber- 
J'eld,  with  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Men: 

General  housi-holii  duties 
Agriculluial  laborers 

Women : 

Goueral  household  duties 
Agricultural  duties 


Lowest. 

$5  90 
8  ;!3 

2  40 
4  80 

Highest. 


$10  GU 
10  60 


5  90 
8  33 


Average. 


$7  20 

y  00 


3  CO 
5  90 


GOVERMENT   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  of  two  hundred  and  thii  l}i-fonr  hours  to  employes  in  (loremmeni  de- 
partments and  offices — exclusive  of  tiudesmen  a)id  laborers — iv  Elberfeld. 


Occupations 

Post-office  employfis: 

Secretaries,  &.C 

Telegraph  operators 

Railwaj-  employes : 

Clerks  and  secretaries 

Custmii-house  employes   

Collectors  of  taxes  and  clerks 


Lowest. 


$19  04 
16  00 

15  85 
19  04 

16  00 


Highest.  Average. 


$60  00 
22  00 

71  40 
65  00 
60  00 


$29  78 
19  00 

29  74 

30  78 
26  00 


TRADES    IN   GOVERNMENT    EMPLOY'. 

Wages  paid  by  the  iveek  of  seventy  two  hours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  employ 

in  Elberfeld. 


Occupations 

Draymen  and  teamsters  

Horseshoors 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Plasterers  

Koofers 

Plumbers 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

Blacksmiths 


Lowest. 


$3  90 

4  20 
2  80 

5  40 
5  40 
4  .lO 
4  10 
4  00 
4  20 


Highest.   Average. 


$4  60 

4  HO 

3  80 

5  75 
5  80 

4  90 
4  90 
4  20 
4  80 


^  20 

4  50 

3  50 

5  55 
5  60 

4  60 
4  40 
4  10 
4  50 


printers'  wages. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  seventy-two  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  press- 
men, proof- readers,  ^yc.)  in  Elberfeld. 


()((ui)ations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Pi  inters 

proof -readers,  aii< 

jH'esi^men   

$4  30 

$:.  00 

$4  70 

LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


377 


GRAND  DUCHY  OF  OLDENBURG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  GROSS,   OF  BRAKE-NORDENHAMM. 

GENERAL   TRADES. 

Wages  paid  per  tceek  of  sixty-six  hours  in  Brake. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TKADES. 

Brick -lay  ers per  week 

Hod-cairiers do. . 

Masons do  . 

Tenders do. . 

Plasterers per  square  foot 

Tenders per  week 

Slaters  do.. 

Roofers per  M  tiles 

Tenders    per  week 

Plumbers  • do. . 

Assistants do. . 

Carpenters do . . 

Gas-fitters do . . 

OTHER  TKAUES. 

Bakers per  week 

Blacksmiths per  hour 

Strikers do  . 

Book- binders per  week 

Brick-tuakers do . . 

Brewers do. . 

Butchers do. . 

Briiss-founders do. . 

Cabinet-makers do.. 

Coiifectiouers do . . 

Cisar-uiakers per  M 

Coopers per  week 

Distillers do .  - 

Drivers ilo. . 

Draymen  and  teamsters do. . 

Cab,  carriage,  aud  street  railway do  . 

Dyers do . . 

Enoravers do. . 

Furriers do . . 

Gardeners do. . 

Hatteis        do . . 

Horscshoers   per  hour 

Labi»reis,  porters,  &c per  week 

Litbofrraphers    do.  . 

Millwrij^hts do.. 

Nail-makers  (hand) do . . 

Potters do . . 

Printers    do  . 

Teachers,  public  schools   per  year 

Saddle  and  harness  makers per  week 

Sail-makeis do. . 

Stevedores do. . 

Tanners do  . 

Tailors  per  month 

Telegraph  operators per  week 

Tinsmiths do  . 


Lowest. 


$3  92 
5  66 

4  (JU 
2  85 

2  85 

5  25 
4  25 

2  85 
4  25 

3  (JO 

3  75 

4  25 


3  57 
08 
06! 

5  00 

2  85 

4  75 

3  57 

4  25 

5  00 
3  00 

1  25 
3  57 

3  00  i 

2  38  j 
2  14j| 
2  85=; 


Highest. 


3  00 
3  00 
3  00 
3  57 

3  00 
07 

4  28" 

3  OOi 

4  28 
3  57 
3  00 
3  032 

243  00 
3  57 

2  851 

5  71 

3  57 
5  95 

4  74 
4  25 


$4  50 
7  15 
6  00 
3  57 
02J 


Average. 


4  65 

07J 
07 
7  14 

3  57 
14  28 

4  76 

5  90 
7  14 
4  25  ! 

3  57 

4  76 
4  76 
4  76 

3  00 

4  28 
4  76 
9  52 
4  25 
7  15 
4  56 

11 
14  28 
9  52 
7  14 
4  76 
4  76 
4  28 
476  00 

4  28 

5  70 
7  14 

4  28 
11  90 

7  14 

5  90 


$4  00 
6  00 
5  30 
3  00 
02 
3  00 
5  30 


4  00 
06J 
06i 

6  00 

3  00 
6  25 

4  00 

4  75 

5  50 
3  25 
1  65 
3  75 

3  25 

4  16J 


3  25 


4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 

300  00 
3  75 
3  00 
5  90 

3  75 
10  00 

5  75 

4  75 


378 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


FACTORIES  AND  MILLS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-three  hours  in  faeleries  or  inilh  in  the  district  of  the  consular 
agency  at  Brake-Nordenhamvi. 


Occupations. 


Master  niillwrijiht    

Milhviifrht....   ..    .     

Assistaut 

Eugiueeis  in  factories 

Fiieiueu  in  factories 

Superiutendi-nt  in  factories 

Clerks  in  factories 

Weavers  iu  factories  

Spinners  and  other  laborers 
Boys  and  girls  under  age  — 

Porter 

Drayman 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$11  00 

$12  36 

$11  00 

4  00 

4  76 

4  25 

3  21 

4  28 

3  50 

11  00 

12  36 

11  25 

3  15 

4  28 

3  50 

,  13  35 

26  50 

20  50 

6  45 

15  09 

7  50 

3  25 

4  50 

3  50 

3  57 

4  28 

3  SO 

95 

2  14 

1  00 

3  42 

5  00 

4  00 

4  76 

4  76 

4  76 

FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  foiihdries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-works  in  lirake- 

Oldenhurg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Technical  director 

per  year.. 

$952  00 
333  20 
357  00 
178  50 

3  40 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 
3  57 
3  00 
1  42 

3  57 

4  67 
4  28 

$1,  785  00 

809  20 

642  60 

357  00 

6  42 

6  42 

4  50 

5  00 
4  28 
4  52 
1  90 
4  28 

7  14 
7  14 

$1,  000  00 
450  00 

Master  foreman 

Draftsmen 

do.... 

do  ... 

400  00 
225  00 

4  25 

Engineers 

do 

5  00 

.    .  do  ... 

4  25 

Foreman  in  the  forge 

Assistant 

Joiiinevman 

do.... 

do  ... 

do.... 

do.... 

do... 

4  50 
4  00 
3  75 

Ai)prentic6 

Apprentice,  three  years' 
Boilermakers 

standing 

1  50 

4  00 

5  75 

Fonnei's 

An 

0  00 

GLASS   WORKERS. 

There  exists  in  this  district  only  one  jilass-work  of  any  consideration 
wliicli  desired  to  give  any  particnlars  of  wages  paid  by  tliein.  The  only 
statement  1  received  was  that  they  eini)h)yed  abont  two  hundred  hiboreis, 
who  received  wages  for  the  year  to  the  amount  of  about  $47,000,  or  an 
average  of  about  $119  per  pan  ])er  annum. 

Mines  and  mining  do  not  exist  iu  Oldenburg. 


RAILWAY  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  p<(id  to  raihvay  cmj)1o!,es  {those  engaged  ahout  stations,  as  well  as  ihoxe  engaged  on 
the  engines  and  cars,  linemtn,  railroad  laborers,  cjt'c),  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


Occupations. 

Technical  railway  director 

Director  of  administration 

per  year.. 

do  . . . 

Dire<^tor    

do 

Assistant 

do 

Registrar  of  administration   

do  ... 

do 

Oasliier 

do 

Assistant  cashier 

do 

Head  engineer 

do 

Engineer      

...                do 

Station-master: 
First  class 

do 

do 

Of  the  smallest  stations 

do.... 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

$932  00 

$1,385  00 

$1,(100  00 

1,  428  00 

1,  785  00 

1,  600  00 

932  00 

1,  3.%  00 

1,(100  00 

932  00 

1,  356  00 

1, 000  00 

333  20 

7H5  40 

.5(10  00 

333  20 

785  40 

550  00 

600  00 

952  00 

776  00 

333  20 

785  40 

5.50  00 

9.52  0(1 

1,3.'')0  00 

1,  0(10  00 

571  20 

1,071  OU 

721  50 

476  00 

714  00 

538  00 

285  60 

476  00 

333  00 

190  40 

380  80 

225  00 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  to  raUuay  ewpJoycs,  tCc. — Coiitiuiied. 


379 


Occupations. 


Enginp-drivers per  year 

Asslstiiut  do. . 

Guards  of  trains do  . 

Comiiiou  guards  or  ticket  collectors  do. . 

Lineman.. ..     ..   do  . 

Breaknian do. . 

Oilraau per  day 

Ticket  printers .' per  year 

Porters,  lithographers,  servants  and  all  other  assistants,  laborers  ex 

cei)t<'<l per  year 

Railroad  laborers per  day 

Administrator  of  loading  cars per  year 

Carriage  bnilder.s.  comraun I)er  day 

Upholsterer    do.. 


$485  60 
178  50 
285  60 
171  36 
123  76 
142  80 
47 
178  50 

178  50 
54 

476  00 
72 
60 


$428  40 
285  00 
3.57  00 
285  60 
142  80 
178  .50 
54 
357  00 

357  00 
75 

714  00 

1  00 

72 


.$357  00 
232  00 
300  00 
230  00 
140  00 
150  00 
50 
200  00 

200  00 
60 

595  00 
80 
65 


SHIP-YARD   WAGES. 

Wagis  paid  per  tveek  of  sixtij-three  and  one-half  hours  in  ship-iiards — distinguishing  between 
iron  and  wood  ship-huilding — i«  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  Weser  River. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.  ,  Average. 


WOODEN  SHIP-BUILDING. 

Foremen : 

First-class 

Second-class 

Third-class 

Ship  carpenters: 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class  . . 

Apprentices: 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Mast  and  .spar  makers,  as  per  agreemeut 

Joiners : 

Foreman 

Journeyman 

Riggers,  as  per  agreement 


shop. 


IKON  SHIP-BUILDING. 

Draftsman : 

First  class 

Second  class  

Foreman  in  the  building 
Smiths : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Journeyman 

A  pprentice  

Punchers  

Riveters,  per  1,000  rivets. 

Assistants  of  the  same. . . 

Engine  drivers .. 

Joiners       

Carpenters 

Calkers,  laborers 

Formers 


$14 


874 

72 

44 

00 
.54 
80| 

85J 
38 
42i 


87J 
93A 
14' 


42J 
92^ 
90* 
421 
14* 
14  I 
57 

85§! 
32 


$14  87* 
12  40" 
«  65 

7  55* 
4  93| 
4  00 

3  09 
2  61  ; 

2  00 


7  14 
4  28* 


29  50 

14  87i 
7  14 

7  14 
5  71 
3  92} 

3  57 

4  28i 
16  66 

2  8.5i 
7  14 
7  14 

3  92} 
2  8.5 J 
9  43 


$14  87§ 
10  57 
8  00 

7  40 

4  60 
3  85 

2  90 

2  50 
1  60 

7  14 

6  00 

3  90 

5  86 


18  00 
11  50 
7  14 

6  50 
5  00 

3  00 
2  14 

4  10 
15  07 

2  29 

7  14 
7  14 

3  60 
2  854 
7  06 


_WAGES  OF   SEAMEN. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men)  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg  from 

ports  on  the  river  Weser. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Master  mariners : 

$23  80 
35  70 

15  94 
23  80 

$71  40 
119  00 

23  80 
47  60 

$35  70 

119  00 

Chief  mates: 

18  50 

Steam-vessels 

25  00 

380 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen,  c^c. — Continued. 


Occupations. 


Second  mates : 

Sailing  vessels 

Steam-vessels 

Thirfl  mates : 

Sti^amers 

Sailing  vessels 

Boatswains  (steamers) 

Boatswains"  mate  (steamers) 

Qnaiteraiasteis  (steamers) 

Qiiarteniiastei-s'  mate  (steamers)  . . 
Sailors,  able-bcidied : 

Sailing  vessels 

Steamers 

Ordinary  seamen  : 

Sailing  vessels 

Steauieis 

Boys: 

Sailing  vessels 

Steamers 

Cooks: 

Sailing  vessels 

Steamers    

CooIj  and  stewaid  (sailing  vessels). 

Head  stewaid  (steamers) 

Second  steward  (steamers) 

Third  steward  (steamers) 

Engineers: 

Chiefs  (steamers) 

Second  (steamers) . .   

Third  (steamers) 

Fourth  (steamers) 

Assistant  (steamers) 

Firemen : 

Foreman  (steamers) 

Common  (steamers) 

Coal-heavers  (steamers) 

Sailmaker  and  sailor : 

Sailing  vessels 

Steamers    

Sailmakers  only  (steamers) 

Head  cook  (steamers) 


11  90 


CO 
33 

33 
57 

23 
42 
85 
80 
90 
76 

70 
80 
04 
28 
90 

90 
52 
52 

61 
28 
28 
80 


11  90 

11  90 
8  33 

8  33 
8  33 

21  42 
35  70 

20  23 
47  60 
23  80 
11  90 

95  20 
47  60 
23  80 

21  42 
14  28 

14  28 
11  90 
11  90 

14  28 
19  04 
14  28 
47  60 


16  66 
15  00 

17  50 
13  50 
13  50 
12  00 


11  90 

11  90 
8  33 

8  33 
5  75 

16  50 
28  00 

20  00 
30  00 

12  50 
7  25 

47  60 
35  70 

21  42 

16  66 

13  00 

13  00 
10  20 
10  20 

15  00 

17  50 

14  28 
25  00 


STORE   AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  ytar  in  stores,  wholesale  and  retail,  to  males  and  females  in  the  grand 

duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


Occapations. 


Head  manager 

Manager's  assistants 

Head  cuttei  s  

Assistants 

Clerks: 

First  class 

Second  class  

Third  class  

Apprentices : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Cashiers  (females) 

Book-keepers: 

First  class 

Second  class 

Porter 

Coopers : 

Muster 

AHsistant 

Apj)renticos  

Town  traveloi  s  (commission)  

Couutiy  travelers  (commission) 

*  Per  cent. 


Lowest. 


$357  00 
238  00 
242  80 
142  80 

476  00 

238  00 
200  00 

71  40 
47  60 
23  80 
238  00 

238  00 
178  50 
119  00 

238  00 
106  CO 
119  no 
*5 
476  00 


Highest. 


S2,  380  00 
714  00 
476  00 
238  00 

714  00 
476  00 
214  20 

142  80 
71  40 
47  60 

476  00 

476  00 
238  00 
106  60 

470  00 

238  00 

119  00 

*10 

2,380  00 


Average. 


$714  00 
400  00 
320  00 
175  00 

480  00 
285  60 
205  00 

95  20 

59  50 

25  00 

275  00 

285  60 
200  00 
150  00 

200  00 
180  00 
119  00 
*6 
600  00 


LABOR    IN    P:UR0PE GERMANY. 


381 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  to  household  servants  {toicns  and  cities)  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


Occupntions. 


Lowest.    Highest.  ]  Average. 


Head  Imtler  (including  board,  &c.)   per  year.. 

Second  butler do 

Coarhiuan : 

Fir.st  cliiss do 

Sfcoutl  clas.s do 

Horse  servant do  . . 

Hor.se  jockey do 

Stall  lioy  : 

First     do   .. 

Second do 

Females: 

Hou.'^eholder do 

Cook do 

Cook'8  a.ssistant do 

Chambermaid do 

Servant  do 

Wa-shmaid do . . . 

Males : 

Footman do 

Boy do   . . . 

Laliorer  iu  garden per  day.. 

Gardenir : 

Head do 

Second do 


$238  00 
119  00 

71  40 
32  13 
,32  13 
32  13 

23  80 
7  14 

71  40 
119  00 
47  60 
35  70 
16  66 
16  66 

71  40 
14  28 
59.5 

1  42.8 
95.2 


$476  00 
:  238  00 

i     95  20 
71  40 

71  40 
71  40 

32- 13 

14  28 

119  00 
178  50 
85  68 
71  40 
23  80 
23  80 

95  20 
23  80 
95.2 

2  43.9 
1  42.8 


$250  00 
150  00 

80  00 
40  00 
40  00 
40  00 

23  00 
10  00 

95  20 
142  80 
71  40 
47  60 

20  00 

21  00 

80  00 
15  00 
71.4 

1  50 
1  19 


AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (countrg)  servants  in  the  grand  duchy 

of  Oldenburg. 


Occapations. 


Fir.st  stableman  (with  board) per  year. 

Second  .-tableiijau  (with  board) do  .. 

Boy  (with  hoard)     do... 

First  female  .servant  (with  board) do. .. 

First  dairy- iiiaiil  (with  lioaid) do... 

Second  daii-y maid  (with  board) do  .. 

Junior  servant  -iirl  (with  board) do. .. 

Plowman  (with  eat  in  i;)     per  day. 

Laborers  (witli  board  and  rent  free)    per  year. 

Laliorers  (without  rent  free)         do. .. 

Laborers  (without  board  and  rent) , per  day. 

Haivestors  (with  boanl)    do. .. 

Harvesters  ( with  board  and  lodging) do . . . 


Lowest. 


$71  40 
37  70 
11  90 
23  80 

23  80 
17  85 

7  14 
53.  3 

24  80 
48  GO 

47.6 
71.4 
53.5 


Highest. 


$142  80 
71  40 
23  80 
47  60 
47  60 
23  80 
14  28 

95.2 
37  70 
61  50 
53.  5 
95.2 
59.5 


Average. 


$100  00 
50  00 

17  70 
35  40 
35  40 

18  75 
12  00 

6.5.4 
31  25 
54  75 
50 
80 
55 


CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Brake-Oldenburg. 


Occupations. 


Director  of  savings  bank 

Director  of  mercantile  bank 

Chief  clerks     

Seoon<l  clerks 

Thi nl  clerks 

Junior  clerks      

Director  for  tlie  TJnion  of  (^onsumtibles 

Director  for  the  rTnion  of  Agricultural  Implements 

Diiector  of  building  corporation 

DeMgner  

AssL.-tant 

Superintendent  of  works 

Book-keeper  and  cashier 


Lowest. 


$476  00 
476  00 
3.57  00 
297  50 
238  00 
142  80 
-.  (*)  --- 
..  (*)  ... 
476  00 
117  50 
117  50 
333  20 
333  20 


Highest. 


$950  00 
2,  380  00 
476  00 
357  00 
297  50 
238  00 
142  80 
142  80 
1,190  00 
357  00 
357  00 
714  00 
714  00 


Average. 


$.525  00 
600  00 
400  00 
320  00 
250  00 
195  00 


.000  00 
237  25 
237  25 
425  00 
425  00 


*  Gratis. 


382 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


GOGERNMENT   E3IPL0YES. 


Wages  puUl   per  year   to    eiiiphi/es  in    Government  departments  and  o^fficet  {(Xthiisii-i 
tradesmen  and  laborers)  in  the  grand  dudiyof  Oldenburg. 


of 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Average. 


Minister  of  the  interior 

Minister  of  linaiices     ,  _, 

Minister  of  justice,  churcbes,  and  schools i  1, 

Counsellor 1, 

Assistants 

Chancellor  of  the  ministry 

Goveruinent  cashier 

Paymaster- iTeneral 

Assistant 

Guard 

Inspector  of  the  Government  cash  account 

Assistant      . . 

Book-keeper-general 

Assistant 

Secretaries  in  average 

Portei-  or  errand  V)oy 

Statistical  Bureau : 

President 

Auditor 

Head  jxjlice  officer    

Expedient 

Police : 

Lieutenant  

Sergeant 

Corporal 

Coiuuion    

Head  inspector  of  ways  and  public  buildings 

Sfcdiid  inspector  of  ways  and  public  buildings 

I'rcsiilriil  (if  a  bailiwick 

Lord  chief  justice 


750  00 

375  00 

300  00 

•260  00 

1,  4:28  10 

?yj  50 

l.liiO  00 

1,950  00 


TRADES   IN   GOVERNMENT  EMPLOY. 

Wages  paid  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  employ  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Olden- 
burg. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest. 


Commissioner  of  the  office  of  public  buildings per  month 

Commissioner  of  the  office  of  public  ways do.. 

Comniissiouer  of  the  office  of  bailiwick'. do.. 

Transcribers: 

In  supreme  offices do.. 

In  minor  offices do.  - 

Designers : 

First  class do  . 

Second  class do . . 

do . . 


Copyist 

Pilot  masters 
Pilots  : 

class 


First 


do  . 

..do.. 

Secoiul  class do.. 

Harbor-master do.. 

Engineer  ol  dredger do.. 

Assistant do. . 

Fireman do. . 

('(imnKi:!  laborers do. . 

Harbor  lal)<)rers  do.. 

Master  of  dredging  machine do  . 

Ci'ininim  customhouse  officers per  annum 

Gardeuur : 

Head per  day 

Second do. . 

Laborer do. . 

Foresters.    per  annum 

Oveiseer  of  public  ways per  mouth 

Overseer  of  Government  lands do.. 

Overseer  of  public  waters  and  channels '. do  . 

Gaolers per  annum 


$23  75 
21  42 
19  75 

14  28 

11  90 

14  88 

12  00 
12  00 
34  28 

38  88 
21  42 
14  88 
19  75 
14  88 
11  90 
7  90 
14  28 
19  75 
178  50 

1  66.6 
95.6 

53.  5 
178  50 

21  42 

21  42 

21  42 
142  80 


Average. 


$35  70 
35  70 
35  70 

16  66 

14  28 

29  75 
25  00 
25  00 
43  80 

59  50 
29  75 
23  80 
19  75 
23  80 

15  88 
23  80 
14  28 
23  75 

190  40 

1  90.4 
1  04.8 
7L4 
190  40 
35  70 
35  70 
35  70 
190  60 


$30  CO- 
28  50 
25  00 

15  00 
12  60 

18  50 
17  00 

17  00 
42  50 

39  00 
25  00 

22  00 

19  75 

18  .50 
14  00 

19  94 
14  28 
21  75 

185  00 

1  75 

1  00 

60 

185  00 

27  00 

27  00 

27  00 

150  OO' 


labor  in  europe germany.  383 

printers'  wages. 

Statement  sJiowing  the  wcKjes  paid  per  week  of  sixi}i  hours  to  printers,  [compositors, pressmen,, 
proof-readers,  4~c.),  in  Brake-Oldenhnrg. 


Occupations. 


Jonrnevraen  printers 
Apprentices 


Lowest. 


$4  76 
1  42.8 


Highest.   Average. 


$9  50  $6  00 

2  85.  6  !  2  OO 


Printers  receive  their  wages  according  to  agreement  with  the  owner  of  the  press,  and  as  there  exist 
in  his  district  only  small  printing  offices,  employicg  from  two  to  tive  men,  not  much  difFtTence  exists  in 
their  pay. 


United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Bral'e-JSfondenhammj  June  24:,  1884. 


J.  J.  GROSS, 
Consular  Agent. 


HAMBURG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BAILEY. 

FOOD    PRICES. 
Bread : 

Black per  pound..   %0  0-^ 

White - do 03 

Butter do 23 

Cheese do 18 

Coffee do \S 

Coal per  ton . .     6  00 

Eggs per  dozen..  14 

Meats : 

Beef per  pound . .  14 

Mutton do 12 

Veal do 19 

Pork do 14 

Pickled  pork do 1& 

Bacon do 17 

Hams do 21 

Lard    do 19 

Milk per  quart..  03 

Peas  and  beans  (dried) per  pound . .  0(5 

Potatoes per  bushel . .  75 

Rice per  pound . .  06 

Sugar : 

Loaf do 07 

Brown • do 05^ 

Tea do 45 

Petroleum do 03^ 

PAST  AND  PRESENT   WAGES. 

Dnriug  the  last  six  years  tlie  rate  of  wages  has  not  changed  mate- 
rially, aud  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  has  been  only  very  lit- 
tle improved  in  this  consular  district  during  the  said  period  of  time. 

HABITS   OF   THE   W^ORKING  CLASSES. 

As  a  general  thing  they  are  sober,  steady,  and  trustworthy,  and  they 
endeavor  to  save  as  much  of  their  earnings  as  possible  for  days  of  sick- 
ness and  old  age. 


384  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

PEELING  BETAVEEN  EMPLOYE  AND  EMPLOYER. 

Only  tlie  very  best  foeling  prevails  between  employe  and  employer, 
manifest iiifr  itself  in  tlic  interest  tlie  latter  takes  in  the  welfare  oi"  the 
former,  and  the  rewards  j^iven  by  the  em])loyer  for  lon<i-  faithful  serv- 
ices, all  of  which  has  a  very  beneficial  eli'ect  on  the  prosperity  of  the 
community. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION    OF   LABOR. 

Most  of  the  workingmen  in  this  district  are  members  of  the  trades 
union.  They  fix  and  reftulate  in  many  cases  the  rate  of  wag;es  and 
arranjie  or  uejiotiate  with  em])loyers  about  wa.Ges  in  a  peaceful  manner. 
Any  ditliculties,  difteren(;es,  or  disputes  arisin<;  between  employers  and 
employes,  which  cannot  be  settled  in  an  amicable  way,  are  submitted  to 
the  trade-arbitration  court,  established  in  Hamburg-  by  its  Government 
for  such  i)uri>oses.  This  court  is  composed  of  tradesmen  and  master- 
mechanics  of  difierent  trades,  who  are  ai)pointed  for  the  term  of  one 
year  by  the  Government.  The  decisions  of  this  court  are  binding.  No 
attorneys  being  needed  in  said  court,  the  parties  having  cases  in  the 
same  have  scarcely  any  or  no  costs  to  pay.  The  eflect  of  said  court 
on  the  advancement  and  welfare  of  the  laborers  has  proved  excellent. 

PREVALENCY   OF   S'J  RIKES. 

During  the  last  six  years  no  strikes  worth  mentioning  have  occurred 
in  this  district. 

FREEDOM   OF   PURCHASES. 

In  this  district  the  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries 
of  life  wherever  they  choose.  The  laborer  is  jiaid  once  a  week,  ou 
Saturdays,  in  German  gold  or  silver. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

There  are  several  so-called  "  Consnm  Vereine"  (consumption  associa- 
tions) in  this  district,  which  have  established  stores  in  different  i)arts 
of  the  city,  where  members  of  such  associations  can  i)urchase  the  neces- 
saries of  life  at  less  cost  than  through  the  regular  and  usual  business 
channels.  As  the  prices  paid  at  such  co  ()i)erative  stores  are  only  very 
little  lower,  and  the  goods  sold  there  generally  of  inferior  quality,  than 
at  other  stores,  the  said  co-oi)erative  stores  have  had  no  api)reciable 
effect  on  general  trade. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING  CLASSES. 

now  A  bricklayer's  family  lives  in  iiaaiburg. 

Q.  How  old  arc  you  ? — A.  Thirty-two  years. 

Q.  Wliat  is  yonr  busiiiL-ss  ? — A.  I  am  a  bricklayer. 

Q.  Have  you  a  family  if — A.  I  have  a  wile  aud  two  childreu,  the  oldest  is  four  and 
the  youiif^cht  two  ,'\"«!ars  old. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive  per  day? — A.  On  au  average  I  receive  95  cents  per 
day. 

Q.  How  maijy  hours  per  day  are  you  required  to  work  for  such  wages?— A.  Ten 
hours  ])er  day. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  your  meals? — A.  Half  an  hour  for  break- 
fast, one  hour  for  dinner,  aud  half  an  hour  for  vespers  in  the  afternoon.  The  time 
allowed  for  meals  is  not  included  in  the  ten  hours'  work. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  385 

Q.  Can  you  support,  a  family  upon  such  wages  ? — A.  Ob,  yes.  My  wife  frequently 
earnn  from  :]  to  4  marks  per  week  by  wasbing  and  scouriug  for  otber  people.  The 
childreu  are  then  sent  to  the  "  warte  schnle,"  a  kind  of  "Kindergarten"  for  poor 
people,  where  the  children  are  taken  care  of  during  the  day  free  of  expense.  It  is  a 
charitable  institute,  of  which  there  are  a  good  many  in  Harabui'g. 

Q.  What  do  the  united  earnings  of  yourself  and  wife  amount  to  in  a  year  ? — A. 
With  general  good  health  we  earn  about  $347. Da  per  year. 

Q.  Will  you  explain  in  detail  the  uses  you  make  of  this  money  ? — A.  Yes.  I  pay 
per  annum — 

For  rent  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen  in  third  story $47  GO 

For  clothing  for  self  and  family 47  60 

For  food  and  fuel \ 191  11 

For  taxes 3  57 

For  hospital  dues 4  76 

Leaving  for  doctor's  bills,  medicines,  incidentals,  and  savings 53  31 

Per  annum 347  95 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  do  your  daily  meals  consist  ? — A.  For  breakfast,  bread, 
coffee,  and  a  little  bacon;  for  dinner,  meat  and  potatoes;  at  4  o'clock,  coifee  and 
bread  ;  and  for  supper,  bread,  bacon,  and  sometimes  fried  potatoes  and  tea  or  beer. 

Q.  Are  yon  able  to  save  any  portion  of  yourearningsfordays  of  sicknessorold  age  ? — 
A.  At  present  I  manage  to  save  about  100  marks  ($23.80)  per  year ;  whether  I  will  be 
able  to  save  so  much  or  anything  at  all  when  my  family  becomes  larger  or  my  chil- 
dren grow  older  I  do  not  know.  In  case  of  sickness  of  myself  I  receive  1  mark  50 
pfennige  (35  cents)  per  day  from  the  mechanics'  hospital  fund. 

SAFETY   OF   EMPLOYES. 

The  boilers  and  steam-engines  in  factories  and  mills  are  under  surveil- 
lance of  tbe  Government  and  are  inspected  for  their  safety  by  a  Govern- 
ment official  at  certain  intervals.  In  case  of  an  accident  the  employes  of 
factories  and  mills  receive  from  the  mechanics'  hospital  fund  1  mark 
(23.8  cents)  to  2  marks  (47. G  cents)  i)er  day  during  their  illness.  In 
some  cases  their  employers  furnish  their  employes  pecuniary  assistance 
when  the  latter  have  become  unable  to  work  in  consequence  of  an  acci- 
dent in  the  factory  or  mill.  Railroad  employes,  if  meeting  with  an  ac- 
cident in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  are  provided  for  by  the  Imperial 
Government,  the  railroads  in  this  district  having  recently  been  pur- 
chased by  the  German  Government. 

"A  general  accident  law  (unfall-gesetz)  is  now  under  consideration  in 
the  German  Reichstag,  establishing  ample  funds  and  provisions  for  all 
the  working  people  in  the  German  Emj)ire  in  case  of  accident. 

As  a  general  thing  the  employers  do  not  trouble  themselves  much 
about  the  moral  and  physical  well-being  of  their  employes,  but  in  some 
cases  the  employes  are  held  to  attend  church  and  receive  medical  at- 
tendance in  case  of  sickness  at  the  instigation  of  their  employers.  The 
general  relations  prevailing  between  employer  and  employes  are  very 
good  in  this  district. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

Workiugmen  enjoy  the  same  political  rights  in  Germany  as  capital- 
ists, and  they  command  a  great  political  influence  through  such  rights  on 
legislation.  The  great  umjority  of  the  workiugmen  in  this  district  are 
Social-Democrats,  and,  as  Hamburg  is  in  a  state  of  "petty  siege"  with 
special  reference  to  Social-Democracy,  the  members  of  that  organiza- 
tion cannot  hold  any  meetings  except  by  permission  and  under  the  sur- 
veillance of  the  police  authorities.  But,  not^vithstanding  the  close  and 
strict  control  exercised  by  the  authorities  over  the  movements  of  the 
92  A— LAB 25 


.S86  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Social-Democrfits,  tliey  form  a  very  strong:  aud  formidable  i)olitical 
l^arty,  wliich  is  best  shown  at  the  elections  for  the  Eeichstas:  ((xermau 
Parliament),  the  Social-Democrats  of  Hambnrg  at  the  last  election  hav- 
ing: elected  out  of  their  party  two  of  the  four  representatives  represent- 
ing- the  district  of  Hamburg;  in  the  Reichstag;. 

The  local  and  g;eneral  taxes  borne  by  the  working  people  in  Ham- 
burg: are  comparatively  very  lig:ht.  People  having*  an  income  of  less 
than  GOO  umrks  ($142.80)  per  annum  are  exempt  from  taxes;  froui  GOO 
to  800  marks  pay  G  nmrks  ($1.42) ;  up  to  1,200  marks  ($285.G0)  1  mark 
(23.8  cents)  en  every  100  marks. 

As  stated  in  the  answer  to  the  preceding  question,  the  German 
Reichstag  is  now  considering  a  general  accident-law  for  the  working 
classes,  and  will,  in  all  probability,  pass  a  law  for  the  establishment  of 
large  relief  funds  for  working  peojde,  all  of  which  tends  to  show  that 
the  Government  takes  a  great  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  working 
classes. 

CAUSES   WHICH   LEAD   TO   EMIGRATION. 

The  principal  cause  of  emigration  of  the  working  peojile  is  the  long 
military  service  the  young  men  are  required  to  perform;  another  reason 
is  a  desire  and  hope  to  better  their  condition,  as  they  can  make  but 
little  more  than  a  living  in  their  native  country.  The  majority  of  the 
people  emigrating  from  this  district  are  farmers ;  they  generally  select 
the  Far  West  of  the  United  States  for  their  new  homes. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

No  statistics  respecting  the  number  of  women  and  children  employed 
in  this  district  in  industrial  pursuits  being  obtainable,  I  cannot  give 
any  number,  but  can  only  state  in  which  branches  and  to  what  extent 
females  are  employed. 

A  large  number  of  girls  from  sixteen  to  twenty-two  years  of  age, 
and  but  few  married  women  and  children,  are  employed  in  the  man- 
ufacturing and  mechanical  establishments,  especially  on  light  work, 
which  they  perform  better  and  much  cheaper  than  male  employes. 

A  great  many  females  are  employed  as  clerks,  saleswomen,  book- 
keepers, and  cashiers  in  retail  stores,  such  as  dry  goods,  fancy  goods, 
stationery,  confectionery  and  flower  stores,  but  scarcely  any  females  are 
employed  in  the  wholesale  commercial  establishments  in  this  city. 

No  females  are  employed  in  Hamburg  as  Government  ofhcials  and 
clerks,  but  there  are  at  least  300  or  400  female  teachers  in  the  i)ublic  and 
private  schools  of  this  city  ;  the  line  arts,  painting  and  sculpturing,  are 
cultivated  here  professionally  by  very  few  females;  there  are  no  female 
chemists,  only  a  few  hotel  and  boarding-house  kee])ers,  no  journalists, 
a  great  many  laundresses,  a  large  number  of  music  teachers,  no  invent- 
ors, no  bankers,  brokers,  lecturers,  and  public  speakers  of  the  female 
gender  in  this  district. 

In  the  district  of  this  consulate,  agricultural  labor  is  mostly  performed 
by  nu;n  and  boys ;  during  liarvest  time  some  females  are  emjdoyed  by 
the  farmers  in  Schleswig-Holstein. 

There  is  no  mining  done  in  this  district. 

Besides  the  emi)loyes  mentioned  there  is  a  large  number  of  females 
engaged  in  the  district  as  milliners,  tailofesses,  seamstresses,  grocers, 
fishmongers,  news  dealers,  dealers  in  linen  and  white  goods,  &g. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


387 


The  luiiiiinum,  iiiaximuin,  and  average  wages  paid  to  female  adults 
are  as  follows: 


In  factories,  mills,  Sec,  per  day 

Clerks,  sileswomeii,  bookkeepers,  per  month 

Teachers  (in  public  aud  private  schools),  per  month 

Laundresses,  per  day 

Music  teachers,  per  hour 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$  0  35 

$  0  59 

10  71 

23  80 

11  90 

23  80 

35 

47 

23 

71 

Average. 


$  0  47 

17  25J 

17  85 

41 

47 


Their  hours  of  labor  are  as  follows :  In  factories,  mills,  &c.,  ten  hours 
per  day  ;  clerks,  &c.,  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  per  day ;  teachers,  from 
six  to  eight  hours  per  day;  laundresses  from  ten  to  twelve  hours  per  day. 

The  employes  are  sober,  steady,  saving,  and  generally  in  good  health. 

Most  of  these  employes  are  members  of  a  club  or  society,  organized 
for  the  mental  improvement  of  such  employes.  They  have  their  own 
club  localities,  where  they  meet  once  a  week  for  the  purpose  of  discus- 
sions and  debates,  and  where  they  have  good  libraries,  aud  lectures  by 
learned  men  are  held,  during  the  winter  season  ;  in  summer  time  they 
arrange  picnics,  &c. 

Every  precaution  is  taken  for  the  safety  of  the  employes;  scarcely 
any  accident  occurs. 

The  great  majority  of  the  employes  become  members  of  a  relief  and 
hospital-society,  by  paying  a  small  admission  fee,  say  from  $1  to  $2,  and 
an  annual  subscription  of  from  $1.50  to  $5.  In  case  the  members  become 
sick  or  temporarily  disabled,  they  receive  free  medical  attendance  and 
medicines,  and  during  their  illness  from  23  to  71  cents  per  day.  Some 
employers  provide  for  their  employes  when  the  latter  become  unable  to 
perform  any  work,  but  these  cases  are  very  rare. 

During  the  past  five  years  there  has  been  no  material  increase  in  the 
wages  paid  women,  nor  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  or  other- 
wise. The  employment  of  women  has  not  affected  the  wages  of  men, 
nor  the  general  social  and  industrial  conditions,  as  most  of  the  work 
performed  by  women  is  more  suitable  for  them  than  for  men. 

The  great  majority  of  the  female  employes  are  unmarried;  they  have 
all  been  obliged  to  attend  school  from  the  sixth  to  their  fourteenth  year 
of  age,  and  hence  receive  a  good  general  education.  The  few  married 
women  who  work-in  factories,  or  as  laundresses,  «&c.,  usually  send  their 
small  children  during  the  day  to  a  public  kindergarten,  where  they  are 
taken  care  of,  and  for  which  the  parents  pay  little  or  nothing,  as  those 
institutions  are  partly  supported  by  the  Government  and  partly  by 
charity. 

JOHN  M.  BAILEY, 

ConsuL 

United  States  Consulate, 

Hamburg^  August  21,  1884. 


388 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

GENERAL  TRADES. 
Wages  paid  per  iceek  of  sixty  hours  in  Hamhurg. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


liUlLDIXG  TRADES. 

Brick -layers 

Hod-carriers 3  57 

Masons 4  98 

Tenders 3  57 

Plasterers. 7  34 

Teuders 3  57 

SLaters 4  28 

Roofers 4  28 

'lenders 3  57 

IMuiubers ,  4  28 

Assistants 3  42 

Carpenters 4  98 

<Jas-fitters 4  28 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers 2  85 

Blacksmiths 2  85 

Strikers 2  85 

Biiok-binders 2  85 

Urick-makers 3  57 

Brewers 4  28 

Hatchers 2  85 

Brass-funders 4  28 

Cabinet-makers 4  28 

CDufectioners 2  85 

Cigar-makers 2  85 

<'i>opers 4  28 

Cutlers 4  28 

Distillers 2  85 

Drivers 2  85 

Draymen  and  teamsters 2  85 

Cab  and  carriage 2  85 

Street  railways 3  57 

Dyers 2  85 

Kngi-avers 4  28 

Furriers 2  85 

Gardeners 2  85 

Hatters 2  85 

Hcirse-shoers i  2  85 

Jewelers !  285 

Laborers,  i)orters,  &c i  2  85 

Litliogiajihers 4  28 

JVIillwrijihts 4  28 

Nail-makers  (hand) 2  85 

Potters 2  85 

Printers 3  57 

Teachers,  public  schools 5  70 

iSailille  and  harness  makers 3  57 

Sailiiiaker.s 5  15 

■Stevedores 5  00 

Tanners 5  00 

Tailors 3  57 

'I'elegi  aph  operators 7  14 

Tinsmitlis 2  85 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 2  38 


Highest. 

Average. 

$7  14 

$6  06 

5  71 

4  64 

7  14 

6  06 

5  71 

4  64 

7  14 

7  14 

4  28 

4  42 

'    4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

4  42 

4  28 

4  28 

3  42 

3  42 

7  14 

6  06 

4  28 

4  28 

2  85 

2  88 

3  57 

3  21 

2  85 

2  85 

4  28 

3  56 

3  57 

3  57 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

3  56 

5  00 

4  64 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  56 

3  57 

3  57 

3  57 

3  21 

5  00 

4  64 

3  57 

3  21 

3  57 

3  21 

3  57 

3  21 

3  57 

3  21 

3  57 

3  21 

3  57 

3  21 

5  00 

4  64 

4  28 

4  28 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  56 

4  28 

3  92 

11  90 

8  80 

4  28 

3  92 

5  15 

5  15 

6  42 

6  71 

5  70 

5  30 

4  28 

3  92 

8  56 

7  85 

3  57 

3  21 

2  85 

2  61 

FACTORIES   AND  MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Hamburg. 

Occupations. 


Foremen 

.Skilled  hands  (men) 

Ctnuuou  hands  (men)  .. 
Common  hands  (women) 

Watchmen 

Engine-drivers 

Stokers 


Average. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  389 

FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  weeek  of  sixtji  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shojjs,  and  iron  works  in  Hamhurrj. 


Occupations. 


Foreman 

Skilled  hands 

Couimon  hands 

Mulders 

Casters 

Eogine-drivers  

Assistants  of  engine-drivers 

Stokers  

Watchmen 


west. 
$7  14 

5  71 

4  28 

5  71 

5  71 

7  14 

4  28 

.S  57 

3  57 

Highest. 

$9  52 

7  14 

5  72 

5  71 

7  14 

7  14 

5  72 

3  57 

3  57 

Average. 


$8  33 
6  42 
5  CO 

5  71 

6  42 

7  14 
5  0<> 
3  57 
3  57 


GLASS-WORKERS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  glass-workers  in  Hamburg, 


Occupations. 


Foremen 

Skilled  hands  (blowers)  . 
Common  hands  (blowers) 

Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

Cutters 

Packers 


Lowest. 


$7  14 
5  71 
4  28 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 


Highest. 


$7  14 
5  71 
4  28 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 


Average. 


$7  14 
5  71 
4  28 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 


SHIP-BUILDING. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  shijy-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 

ship-building — in  Hamburg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average, 

WOOD    SHir-BUILDING. 

$7  14 
5  71 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 

7  U 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 
5  71 
7  14 
4  28 
7  14 

$9  52 
7  14 

,4  28 
5  71 
4  28 
7  14 

4  28 

5  71 

9  52 
7  14 
5  72 
7  14 
5  71 
7  14 
4  28 
7  14 

$8  33 

6  42^ 
4  28 

5  71 

4  28 

7  14 

4  28 

5  71 

IRON    8HIP-BUILDIMG. 

8  33 

7  14 

5  no 

6  42} 
5  71 

7  14 

4  28 

7  14 

390  ■      labor  in  europe germany. 

seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid ptr  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men)  in  Hamburg. 


Occupations. 


ON    OCEAN    STEAMEKB. 


Masters 

First  mates  . . . 
ppcoud  mates 
Third  mates  . 
Caiiienters... 
Stewards 


Cooks 
First  engineer  . . 
Second  engineer. 
Third  engineer. . 
Fourth  engineer. 
Firemen 


Stokers 

Seauieu 

Ordinary  seamen. 

I       . 

r 

I,-     -1 

Masters 


ON    COAST  AND    KIVER    STEAMERS. 


First  mates  . . 
Second  mates 
Carjjenters  — 
Stewards 


Cooks 

First  engineers  . . 
Second  engineers 
Firemen 


Seamen 

Ordinary  seamen. 


ON    SAILING-VESSELS. 


Masters 

First  mates 

Second  mates  . . . 

Car])enter8 

Stewards 

Cooks 

Seamen 

Ordinary  seamen  , 


Lowest. 


$47  60 
23  80 
19  04 
14  28 
16  66 
14  28 
14  28 
66  64 
57  12 
28  56 
21  42 
13  80 
11  90 
11  90 
7  14 


35  70 
19  04 
14  28 

14  28 
13  09 
13  09 
57  12 
28  50 
11  90 
9  52 
4  76 


29  75 
16  66 
11  90 

11  90 
11  90 
10  71 
7  14 
4  76 


Highest. 


.$59  50 
47  60 
33  32 
17  85 
33  32 
28  56 
28  00 
90  00 
70  00 
47  60 
33  32 
15  47 
14  28 
14  28 
10  71 


41  65 
23  80 
17  85 
17  85 
15  47 
15  47 
61  88 
32  13 
14  28 
11  90 
7  14 


41  65 
19  04 
14  28 
14  28 
14  28 
11  90 
11  90 
5  95 


Average. 


$53  55 
35  70 

26  18 
16  06i 
24  99 
21  42 
21  14 
78  32 
63  56 
38  08 

27  37 
14  63\ 
13  09 
13  09 

8  92i 


38  67i 
21  42 
16  06i 
16  064 
14  28 
14  28 
59  50 
30  344 
13  09 
10  71 
5  95 


35  70 
29  654 
13  09 
13  09 
13  09 
11  304 
9  53 
5  354 


STORE  AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paidper  week  of  sixty  hours  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females  in  Ham- 
burg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Book-keepers : 

$9  52 
5  95 
5  95 

5  95 

4  28 

9  52 

5  95 
4  28 
2  85 
4  28 

$14  28 
9  52 
9  52 

9  52 
5  95 

14  28 
9  52 
4  28 
2  85 
4  28 

$11  90 

Females 

7  734 
7  734 

7  734 
5  114 

11  90 

Salesmen 

Clerks: 

Males 

Females 

Cashiers: 

Males 

Females 

7  734 
4  ''8 

Me8>eii  gers 

Errand-boys 

2  85 

Porters 

4  28 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  391 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  month  or  year  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  Hamburg.* 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Cooks : 

$47  60 

7  14 

3  57 

2  85 

4  76 

8  57 

3  57 

3  57 
2  38 

4  76 
2  38 

$59  50 
11  90 
5  95 
4  76 
7  14 
7  14 
4  76 

4  76 

3  57 

5  95 

4  28 

$53  55 
9  52 

4  76 

3  80Jt 

5  95 

5  35i 
4  16i 

4  16i 

2  97i 

5  35i 

3  33 

Portirs 

Nursf's : 

Wet 

Dry 

*  "With  hoard  and  lodging. 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  state  of  Ham- 
burg. 


•              Occupation. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Male  farm  hands : 

Adults* 

per  month . . 

do  ... 

$4  28 

1  19 

2  14 

71 
58 

$5  72 
2  38 
2  96 

95 
71 

$5  00 

1  784 

2  55 

88 
644 

Household  servants* 

Laborers : 

In  summer  time 

In  winter  time 

do.... 

per  day.. 

do 

"  With  hoard  and  lodging. 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  sixty  houi's  to  the  corporation  employes  in   the  city  of  Hamburg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Chiefs  of  bureau 

$14  28 

9  52 
5  95 
4  76 

4  28 
4  28 
2  85 
4  28 
4  28 
7  14 
4  28 

$14  28 

11  90 
7  14 

4  76 

5  72 

5  72 
4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
7  14 
4  28 

$14  28 
10  71 

Clerks : 

First-class .... 

Second-class 

6  544 

4  76 

Mechanics  on  public  works  : 

5  00 

5  00 

3  564 

4  28 

Blacksmiths 

Gas-fitters 

4  28 

Kngine-drivers 

7  14 

Firemen 

4  28 

392 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

GOVEENJMENT  EMPLGYlilS. 


Wages  paid  per  month,  of  ten  and  twelve  hottrs  per  dai/,  to  employes  in  Government  depart- 
ments and  offices — exclusive  of  tradesmen  and  laborers — in  Hamburg. 


Occnpations. 


Lowest.    Highest, 


Chiefs  of  bureau  . . . 
Clerks: 

First-class 

Second-class  . .. 

Cashiers 

Messengers 

Porters 

Watchmen 

Police  department : 

Chiefs  of  police 

Lieutenants 

Sergeants 

Corporals 

Policemen , 


$47  CO 


$59  50 


39  66  1 

39  66 

23  80  1 

23  80 

47  60 

47  60 

19  04 

19  04 

19  04 

19  04 

15  70  1 

15  70 

148  75 

148  75 

119  00  1 

119  00 

47  60 

71  40 

31  72 

31  72 

23  80 

23  80 

TRADES  IN   GOVERNMENT  EMPLOY. 

Wages  paid  by  the  iveeh  of  sixty  hours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government  emjdoy 

in  Hamburg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

$7  14 

5  71 
5  71 
4  28 

4  28 

5  71 

$9  52 

5  71 
5  71 
4  28 

4  28 

5  71 

$8  33 

Street  pavers : 

5  71 

5  71 

4  28 

Common  laborers : 

4  2g 

5  71 

PRINTERS'  WAGES. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  prest- 
men,  proof-readers,  cfc),  in  Hamburg. 


Occupations. 


Highest.   Average. 


Managers 

Compositors 

Pressmen 

Proof-readers 

Stei-eot  yjiers 

Engine-drivers 

Firemen 

Boys  for  making  proof-copies 

Girls  engaged  on  printing  presses 


$11  99 
8  92i 
5  71 
7  88 
7  95 
7  86 
4  76 
2  61 
2  14 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


393 


KIEL. 

REPORT  BT  CONSULAR  AGENT  SARTORI. 
GENERAL,    TRADES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  Kiel. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers 
Carpenters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Elacksmiths . 

Brewers 

Gardeners  . . . 


i 
Average. 

$5  24 

4  36 

5  09 

! 

3  93 

3  54  1 
2  91 

Occupations. 


Other  trades— Continued. 


Laborers,  porters,  &c. 

Millwrights 

.Tailors 

Joiners 

Locksmiths 

Shoemakers 

Painters 

Boatswainer 

Iron-founders 


Average. 


$2  96 
3  86 

3  54 

4  36 
4  36 
2  91 
4  21 
4  21 
4  36 


MILLS. 


Wages  paid  per  weelc  of  seventy-two  hours  in  mills  in  Neumuhler  {near  Kiel) 

Muhlengesellschaft. 


Baltische 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Occupations. 

Average. 

$3  92 
4  65 
3  92 
3  63 

Tinmen 

Joiners 

$4  14 

4  07 

4  58 

Tailors 

"Workmen 

3  56 

FOUNDRIES  AND  MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in  I)ied- 

richsdorf,  near  Kiel. 

Occupations.  Average, 

"Workmen !  $3  92 

"Workmen  for  soldering 4  14 

Smiths \  4  21 

Founders > 4  07 


SHIP-YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  ship-yards  In  Diedrichsdorf,  near  Kiel,  conniy  of 

Sch  leswig-Holstein. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Ship-carpenters - 

Painters 

Iron-founders 


I  $5  10 

4  21 
4  36 


394 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  2)er  montli  to  seamen  {officers  and  men)  in  Kiel. 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Steamer,  carrying  in  the  Baltic  (250  tons,  deadweight) : 

$29  10 

Mate 

24  25 

29  10 

18  18 

10  91 

10  91 

Steamer,  carrying  in  the.  Baltic,  North  Sea,  and  Mediterranean,  also  Atlantic  Oceap  (1,050 
tons,  dead  weight) : 

36  37 

43  65 

21  82 

24  25 

17  46 

Ci)ok      .. 

19  40 

12  12 

10  91 

8  73 

7  27 

10  91 

STORE   AND    SHOP   WAGES. 

In  stores  and  shops,  besides  the  chief,  there  are  generally  (regard- 
ing the  importance  of  business)  two  to  six  clerks,  of  whom  the  first 
gets,  annually,  $485  to  $727,  and  the  other  ones  $242  to  $363. 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  to  household  servants  (loivns  and  cities)  in  Kiel. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Mai J-servant8  per  year. 
Man-servants  per  week 


$12  12  to  $36  00 
4  00  to     5  00 


AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  vil' 

lages  near  Kiel. 


Occupations. 


Farming  servants,  with  board  and  lodging 

Tanning  maid-servants,  with  board  and  lodging. 


Average. 


$30  00  to  $45  00 
20  00  to   35  00 


CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Kiel. 


Occupations. 


Gas  and  water  commission  at  Kiel : 

Foremen 

Firemen 

Woikmen   

Cokes,  maiTiagor 

Outside  workmen 

Fitters 

Coiiiiiiission  lor  surveying  the  fields  and  making  and  repairing  roads  at  Kiel  and  near  Kiel 

Workmen — 

In  Hiiiiimer 

In  winter 

Commission  for  building,  &:c. : 

Workmen 

Managers    


Average. 


$4  00 
3  78 
3  78 
3  78 

3  35 

4  07 

3  92 
3  50 

3  92 

4  36 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  395 

PRINTERS'   WAGES. 
Statement  showing  the  tvagea  paid  pei'  tceek  of  tijtty  hours  to  printers  in  Kiel. 


Occupations. 

Average. 

$5  82 
8  48 

Lithographers 

AUGUST  SAETORI, 

Consular  Agent. 
United  States  Consular  Aciency, 

Kiel,  August  21,  1SS4:. 


KONIGSBERG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR- AGENT  GADEKE. 
WAGES   AND    COST    OF   LIVING. 

lu  the  subjoined  tables  I  annex  the  rates  of  average  wages  for  the 
several  classes  of  jiopulation,  filled  up  to  the  best  of  my  power.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  me  to  compile  materials  of  perfect  elucidation  and  to 
add  a  report  satisfying  all  the  questions  put,  as  such  would  be  the  work 
of  months,  nor  am  I  capable  of  making  the  desired  comparisons  with 
American  conditions.  The  lower  classes  may  be  supposed  to  require 
about  8  to  12  cents  a  day,  and  live  generally  upon  coffee  and  potatoes, 
80i«etimes  a  piece  of  bacon,  and  if  in  abundance  and  cheap,  on  fish.  The 
expenses  for  garments  might  be  estimatedat$6per  annum,  and  for  house- 
rent  $10  per  annum.  Meat  is  very  seldom  eaten,  and  only  by  the  better 
classes  of  working  people  here  and  there. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT  WAGES. 

The  rates  of  wages  have  not  greatly  varied  from  1878 ;  they  may  be 
about  5  lO  10  per  cent,  lower.  As  industry  is  but  insignificantly  exist- 
ing in  East  Prussia  the  wages  are  rather  stationary. 

CHARACTER   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

The  character  of  the  working  classes  in  general  is  good  ;  they  are  of 
an  unoffending  nature,  are  steady  and  trustworthy,  especially  if  mar- 
ried. The  sense  of  economy  is  on  the  whole  but  little  developed,  and  it 
is  an  uncommon  event  when  somebody  will  put  by  some  money. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER   AND   EMPLOYl^'s. 

The  feeling  which  prevails  between  employed  and  employer  is  almost 
satisfactory. 

STRIKES  AND  FREEDOM  OF  PURCHASE. 

Strikes  are  not  known  here.  The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase 
the  necessaries  of  life  wherever  they  choose,  and  no  conditions  in  this  re- 
gard are  imposed  by  the  employers.  The  wages  are  paid  every  week, 
except  those  of  the  day- workmen ;  the  average  work-time  is  seventy- 
two  hours  weekly  ;  the  relations  between  employed  and  employers  are 
generally  good. 


396 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY 


CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

Co-operative  societies  do  not  exist.  Accordingly  to  better  positions 
of  the  laborers,  respectively,  of  the  different  classes,  their  receipts  will 
amount  also  to  70  to  75  cents  a  day,  and  conforiuably  the  expenses  for 
life  to  $120  to  8150,  and  house-rent  to  about  $30  to  $40  per  annum. 
Every  workingman  of  age  is  entitled  to  vote  for  the  nomination  in  the 
Diet,  and  as  soon  as  he  pays  a  certain  amount  of  tax  he  is  also  entitled 
to  elect  for  the  Landtag. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

The  emigration  takes  place  under  the  impression  that  people  may 
better  their  condition.  The  principal  occupation  of  tbe  emigrants  is 
agriculture.  Female  laborers  are  now  becoming  more  in  demand,  es- 
pecially are  they  doing  work  in  the  tobacco  manufactories,  and  are  in 
the  warehouses  and  stores  for  assorting  rags  and  translocating  flax  and 
hemp ;  also  in  shops  and  public  houses  female  laborers  are  getting  more 
and  more  employment,  especially  as  book-keepers  and  cashiers.  Tbe 
wages  differ  greatly,  the  lowest  may  be  20  to  25  cents  for  common  labor- 
ers ;  the  hours  of  labor  are  the  same  as  for  male  laborers,  in  average 
seventy-two  hours  per  week.  The  moral  condition  may  not  be  taxed 
too  high. 

CONRAD  H.  GADEKE, 

Consular  Agent. 

United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Konigsberg,  June  19,  1884. 


general  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  seventy-two  hours  in  Konigsierg. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TRADES 

Brick -layers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Slaters 

Roofers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Stri  kers 

Book-binders 

Brick-makers 

Brewers 

Butcliers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners : 

Male 

Female 

Cigar-makers : 

Male 

Female 


$3  90 

2  10 


3  60 


Occupations. 


2  94  1 

2  82  ' 

2  52  1 

3  GO 

2  82 

3  GO 

2  82 

3  60 

2  82 

4  56 

2  52 

3  90 

1  80 

OTHER  TRADES — Continued 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers - -•- 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railways 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners : 

Common 

Experienced 

Hatters 

Horse-shoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Litliographers 

Millwrigbts  

Nail-makers  (band) 

Potters 

Printers 

Saddle  and  harness-makers 

Sail-makers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsiiiiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Average. 


$3  30 

3  30 

2  82 

2  82 

3  60 

3  GO 

3  GO 

3  GO 

3  60 

2  10 

3  60 

3  60 

2  82 

4  92 

2  82 

3  60 

3  60 

2  82 

2  82 

3  60 

3  60 

3  CO 

3  GO 

2  82 

2  52 

3  60 

2  82 

2  82 

T  eachers  in  public  schools  receive  from  $250  to  $500  per  year, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

FACTORIES   AND  MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  seventy-tivo  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Konigsberg. 


397 


Occupations. 

Average. 

$3  60 
1  80 

2  10 

5  90 

FOUNDRIES,  MACHINE-SHOPS,   &C 


Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  seventy-two  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-tvoi'ks  in 

Konigsberg. 


Occupations. 

Arerage. 

$3  90 
1  80 

5  70 

6  35 

WAGES  IN  SHIP-YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  seventy -two  hours  in  ship-yards — wood  ship-huilding  in  Konigsberg. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Carpenters 

Common  laborers 
Apprentices 


$4  20 
2  82 
1  50 


seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  in  Konigsberg, 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Captain ; 

$44 
28 

Mate 

38 

Steward 

17 

22 

11 

11 

16 

The  wages  paid  for  sail  and  steam  are  nearly  the  same. 

STORE  AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Konigsberg, 

with  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Clerks 

Apprentices. 


Average. 


$140 
35 


398  LABOR    IN    EUEAPE GERMANY. 

HOUSEHOLD  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (loicns  and  cities)  in  Konigsberg. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Coots  (with  board) 

Chambermaids  (with  board) . 
Servants 


$35 

30 

12» 


AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year,  as  the  case  may  he,  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  {country) 

servants  in  East  I'russia. 


Occupations.  I  Average. 

1~" 

Laborers  (without  board  and  lodging) I  $140 

Household  servants  (with  board  and  lodging) 25 


CORPORATION   EMPLOYi^S. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  smployes  in  the  city  of  Konigsberg. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Cashier... 
Secretary. 
Clerks  . . . . 


$700  to     $750 

1,200 

360 


GOVERNMENT  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per   year  to  employes   in  Government  departments   and    offices — exclusive  of 
tradesmen  and  laborers — in  Konigsberg. 


Occupations. 


Pirst  president  (with  house  ront).. 
Second  president  (with  house  rent. 

Government  counseUors 

First  8(!cretiirie8 

Second  secretarie 


Average. 


$5,  000 

2,500 

1,500 

750 

500 


PRINTERS'   WAGES. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  seventy-two  hotirs  to  printers  {compositors, 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  t)'"C.)  in  Konigsberg. 

Occupations.  Average. 

Common  laborers i  $2  82 

Printers '  3  60 

Compositors ^    n 

Pressmen ']  on. 

Proof-readers •*  20 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


39J> 


LEIPSIC   AND   SAXONY. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DU  BOIS. 


Leipsic  is  the  Saxon  metropolis,  and  is  as  bnsy  as  a  bee.  With  the 
environs  included,  it  has  a  population  of  250,000  souls.  The  city  proi)er 
has  about  105,000  inhabitants,  ainono-  whom  there  are  150,000  Protest- 
ants, 5,000  Roman  Catholics,  and  3,000  Hebrews.  It  has  a  great  and 
increasing-  trade  without  that  of  the  messe  season  (Leipsic  fairs),  with 
that,  it  becomes  second  only  to  Berlin  and  Hamburg  among  the  cities 
of  the  German  Empire.  It  is  the  center  of  the  principal  railroads  of 
Middle  Europe,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety  passenger  trains  arrive 
and  depart  from  its  six  stations  every  day.  Last  year  2,229,114  tons  of 
merchandise  rolled  into  and  1,391,017  tons  rolled  out  of  the  city  by  rail. 
The  spirit  of  commerce  overshadows  everything  else.  Four  thousand 
business  places  give  employment  to  15,000  persons.  Four  thousand 
five  hundred  industrial  establishments  give  work  to  52,241  toilers.  It 
is  the  chief  Saxon  market  for  colonial  wares,  and  the  central  fur  market 
of  the  world.  During  some  years  as  high  as  25,000,000  marks'  worth  of 
furs  have  been  sold  in  this  market,  which  is  about  one-third  of  the  en- 
tire annual  value  of  the  fur  production  of  the  world.  More  feathers  are 
bartered  away  here  in  a  year  than  in  any  other  place,  and  no  other  city 
in  the  world  prints  as  many  books.  There  are  at  present  523  book 
houses  of  all  sorts,  and  about  1,499  foreign  book  firms  jilace  the  most 
of  their  stock  here,  as  it  is  the  best  commission  market  in  the  world. 
From  amidst  this  enterprise  and  thrift  I  have  gathered  and  tabulated 
some  statistics  concerning  the  amounts  of  salaries  and  wages  jjaid  to  the 
various  employes,  who  are  helping  to  make  Leipsic  one  of  the  most 
noted  commercial  and  educational  centers  on  the  continent  of  Europe.. 
These  tables  classify  the  various  employments,  and  the  salaries  received^ 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  ofi&cial,  giving  the  lowest  and  highest 
salaries  received,  and  also  the  average. 

Annual  salaries  of  members  of  the  imperial  courts. 


Occupation. 


Lowest. 


8UPKEME  COURT. 


Chief  justice 
Judges 


$3,094  00 

Secretaries  (hours,  8  to  3) <      971  00 


DISTRICT  COUUT. 


President  judges ^ 1,  685  00 

Judges .' 


District  attorneys  . 


856  80 


Highest. 


55,950  00 
3,  574  00 
1,  428  00 


2, 499  00 
1,  785  00 
1,  685  00 


Average. 


$3,334  00 
1, 199  50 


2,  092  00 
'i,"276'90 


Animal  salaries  of  the  officers  and  employes  in  the  municipal  department  of  Leipsic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Averag». 

Chief  mayor 

$3,  .570  00 

2,  856  00 

1,  904  00 

1, 190  00 

952  00 

999  60 

642  60 

571  20 

Assistant  mavor 

Conncilnien .   . -       

$1,  428  00 

.$i,  666  6o 

Oitj^  clerlf  (office  hours 

8  to  12,  and  2  to  6) 

Assi-stant  clerk 

Clerks,  first  class 

814  00 
499  80 
357  00 

956  80 

Clerks,  second  class 

580  12 

Clerks,  third  class 

476  00 

400 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Annual  salaries  of  officers  and  employes,  ^c. — Continued. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

AnCHIVES. 

$737  80 
642  60 
476  00 
261  80 

TliKAsritKli'S  OFFICE. 

Treasurer 

1, 190  00 
714  00 
856  80 
428  40 

Book-keeper 

$642  60 
321  30 

$737  80 
374  85 

Clerks 

COLLECTOR'S  OFFICE. 

1,071  00 
733  04 
340  34 

428  40 
238  00 

533  97 

283  86 

ClXr  UEGISTKAK'S    OFFICE. 

Rearistrar 

856  80 
714  00 
476  00 
273  70 

618  80 
428  40 
261  80 

666  40 

Clei  ka 

452  20 

267  75 

BUREAU    OF    STATISTICS. 

Chief  of  bureau 

1,071  00 
357  00 
285  00 

Registrar 

Clerk 

architect's  OFFICE. 

$1,  785  00 
856  80 
476  00 

Clerks 

$428  40 

$452  29 

PUBLIC   WORKS. 

1,  428  00 
952  00 

POLICE  DRARTMKNT. 

1,  960  64 
856  80 
690  20 
642  60 
571  20 
928  20 
654  50 
428  40 
357  00 
299  88 
285  60 
271  32 
261  80 

Wi  20 

714  00 

Clerks 1 

328  44 

490  01 

380  80 

401  62 

Polici'mcn  of  the  aeirorid  class 

FIRE  DEPARTMENT. 

856  80 
428  40 
357  00 
333  20 

238  00 

205  13 

(Allowance  per  year  for  clothing  and  equipments:  To  chief,  $47.60  ; 
first  and  second  assistants,  $47.60  ;  firemen,  each,  $23.80.) 

FORESTRY. 

$535  50 
238  00 

$214  20 

$22«  10 

(Yearly  allowance  for  clothing,  each,  $21.42.) 

(Forl)reaking  stone  for  macadamized  roads  per  cubic  meter,  36  cents; 
building  stones,  per  cubic  meter.  55  cents  ;  filling  stone,  per  cubic 
meter,  'M  cents;  paving  stones,  Belgian  blocks,  per  cubic  meter,  55 

cents.) 
Common  day  laborer  (work  hours  usually  12  hours  per  diem)  per  day.. 

47 

71 

M 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  401 

Annual  salaries  of  officers  and  employes,  ifc. — Coutiuued. 


Occupations. 


WATER  WORKS. 


Director 

Bookkeeper  and  cashier. 

Clerk  . , 

Master  mechanic 

Macliinest 

"Workmen 


GAS   WORKS. 


Director 

Book-keeper. 

Assistant 

Office  clerk. . 
Messengers. . 


Lowest. 


$250  00 


250  00 
226  10 


Highest.  Average. 


$321  30 


285  60 
250  00 


$1,285  20 
714  00 
285  60 
464  10 
357  00 
278  4fi 


1,  285  20 
714  00 
471  20 
267  80 
239  19 


THE   EDUCATIONAL   FACILITIES   OF   LEIPSIC. 


No  commuuity  of  past  or  present  times  has  been  or  is  so  blessed  with 
educational  facilities  as  is  the  city  of  Leipsic  to-day.  A  university,  rich 
in  the  experience  of  nearly  five  centuries,  and  now  foremost  among  the 
famous  institutions  of  learning  in  the  world,  is  located  here.  Its  wealth 
is  enormous,  its  professors  renowued,  its  tendencies  are  liberal,  and  its 
popularity  is  world-wide.  Over  22,000,000  marks  stand  credited  to 
its  account  in  the  shape  of  legacies,  and  it  owns  block  after  block  of 
fine  business  establishments  in  the  heart  of  the  same  metropolis.  It  is 
attended  tbis  year  by  3,433  students,  whose  mental  wants  are  adminis- 
tered to  by  220  professors  and  assistants.  Among  this  large  number 
of  students  there  are  53  from  the  United  States  who  are  studying :  the- 
ology 7,  jurisprudence  2,  natural  science  7,  philosoj^hy  10,  philology  12, 
and  mathematics  1. 

The  famous  gymnasia,  the  Thomaschule  and  Nicolaischule,  come  next 
to  the  university  in  importance,  and  are  attended  by  2,000  students. 

The  high  school  for  girls  has  on  its  rolls  for  the  present  year  500 
scholars  ;  the  commercial  school  440  students,  and  the  industrial  school 
200  pupils. 

Of  the  public  schools  there  are  two  classes  :  the  first  affording  a  few 
advanced  studies  not  permitted  in  the  second.  The  first  class  has  7  hand- 
some and  commodious  buildings,  containing  317  rooms.  Eight  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  forty-six  i>upils  of  both  sexes  were  in  attendance  last 
year.  The  second  class  has  8  large  and  well  ventilated  buildings,  con- 
taining 319  rooms,  which  accommodated  9,571  pupils  of  both  sexes  last 
year.  Eighteen  directors  are  in  charge  of  these  schools,  and  they  are 
assisted  by  330  teachers. 

The  conservatory  of  music  was  attended  by  450  scholars  last  year, 
60  of  whom  were  from  the  United  States. 

Aside  from  these  there  are  18  special  and  private  schools,  which  are 
largely  attended. 

The  table  which  follows  gives  the  lowest  and  highest  salaries  received 
by  the  directors,  professors,  and  teachers,  and  also  an  average  of  the 
various  salaries. 


92  A— LAB- 


-26 


402         .     LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Salaries  received  by  the  different  persons  employed  in  the  educational  department  of  Leipsic- 


Occnpations. 


GTMNA8IUM. 


Lowest. 


Highest.  1  Average. 


Rector,  per  annuiu,  with  $2.50  house  rent 

Profossors ;     $476  00   $1,142  40 


(School  fee  per  annum:  Home  pupils,  $21.42;  pupils  from  foreign 
lands,  $32.13.) 

HIGH  SCHOOL. 


Director,  per  aunum,  with  $2.50  for  house  rent. 

Professors 

Teachei  s 

Assistaut  teachers 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL. 


Director,  per  annum 

Profossons 

(School  fee,  per  annum:  Day  school,  $9.52;  night  school,  $4.76.) 


PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 


Diiectors,  per  annum,  with  $249.90  per  annum  for  house  rent 
Teachers,  per  annum 


476  00 


856  80 
392  70 


856  30 


1,  071  00 
785  40 


$1,428  00 
760  40 
428  40 


1,  142  40 
714  00 
452  50 
285  60 


714  00 
65C  45 


926  21 
459  82 


INCREASED   PRODUCT   IN   MANUFACTURES. 

Since  1878  there  has  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
the  trading  and  industrial  classes  of  Saxony.  This  amelioration  may  be 
traced,  not  so  much  to  the  advance  in  wages  as  to  the  increase  in  op- 
portunity and  time  of  employment.  Since  the  year  above  mentioned 
there  has  been  au  enormous  increase  in  the  production  of  all  kinds  of 
manufactured  articles,  and  this  enlarged  production  has  naturally  given 
employment  to  artisans  and  laborers  in  proportion  to  the  increment.  In 
1878  tiie  exports  to  the  United  States  from  this  district  amounted  to 
only  $1,508,789.43.  In  1883  they  amounted  to  $4,235,379.38,  making  an 
increase  of  $2,000,589.95. 

Five  years  ago,  owing  to  the  hard  times  and  comj)etition  of  the  Amer- 
can  imports,  German  capital  refused  to  venture  into  industrial  channels, 
but  rather  inclined  towards  the  American  securities.  Many  factories 
became  slothful  or  silent,  and  the  music  of  their  machinery,  in  many 
instances,  practically  ceased.  The  manufacturers  began  to  feel  tliat 
they  had  completed  their  harvest  in  the  United  States,  and  eagerly 
sought  after  other  commercial  channels.  But  the  past  three  years  has 
worked  a  significant  cliange.  Now  the  mills  that  were  silent  in  1878 
are  running,  many  of  them  on  full  time,  some  of  them  night  and  day, 
and  many  new  ones  have  been  molded  into  form  and  prodigious  activity. 

now   SAXON   WORKMEN  LIVE. 

This  condition  of  things,  with  a  slight  increase  of  wages,  has  materi- 
ally improved  the  workman's  position  in  the  struggle  for  existence, 
which  is  really  desi)erate  throughout  all  Europe  to-day.  But  this  im- 
proved condi'-ion  affords  him  only  the  absolute  necessaries  of  life,  and, 
looking  into  the  future,  he  sees  for  himself  and  his  children  a  "  hand-to- 
mouth"  existence,  with  black  bread  and  coffee  for  breakfast,  black 
bread,  fat,  and  potatoes,  with  souj),  for  dinner;  black  bread,  cheese,  and 
beer  for  sujtper,  all  sleeping  in  one  room,  and  eleven  hours  of  daily  toil 
as  a  necessity  to  se.:ure  this  meager  maintenance. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPP: GERMANY.  403 

This  is  a  picture  of  tlie  average  workmau.  There  are  some  who  live 
better  and  there  are  others  who  fare  worse.  I  met  one  of  the  former 
recently  wjio  kindly  gave  me  an  insight  into  his  home  life.  He  was  a 
tanner,  a  robust,  intelligent,  good-natured  man,  who  kejithis  eyes  turned 
toward  the  briglit  side  of  life's  picture  as  much  as  possible.  During  the 
conversation  I  asked  him  wdiat  was  the  condition  of  his  fellow-workers, 
and  he  replied,  "Oh,  we  all  have  to  dig  to  make  both  ends  meet." 

How  are  yon  personally  sitnaterl  f — I  am  better  situated  than  naost  of  my  comrades 
and  oajrht  not  to  complain;  I  have  only  a  wife,  and  she  earns  now  and  then  something 
by  needle-work,  bnt  some  of  my  comrades  have  invalid  wives  and  several  children, 
little  ones,  too  yonng  to  earn  anything.  They  can't  make  both  ends  meet  on  a  Satur- 
day night  at  15  marks  per  week,  and  it  makes  them  sulltMi,  and  sometimes  desperate. 
I  earn  17  marks  per  w(iek  and  my  wife  sometimes  earns  .'3  or  6  marks  more. 

Can  you  live  on  that  amount  comfortably  ? — Yes;  as  long  as  my  wife  earns  a  little 
extra  we  g<^t  on  fairly  well. 

What  if  your  wife's  income  should  fail,  how  would  you  fare? — Well,  that  has  often 
occurred  ;  we  simply  drop  the  meat,  beans,  and  butter,  and  stick  to  black  bread,  fat, 
and  potatoes. 

Have  you  an  idea  of  what  your  weekly  expenses  are  ? — Oh,  yes ;  they  are  not  so  great 
but  what  we  can  account  for  them;  they  cover  the  17  marks  without  leaving  any 
margin. 

Could  you  give  me  a  detailed  account  of  how  you  spend  your  weekly  wages  ? — I  can 
do  so  very  nearly,  as  we  keep  an  expense  account,  which  is  balanced  every  week. 
Our  local  taxes  amount  to  about  32  pfennige  (8  cents)  per  week.  The  balance  of  the 
expenses  average  per  week  about  as  follows:  House  rent,  88  cents;  clothing,  70 cents;- 
coffee,  15  cents  ;  potatoes,  4t)  cents  ;  cheese,  15  cents  ;  butter  and  fat,  60  cents  ;  beer, 
35  cents;  black  bread,  34  cents  ;  meat  (twice  a  week),  30  cents  ;  tire,  "24  cents  ;  light 
8  cents;  taxes  (local),  8  cents;  total,  .|4.33.  Wages  received  p(5r  week,  |4. 04.  In 
debt,  29  cents  (1.28  marks). 

But  by  this  account  you  are  1.28  marks  in  debt ;  how  do  you  meet  this  discrep- 
ancy ? — As  I  said  before,  sir,  we  drop  meat,  beans,  and  butter  and  stick  to  black  bread, 
fat,  and  potatoes. 

What  kind  of  a  house  are  you  able  to  rent  for  3.52  marks  (88  cents)  per  week? — I 
i-ent  two  rooms  in  the  third  story  ;  one  room  is  used  as  a  kitchen,  the  other  is  our  mis- 
cellaneous room,  used  for  eating,  sitting,  and  sleeping. 

How  many  families  live  in  the  same  house? — There  are  eight  families,  including 
the  one  living  in  the  cellar;  altogether  there  are  thirty-two  persons  living  in  the 
house,  and  the  weekly  rent  of  the  entire  place  amounts  to  about  40  marks  ($9.52). 

Are  you  able  to  save  anything  for  old  age  ? — You  see  by  my  statement  that  unless 
my  wife  earns  something  I  am  in  debt  every  week  about  1.28  niarks.  If  she  does  earn 
anything  we  spend  the  extra  earnings  in  buying  meat,  butter,  and  otber  luxuries. 
No,  sir;  the  thought  of  saving  anything  for  old  age  is  not  nursed.  A  man  with  a 
family,  who  receives  but  17  marks  a  week  (and  that  is  good  pay)  never  has  much  time 
to  think  of  the  future;  his  tluuigbts  are  fastened  on  the  present,  with  a  constant 
anxiety  as  to  how  he  is  to  make  both  ends  meet.  Among  the  majority  of  my  comrades 
it  is  a  fact  that  their  wages  are  not  sufficient  to  support  their  families,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  wife  and  elder  children,  if  there  are  any,  have  to  contribute  their  share 
to  the  daily  support. 

This  gives  a  fair  insight  into  the  dail},  life  of  the  average  European 
artisan,  and  in  it  are  wrapped  up,  to  a  large  degree,  the  mysteries  of  lively 
emigration  and  socialistic  tendencies.  The  free  and  independent  feel- 
ing which  characterizes  the  American  artisan  is  not  to  be  seen  between 
the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  tip  of  the  Italian  boot,  and  his  social  position 
is  far  lower;  it  is  almost  nothing.  His  relation  to  his  employer  is,  in 
many  cases,  very  unsatisfactory.  He  usually  displays  a  friendly  and 
willing  feeling  in  the  presence  of  his  employer,  but  his  real  sentiiuents, 
as  they  are  revealed  to  his  fellow  workmen,  are  mingled  with  dissatis- 
faction and  discontent. 

HAEITS   OF   THE   SAXON   WORKMEN. 

The  Saxon  artisans,  on  the  whole,  are  industrious,  economical,  and 
orderly  men.  Among  the  youthful  members  of  the  general  trades  there 
is  an  excess  of  beer  drinking.     Brandy,  gin,  and  rum,  however,  though 


404  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tliey  are  cheap  and  nasty,  are  seldom  used.  Drunkeness  exists  to  some 
degree,  but  it  is  not  the  violent,  blear-eyed,  and  brutal  inebriety  of  the 
gin  bibler,  but  rather  the  soporific  intoxication  of  the  beer  consumer. 
The  children  and  wife  may  want  for  as  much  bread  under  this  beer- 
driukinii"  system,  and  i)erhai)S  may  want  for  more,  but  they  escape  many 
of  the  brutal  scenes  which  characterize  the  gin-tii)pling- communities. 

HOURS   OF  LABOR. 

The  work  hours  of  the  Saxon  workmen  usually  begin  at  6  o'clock  in 
the  morning  and  end  at  7  o'clock  at  night.  Half  an  hour  is  allowed  for 
black  bread  at  9  o'clock,  one  hour  for  dinner  at  mid-day,  and  half  an 
hour  for  vespers.  The  evening  meal,  of  black  bread,  fat,  and  beer,  is 
taken  in  the  bosom  of  his  family. 

These  long  hours  are  objected  to  very  often  and  strikes  occur,  but  it 
is  very  seldom  in  this  country  that  the  strikers  succeed.  The  material 
elements  of  success  in  the  American  strikes  are  the  reserved  funds. 
The  "  hand-to-mouth"  existence  here  does  not  admit  of  robust  reserved 
funds.  Hungry  stomachs  make  willing  hands,  and  indigent  labor  be- 
comes lamb  like  and  yielding.  The  weavers  of  Greiz,  a  neighboring 
town,  struck  some  time  ago,  and  very  soon  the  want  of  bread  sent  them 
sullenly  back  to  their  looms.  The  masons  of  Leipsic  ate  now  on  a  strike. 
They  demand  an  increase  of  three-fourths  of  a  cent  per  hour  and  a  de- 
crease of  one  hour  per  day.  The  present  wage  is  30  i)fennige  (7^  cents) 
per  hour,  with  eleven  working  hours  per  diem.  The  strikers  in  some 
cases  have  compromised  on  33  pfennigei)er  hour,  but  continue  to  work 
eleven  hours  per  diem.  The  strike  has  been  universal  in  this  district. 
Those  who  have  resumed  work  are  sullenly  threatened  by  other  strikers, 
but  the  overshadowing  power  of  the  ])olice  stays  the  hand  of  violence. 

The  wages  are  usually  paid  every  Saturday  evening.  Some  em- 
ployers, however,  have  adopted  the  plan  of  paying  the  wages  every  Fri- 
Oiay  evening,  in  order  to  prevent  the  workmen  from  indulging  in  exces- 
sive heerim/,  to  which  they  are  more  inclined  on  Saturday  night,  as  the 
following  day  is  one  of  rest.  This  plan  has  proven  of  great  beneiit,  inas- 
much, as  by  its  adoption,  the  married  man  is  more  liable  to  deposit  his 
entire  wages  in  the  hands  of  his  wife  for  the  suj)port  of  the  family. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

Cooperative  societies  conforming  to  the  system  brought  into  exist- 
ence by  a  recently  deceased  and  famous  member  of  the  Imperial  P^irlia- 
ment  have  proven  of  great  benefit  to  tradesmen  and  operatives  alike, 
and  are  consequently  extended,  not  only  over  Germany,  but  the  system 
has  become  very  popular  in  German-Austria,  Italy,  and  Belgium.  The 
chief  aim  of  this  jdan  is  to  give  the  labor  element  access  to  capital  by 
making  labor  itself  the  foundation  of  credit.  It  started  with  the  idea 
that  proi)er  association  will  create  credit,  and  the  idea  ]>rov(Hl  correct. 
While  an  individual  artisan  cannot  obtain  credit  often,  at  least,  this  i)lan 
proved  that  an  association  of  artisans  could  do  so,  and  that  such  an 
association,  converting  itself  in  turn  into  a  lender,  nmy  obtain  the  mini- 
mum of  risk  and  maximum  of  security  in  its  transactions,  by  confining 
its  loans  to  its  own  members.  A  very  great  diminution  of  risk  is  ob- 
tained by  making  the  members  of  the  association  liable  for  its  entire 
debts,  and  the  whole  association  liable  for  the  debts  of  each  member. 
This  principle  of  mutual  liability  has  been  the  mainspring  of  the  success 
of  this  now  popular  and  wide-spread  system. 


LABOR  IN  EUEOPE GERMANY.  405 

One  example  of  the  success  of  au  association  founded  upon  these 
wholesome  priucii)les  is  all  that  can  be  ffiven  in  a  report  such  as  this, 
and  for  this  exami)le  the  "  Generbebank"  of  Gera  is  taken.  Through 
the  kindness  of  the  United  States  consular  agent,  Mr.  Charles  iS^euer, 
of  that  busy  town,  I  learn  that  this  bank  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condi- 
tion, and  has  paid  reguhxrly  to  its  members,  since  1SG5,  a  dividend  of 
8  per  cent.  While  its  reserve  amounted,  in  18G5,  to  oidy  82,551,  the 
amount  in  reserve  has  reached  the  handsome  sum  of  $20,118.  In  1882 
the  deposits  amounted  to  $15,819.75,  and  in  1883  the  amount  deposited 
was  $33,120.06,  showing  an  increase  in  one  year  of  $17,300.91.  The 
whole  sum  of  business  transacted  during  the  year  1883  was  $911,818.30. 
The  rate  of  interest  on  deposits  is  3^  per  cent. ;  on  loans,  5  per  cent,  per 
annum. 

Co  operative  stores  exist  throughout  Saxony,  and  in  Thuringia  they 
are  popular,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  prosperous.  Here  they  are 
not  as  prosperous  as  they  once  were.  There  is  a  constant  agitation 
going  on  in  lavor  of  state  help,  and  consequently  against  self-help  ;  this 
policy,  with  the  large  competition  that  exists,  enables  the  working- 
classes  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  at  the  lowest  prices  from  the 
regular  business  sources.  General  trade  has  not  been  visibly  aifected 
by  the  existence  of  the  co-operative  societies,  but  the  local  trade  has 
been  affected,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  forced  into  a  lively  comijetition, 
which  means  smaller  profits  and  reduction  of  demand. 

SAFETY   OP  E3IPLOYES. 

The  safety  of  employes  in  nulls  and  factories  is  cared  for  with  con- 
siderable zeal.  Specially  authorized  inspectors,  with  full  police  powers, 
are  appointed  to  watch  over  this  important  interest.  Annual  reports 
are  made  and  submitted  to  the  Federal  Council  and  German  Parliament. 
Indemnification  U  accorded  in  accidents  when  the  director  or  manager 
of  the  factory  is  to  blame.  Injured  employes  receive  costs  for  medical 
treatment,  and  are  indemnified  for  pecuniary  losses,  or  permanent  injury 
by  the  employer.  In  case  of  death  the  employer  pays  the  funeral  ex- 
penses, and,  as  to  additional  compensation  to  the  family,  that  is  left  to 
the  judicial  authorities,  who  usually  take  pride  in  securing  justice. 

PHYSICAL   AND   MORAL   WELL-BEING   OF   EMPLOYES. 

As  to  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  the  employes  the  majority 
of  employers  concern  themselves  as  little  as  possible.  It  is  in  reality  the 
"  great  chase  era,"  and  every  one  seems  to  be  hunting  for  the  almighty 
mark.  There  are  exceptions  to  tiiis  rule.  There  are  employers  in 
Saxony  who  spend  a  fair  per  cent,  of  their  net  earnings  in  ameliorating 
the  condition  of  those  whom  they  employ  by  building  well  ventilated 
tenement  homes,  which  are  rented  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent,  on  the 
money  invested.  There  is  an  air  of  contentment,  cleanliness,  and  pros- 
perity about  such  an  establishment,  which  says  in  most  visible  terms, 
"it  pays."  The  prevailing  motto,  however,  seems  to  be,  "Get  the  largest 
amount  of  work  done  at  the  lowest  wages  possible." 

TAXES. 

Taxes  which  burden  the  artisan  are  of  two  kinds,  direct  and  indirect. 
The  first  is  fixed  according  to  the  amount  of  the  income.     An  annual 


406  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

income  of  $100  ]mys  $1.70  per  year;  of  $150,  $2.85;  of  $200,  $8.57;  of 
$250,  $11.42  ;  of  $300,  $14.28;  of  $550,  $17.15.  A  carpenter  who  earns 
$350  per  annum  pays  $17,15  of  it  in  the  shape  of  direct  taxes. 

CAUSES   OF   EMIGrRATION. 

Emigration  during-  the  past  two  years  has  considerably  decreased. 
One  cause  for  this  rests  in  the  improved  condition  of  the  Saxon  indus- 
tries. While  the  United  States  is  losing  by  this  decrement  in  emigra- 
tion the  Saxon  peoi)le  are  gaining  by  increased  exports.  Last  year  this 
little  kingdom,  whose  area  would  be  only  a  S])eck  on  the  surface  of 
Texas,  sent  to  the  United  States  direct  over  $15,000,000  worth  of  ex- 
ports. Two  years  ago  the  little  town  of  Plauen  sent  227  kilograms  of  em- 
broideries to  the  United  States.  Last  year  this  same  town  sent  over 
14,000  kilograms  of  embroideries  to  our  markets,  and  to-day  has  an  active 
demand.  This  significant  betterment  of  the  industrial  interests  here, 
and  the  constant  publication  in  the  German  journals  of  reports  unfavor- 
able to  the  condition  of  labor  in  the  United  States,  are  the  chief  causes 
of  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  emigrants  from  this  district.  Many 
of  America's  best  artisans  have  been  culled  from  the  Saxon  mills.  A 
large  number  of  the  emigrants  are,  however,  from  the  agricultural 
regions  of  the  Kingdom. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

The  workwoman  of  Saxony  cannot  be  congratulated  upon  her  lot  in 
life.  She  is  poorly  housed,  poorly  fed,  and  poorly  paid.  Her  star  is  an 
unlucky  one;  her  fate  ought  to  have  been  better.  It  ought  to  have 
been  better,  because  she  is  good-natured,  economical,  industrious,  and 
willing,  aiul  these  are  parts  which  constitute  what  is  called  a  deserv- 
ing human.  But  the  merits  of  the  Saxon  workwoman  are  seldom  re- 
warded, in  a  material  way  at  least.  She  is  sometimes  compelled  to  toil 
eleven  hours  a  day  for  what  seems  an  exceedingly  small  i)ittance.  From 
C  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  the  hour  of  7  at  night  she  works  at  the 
loom,  and  when  Saturday  evening  comes,  after  having  toiled  for  sixty- 
six  hours  amid  the  heat  and  fumes  of  the  mill,  she  brings  to  her  attic 
home,  as  the  reward  of  her  industry,  the  sum  of  $1.68,  which  is  28  cents 
for  eleven  hours  of  labor,  or  2i  cents  for  every  hour  of  toil.  This  is  a 
fair  minimum  ;  a  smaller  mininuim  than  2^^  cents  an  hour  for  child  labor 
would  requii  e  a  searcli- warrant.  This  all  means  poor  food,  poor  clothes, 
a  miserable  home,  and  ah<)i)eless  future  of  toil. 

The  average  wage  received  by  the  workwomen  in  the  factories  of 
this  district  is  $2.38  per  week,  or  31)2  cents  per  day,  or  about  3A  cents 
per  hour.  The  maximum  wage  is  $3.57  i)er  week,  or  51|  cents  per  day, 
or  about  4i  cents  per  hour. 

Children  under  twelve  years  of  age,  owing  to  the  prevalent  system  of 
comj)ulsory  education,  and  for  sanitary  reasons,  are  not  employed  in  the 
mills  and  factories.  Children  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  can 
oidy  be  employed  six  hours  i)er  diem.  These  are  not  permitted  to  be- 
gin work  before  5i  o'clock  a.  ra.,  or  to  continue  work  after  half-past  8 
p.  m. 

The  emi)loyment  of  women  iu  the  factories  and  other  branches  of  in- 
dustry and  trade  naturally  depresses  the  ])rice  of  labor  wherever  the  sys- 
tem is  introduced,  just  the  same  as  surplus  supply  reduces  market 
values,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  Saxony  could  not  compete  with  other  coun- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  407 

tries  in  some  of  her  industries  if  she  shoukl  lose  her  female  help  in  the 
factories,  to  whom  are  paid  a  very  small  average  compared  to  the  wages 
of  the  workmen. 

The  state  of  education  among  the  child-laborers  and  women-laborers 
of  this  district  compares  well  with  the  most  favored  of  provinces  in  this 
respect,  owing  to  the  splendid  school  facilities  and  the  comj^ulsory  sys- 
tem. 

The  fire  danger,  owing  to  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  factories,  is 
not  great.  Most  of  the  mills  are  constructed  upon  the  so  called  "  shed" 
system,  one  story  high,  with  ample  exits  for  escape.  They  are  con- 
structed of  solid  and  incombustible  material,  and  are  regularly  sub- 
jected to  careful  inspection.     In  some  are  to  be  found  fire  extinguishers. 

In  many  of  the  industrial  districts  are  established  the 

KRANKENCASSE. 

The  Krankeucasse  has  for  its  aim  the  support  of  the  sick  and  disabled 
operatives.  It  is  in  reality  a  self-help,  although  it  is  based  upon  the 
idea  that  the  employer  is  bound  to  afford  some  relief  to  those  who  be- 
come ill,  or  are  disabled  in  his  service.  The  employer  and  employe  con- 
tribute weekly  a  certain  per  cent,  of  the  wages  received,  from  which  the 
sick  and  disabled  workmen  receive  the  cost  of  medical  attendance,  in 
addition  to  one-half  of  the  average  weekly  wage  during  thirteen  weeks' 
time. 

SAXON  ECONOMY. 

The  saving  tendency  among  that  class  of  the  Saxon  people  who  can 
save  is  marked  and  worthy  of  praise,  but  this  class  does  not  include 
many  of  the  laboring  element  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  In  1850 
the  savings  banks  of  the  Kingdom  registered  one  bank  book  for  every 
twenty  persons  of  the  entire  population.  This  number  has  increased 
60  per  cent,  up  to  the  present  time,  while  the  average  accounts  have 
risen  from  $35.46  to  $88.53.  With  this  increment  is  also  to  be  noted 
an  increase  in  the  use  of  fresh  meats,  and  a  decrease  in  the  number  of 
paupers,  which  is  now  recorded  as  only  3  per  cent,  of  the  entire  i)0])u- 
lation. 

SAXON  MORALITY. 

Of  the  moral  condition  of  the  people  one  cannot  speak  in  such  praise- 
worthy terms,  because  recently  published  and  authenticated  statistics 
prove  that  nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  population  were  punished  last  year 
by  the  criminal  courts  of  the  Kingdom,  while  the  average  throughout 
the  German  Empire  was  only  6^-  per  cent.  Out  of  every  336  criminals 
100  w'ere  females  and  44  were  children.  This  result  is  surprising  in 
face  of  the  fact  that  Saxony  in  the  matter  of  culture  and  intelligence 
stands  unquestionably  i)re-emineut  among  the  Governments  which  con- 
stitute the  Germanic  Empire. 

GENERAL   RATES   OF   WAGES. 

The  following  tables  of  statistics  concerning  the  wages  and  work 
hours  of  this  industrious  and  enterprising  people  have  been  prepared 
with  care.     In  Leipsic  there  are  11,600  males  and  5,400  females  em- 


408 


LABOR    IN    EI:R0PE GERMANY. 


ployed  in  the  niamifacturii)*;  indnstiie.s  alone,  and   from  amonj?  these 
many  of  the  following-  facts  have  been  gleaned: 


GENERAL    TRADES. 

The  iiagcs  yeceivcd  hi/  (jeneraJ  trades  in  Leijpsic. 


Occnpation.s. 


Brewers  (with  bo.Tid  and  lodging  included) -  per  iiiontb. 

Bri'wer.s  (without  board  and  lodging) do — 

(Work  hour.s  iineertain.) 

Butcher.'i  (inclndinir  Vtoard  and  lodging) per  week. 

Bakens  (boai  d  and  lodging  included) ;  work  hours  uncertain) do. . . 

Brass-foundcr.s  (U  hours  ])ei  ilay) do. . . 

Brieklaver.s  (11  honr.s  perda.v).. per  hour. 

(Tliey  are  now  on  a  strike,  demanding  an  increase  ner  hour  of  thiee- 
fourths  of  a  cent,  and  decrease  of  time  1  hour  per  daj'.) 

Blacksmiths  (11  hours  per  day) per  week. 

Carpenters  (!  1  hours  per  day) per  hour. 

Coopers    (11  hours  ))erday) per  week. 

Cabinet  makers  (11  hours  per  day) do... 

Dyers  ( 1 1  hours  per  <lay) do . . . 

Distillers  (if  unmarried,  board  and  lodging  included) do... 

Gardeners  (12  houis  per  day,  summer  season) do. .. 

Gas- titters  (It  hours  per  day) per  week. 

Gas-fttler's  assistants  (11  boiirs  per  day) do... 

G(isfltteis  (job  work)  (11  hours  per  day.) do. . . 

Glaziers  (11  hours  per  day)    do. .. 

Hod-cairiers  (II  hours  per  day) do. .. 

Masons  (11  hours  jier  day) do  . . 

Tenders  (11  hours  per  day) do  . . 

Plumbers        per  hour. 

Potters  (11  liouis  per  day) per  week. 

Painters  (11  hours  per  day) do  . . 

Roofeisand  slaters per  hour. 

Saddlers  (11  hours  per  dav)     per  week. 

Tinsmiths  (11  hours  per  day) do. . . 

(In  .job  work,  tlie,  lin.sniith  makes  about  $0.18  a  week.) 
Tailors  (work  houvs  uncertain)   per  week.. 

(Much  of  the  tailoring  is  done  by  piece-work  ) 

Telegraph  operators  (11  hours  per  day) do  . . 

Locomotive-drivers  (hours  uncertain) per  month . 

Firemen  (time  uncertain) do   .. 

Cleaners  (hours  uncei  tain) per  week. 

TKAJIAVAYS. 

Drivers  (14  hmirs  per  day)   per  month. 

Conductors  (14  horns  per  day) do. . . 

Engraveis  (9  to  10  hours  per  day) per  week. 

Lithographers  (9  hours  per  day)    do. . . 

(Leipsic  is  famous  for  its  lithographic  art  work.) 


Lowest.    Highest. 


$14  28 
19  04 

1  42 

95 

4  04 


4  28 


4  04 
3  57 

2  52 

1  42 

3  57 

3  57 

2  85 

4  70 
4  28  ! 

2  38 
4  88 

3  57 

5i 

2  85 

4  28 

6i 

3  57 

4  04 

4  28 

4  00 
35  70 
21  42 

3  80 


2  85 

3  57 


$20  23 
34  51 

4  76 

3  33 

4  76 


Average. 


5  47 


4  99 
7  14 
2  88 

2  85 

4  76 

5  47 

3  80 
7  14 

4  09 
3  57 

6  20 


8J 
4  28 
4  70 

8 
4  99 
4  70 

8  50 

4  71 
64  20 
28  50 

4  70 


7  14 
14  28 


$16  82 
26  15 

3  00 
2  09 

4  40 
07i 


4  92 
071 

4  51 

5  24 
2  76 

2  14 
4  10 

4  35 

3  32 

5  96 

4  64 
2  98 

5  43 


3  54 

4  52 

74 
4  28 
4  35 

0  28 

4  30 
49  08 
24  99 

4  28 


14  28 
10  GO 
4  96 
7  14 


FACTORY   WAGES. 
fVages  received  per  week  by  factor ij  hands  in  the  consular  district  of  Leipsic. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

.Vverage. 

Hours  of 

labor 
per  day. 

Weavers : 

$2  88 

1  68 
4  80 

2  88 

1  68 

2  52 

1  08 
1  50 

4  80 

3  36 
1  56 

$4  32 

3  60 
7  20 

4  32 

3  28 

2  88 
1  92 
1  80 

7  20 

4  08 
1  80 

$3  00 

2  38 
6  00 

3  30 

1  86 

2  76 

1  80 
1  08 

O'OO 

3  (iO 
1  08 

Women 

Overseer 

"Worsted-vaiu  mills: 

Men.' 

Dye  houses : 

Finisliing  works  : 

Apprentices 

10 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  409 

Wages  received  per  week  tij  factory  hands,  ,Sv- — Continued. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  ;  Highest.   Average. 


Accnrdeon  factories: 

Journeymen 

.Toincrs 

Tuners  

Apjirentices 

(MiiUhvii 

Carjict  liu  toiies : 

-Aleu 

Women 

Iron  fouiidiies: 

Journeymen 

Turners 

Founders 

Tanneries : 

■Jimrneyraen 

Tanners 

Breweries: 

Journeymen 

Brewers 

Chinawaie  faelories: 

Journeymen 

Painters 

Female  liands 

Horfe-hair  spinning  factories  : 

.rourueymeu.... 

Spinners 

Female  lianils 

<  Hove  factories : 

Taunors 

Uyi-rs 

G  lovers 

Seamstresses 

Tobacco  mills: 

Journeymen 

Twisteis 

Female  hands 

Children 

Ap))i  entices 

Flour  mills: 

.lourueymeu 

Miller  ■. 

Hat  factory  : 

Journeymen 

Furrier : 

Journeymen 


$2  76 

3  36 

4  80 
90 
36 


1  48 


3  60 
3  60 


3  60 

2  88 

4  32 

2  64 
4  32 

1  44 

2  64 
.3  60 

1  68 

3  60 

2  40 

2  88 
48 


3  84 
1  50 


2  76 

3  eo 


3  54 

4  26 


.$3  12 
4  32 

7  20 

2  16 
60 

3  84 
1  92 


4  32 
4  32 


3  60  i 

5  76  I 

2  88  1 
5  76  I 
1  80  i 


4  .S2 

1  92 

4  32 

3  36 

4  80 

2  40 


4  80 
1  80 


3  00 

4  32 


9  28 
5  70 


PRINTERS   AND   PRINTING- OFFICES. 
Printing-office  wages  in  Leipsic. 


Hours  of 

labor 
per  day. 


f2  88 

1( 

3  CO 

1 

^  76 

V 

1  44 

] 

48 

( 

3  36 

1  60 

1  68 

1( 

3  84 

1 

3  84 

1 

3  36 

3  84 

3  36 

4  80 

2  Tfi 

4  80 

1  68 

2  76 

3  84 

1  80 

3  84 

2  88 

1 

3  60 

1  80 

2  88 

4  32 

1  68 

42 

96 

2  88 

3  84 

6  27 

4  98 

^ 

Occuxjations. 


Lowest. 


Apprentices  serve  four  and  a  half  years.     The  first  year  they  receive 
per  week,  71  cents ;  tlie  second  year,  95  cents;  the  third  year,  .$1.19; 

and  the  fourth  year,  $1,42 per  week. . 

Conipusitors  receive  from  $5.11  to  $7.14,  according  to  the  work  that  is 

done per  week.. 

(Compositors  employed  in  "  setting  "  difficult  works,  such  as  Hebrew 
and  Sanscrit,  receive  higher  wages.  The  amount  depends  upon 
arrangeuieuts  made  with  the  publisher.) 

Pressmen    per  week.. 

Prouf-readers do  . . . 

(Special  proof-readers,  engaged  on  difficult  works,  receive  higher 
wages.     The  amount  depends  upon  the  matter  read.) 

Compos^itors  (music  notes) per  week.. 

Music-note  engravers  (on  zinc  plates) do. . . . 

Pressmen : 

Hand  press do. .. . 

Steam  press do ... . 

Bookbinders: 

Common  workmen do 

Giltets  (work  hours,  eleven  per  diem) 


$0  71 
5  11 


5  11 
5  95 


Highest.  Average. 


3  57 
5  95 


$1  42 
7  14 


7  14 

8  56 


4  76 
8  33 


$1  07 
6  13 


6  13 

7  26 


6  18 
5  22 


3  80 
5  23 


4  16 
6  96 


410 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  received  in  a  tijpe foundry  in  Lcipsic. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Arerage. 


Mold-makers  (10  hours  per  day) 

Castors  ( 10  hours  per  day) 

Fiiiislu-js  (10  hours  per  day) 

Rubbers,  "iris  (10  Iiours  per  day) 

Breakers,  girls  (10  hours  per  day) 

Setteis.  girls  (10  hours  per  day) 

Appientices : 

I'irst  two  years 

Last  two  of  tlie  tour  years'  apprenticeship  . . 

Eugi avers  (10  hours  per  da.\) 

Titters  per  matrix,  1.  30  M.  =  (31  cents)  average. 


-per  week.. 
......do... 

do... 

do... 

do... 

do... 


per  week. 

do... 

do... 

do... 


$5  95 

4  76 

5  95 
1  19 

71 
1  42 


$7  14 

7  14 

8  33 
2  85 
1  19 
1  90 


$6  43 
5  80 

7  02 
2  02 

93 
1  66 

1  07 

1  42 

14  28 

8  33 


AGRICULTUEAL  WAGES. 

Agricultural  ivagesin  the  district  of  Leipsic. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


The  farm  manager  or  inspector* per  annum..     $107  10 

Forfnian  of  the  lield-uands* do 64  20 

Fithl-liands* do 1 

Principal  female  servant* do. . .  .j 

CouHuon  female  servant* do 1 

Girl  or  boy  servant* do 

(The  common  servants  all  expect  and  always  receive  Christmas  pres- 
ents from  tbeir  employers.) 

During  harvest  time : 

Male  hands! per  day. . 

Female  handst do 

(The  working  hours  are  from  sunrise  to  sunset.) 


7  14 


238  00 
71  40 


14  28 


$165  03 
66  88 
42  84 
42  84 
28  56 
10  71 


60 
42 


'  Including  board  and  lodging. 


tWithout  board  and  lodging 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Household  xvages  in  Leipsic. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest.   Average. 


rmVATK  HOUSES. 

Female  cook* per  annum 

Serviint* do. . 

Nurse*! do  . 

Wet-nurset per  mouth 

Mau  servant* do. . 

Coachman* do.. 

HOTELS  AND  INNS. 

Male  cook* per  month 

Female  cook*   do . . 

Chaiiibcnuaid* per  week 

Waiter* per  mouth 


$47  60 

$95  20 

$71  40 

21  42 

35  70 

28  56 

14  28 

28  56 

21  42 

7  14 

9  52 

8  08 

7  14 

14  28 

10  47 

14  28 

23  80 

19  36 

42  84 

7  60 

95 

2  38 


71  40 

14  28 

1  42 

7  14 


*Including  board  and  lodging 


54  41 

10  62 

1  12 

4  84 


tlncluding  hoard,  lodging,  and  a  new  dress. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


411 


FOOD   PRICES. 

Table  nliowing   the  present  market  priees  of  some  of  the  iteccumries  of  life  in  the  consular 

district  of  Leipsic. 


Articles. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Bread : 

White 

$0  03 

Black ..     .. 

do 

02J 

20i 

17 

Beef: 

do... 

$0  17 

$0  24 

do... 

Common 

do.... 

each . . 

36 



60 

14 
48 

14 

Pork 

14 

Veiil 

do  ... 

13 

E<rss 

ii 

26 
24 
30 
96 

17 
38 
28 
48 
1  20 



15* 

Butter    .  ... 

32 

Cheese,  Swiss 

Coffee 

di)  .. 

do 

26 
42 

do.... 

1  08 

do 

11 

72 

2  pieces . . 

per  pouud . . 

3J 

04  i 

Flour  "^      

04,^ 

0.5 

06 

Milk 

--    do 

05 

JAMES  T. 


DU  BOIS, 

Consul. 


United  States  Consulate, 

Lelpsic,  April  20,  1884. 


LUBECK. 

KEPOllT  BY  CONSVLAIi  AGENT  MEYER.^ 

GENERAL   TRADES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  Liiheck. 


Occupations. 


BinLDIKG  TRADES. 

Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers 

Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers    

Tenders 

Slaters 

Eoolers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpentei  s 

Gas-fitters 

OTHEU   TUADE.S. 

Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikera 

Bookbinders 

Brick-makers 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 


Average  ii 
■wages.    I 


$4  26 

3  50 

4  26 

3  50 

4  26 
3  50 

3  95 

4  00 
3  CO 

3  90 
2  62 

4  26 
4  30 


4  20 
3  91 

2  80 

3  95 

3  85 

4  30 
4  90 
4  80 
4  30 
4  80 


Occupations. 


Other  trades— Continued 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Street  railways 

Dyers . 

Enjrravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

H^ttejs 

Horse-shoers 

Jewelers  

Laborers,  porters,  itc 

Lithographers 

Millwrights 

Printers 

Teacliers,  public  schools.     

Saddle  and  liamess  makers 

Sail-maker.s 

Ste  vedoies 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 


Average 
wages. 


.$-t  30 
4  30 
4  90J 
4  50 
4  00 
3  85 
3  90 

3  96 

4  60 
4  30 
4  50 

4  20 
3  95 

5  20 

3  90 

4  90 

4  20 

5  20 
9  04 
4  40 

4  40 

5  00 

4  70 

5  00 
5  15 


412 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  weeTc  of  sixty-six  hours  in  factories  and  miUa  in  Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occnpations. 

ATerage. 

Occupations. 

Average. 

Adults  (nialps),  common  hands 

$3  96 

2  00 

35 

FoT-eman  . 
Manager. 

$6  5» 
19  05 

Adults  (females),  common  hands 

Childien  (from  14  to  16  years) 

4  20 

FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-works  in 

Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Manager 

$20  00 
4  00 

Clerks 

$3  00 

$5  00 

Foreman 

7  15 

Mechanics  (for  castin^, 

.si 

.        6  OQ 

8  00 

7  25 

Laborers 

3  57 

Apprentices 

69 

1  35 

1  02 

RAILWAY   EMPL0Y:6s. 

Wages  paid  jjer  month  to  railu'ay  employes  {those  evgaijed  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  t^-c.)  in  Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Occupations. 

Average. 

Station-master 

$.i5  69 
29  75 
29  75 
39  75 
29  75 

$29  75 
21  90 

Assistants 

Ki  akesmen 

Clerks 

21  90 

Engine-drivers 

15  95 

Firemen 

21  90 

SHIPYARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  xvek  of  sixty  hours  in  ship-yards  (distiuguishing  bctweeu  iron  and  wood 
ship-buildiug)  in  Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occupations. 

AveragA. 

Occnpations. 

Average. 

Iron-ship  building: 

Manager 

$25  00 
7  00 
5  10 
3  00 
3  90 
7  50 

Iron-ship  building— Continued. 

Workmen 

$3  50 
98 

Forimian 

"Wood-ship  building: 

fi  00 

4  26 

Laborers 

3  00 

seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {offictrs  and  men),  distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation ,  and  betiveen  sail  and  steam,  in  Lubeck,  Germany, 


Occupations. 


Steam  const  navigation 

Master 

Mate 

Engineer 

Firemen 

Sailors 

Steam  river  navigation: 

Master , 


Average. 


$28  56 
23  80 
38  08 
10  71 
10  72 

23  80 


Occnpations. 


Steam  river  navigation — Continued 

Engineer 

Assistant 

Sail  coast  navigation : 

M  astor ^ 

Mate 

Sailor 

Boys 


Average. 


$27  00 
11  00 

19  04 
IG  6(i 
10  72 
3  57 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
SHOP   AND   STORE   WAGES. 


413 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  Herenti/  lioin;s  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  Jemalcs,  in 

Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occiii)ations. 


Average. 


Stores,  wliolesiile  : 

Cashier 

Clerk 


$5  90 
5  85 


Occupations. 


Stores,  retail : 

Males 

Females  .. 


Average. 


%i  00 
3  15 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  lu  household  servants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Liibeck,  Germany. 


Occupations. 


Private  tutors . 

Governess 

Cooks: 

Males 

Females  . . . 
Housemaids  . . . 


Average. 


$37  00 
17  00 


2  60 
2  75 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Nurses 

Wet  nurses. 

Footmen 

Gartl'^ner  ... 
Coachmen  . . 


$3  20 
3  50 
3  80 

2  95 

3  20 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  day,  week,  month,  quarttr,  half  year,  or  year,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  agri- 
cultural laborers  and  hou.seltold  {country)  servants  in  Lubeck,  Germany  {country  districts), 
without  board  and  lodging. 


Description  of  employment. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Farm  laborers  : 

May  1  to  August  1 : 

'Male        "..               .. 

$0  42.  8 

August  1  to  September  1: 

57.1 
35  7 

Female '. 

September  1  to  November  1 : 

Male    

49  g 

28.0 
38  1 

Novemlier  1  to  May  1 : 

Male     

21  4 

With  board  and  lodging  : 

37  12  8 

Female do '  

43.9 
'50  9 

August  1  to  September  1 do  .. 

November  1  to  May  1 do 

Inspcctoi-  on  a  farm  : 

With  board  and  lodging per  year 

36.8 
595  00 

Household  siavants  :                                                                                            | 
With  board  and  lodging :                                                                             l 

Male     do i 

83  30 

Female do 

ag  15 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  jJaid  jier  week  of  sixty- sijc  hours  to  the  corporation  employee  in  the  city  of  Luheck 

derinaiiy. 


Occupations. 


Corporation  of  public  porters  or  carriers . 


Lowest. 
$4  00 


Highest. 


$5  50 


414 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


aONERNlVIENT  EMPLOYES. 

J]  aycti  paid  per  year  to  emploijes  in  Government  departments  and  offices — exclusive  of  trades 
men  and  laborers — in  Lubeck,  Germany, 


Description  of  employment. 


Lowest,  j  Highest. 


Mayor  or  bursomaster  of  the  city  of  Lubeck. 

Members  of  the  senate 

Secretary 


Chief  of  bureau  of  taxes,  duties,  &c 

Clerks $385  10 

Chief  of  police j 

Secretary 


$750  00 


Police  commissioner 

Policemen 

Harbor-niiister,  lodging  included 

Harbor  police 

Coniniander  of  pilots,  lodging  included. 

Sea  pilots 

River  pilots 


Average. 


$1 

7no  ro 

1 

5&4  00 

1 

2S.T  50 

1 

200  00 

1 

590  00 

1 

071  00 

618  80 

285  GO 

742  50 

285  CO 

742  56 

392  70 

385  00 

TRADES   IN   GOVERNMENT  EMPLOY. 

}ya(jes  paid,  by  the  week  of  .sixty  hours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Gorernment  employ  in 

Lubeck,  Germany. 


Occupations. 


Carpenters . . 
Blacksmiths 
Laborers 


Average. 


$4  26 
3  92 
3  80 


'  printers'  wages. 

Statement  showiny  the  w  ayes  paid  per  week  of  fifty-seven  hours  to  printers  {compositors, 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  t^-c.)  in  Lubeck,  Germany. 


Foremen 

Printers 

Apprentices 
Laborer 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest. 


Average. 


$6  00 

5  20 

86 

3  50 


MAYENCE. 


REFOIIT  BT  GOMMERGIAL  AOENT  SMITH. 


introductory  remarks. 


In  reply  to  yonr  circular  instruction  of  tbe  loth  of  February  last, 
concerning^  labor  in  Europe,  I  have  now  the  honor  to  make  a  report, 
whicl)  i.s  herewith  incjlosed. 

To  the  subject  1  have  ijiven  a  j^^reat  deal  of  thought  and  attention 
ever  since  tlie  receipt  of  the  instruction,  and  have  i)nt  inquiries  to  all 
sorts  of  men,  in  order  to  become  able  to  make  to  the  Department  as 
full  and  intelligent  a  report  in  the  matter  as  possible  ;  but  this  ques- 
tion of  labor  and  of  the  relation  of  employers  to  employes,  and  of  the 
causes  which  affect  the  laboring  classes  for  good  or  evil  is  of  so  ex- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


415 


teusive  and  iutricate  a  nature,  and  opinions  respecting  it  are  so  very 
divergent,  and  even  antagonistic,  that  the  further  one  penetrates  into 
it  the  less  prepared  he  feels  to  make  accurate  statements  regarding  it; 
atleastsuch  is  my  experience.  Getting  information  alsois,in  somecases, 
a  good  deal  like  pulling  teeth,  as  the  following  incident  will  show:  A  cer- 
tain manufacturer  of  jewelry,  who  employs  about  four  hundred  men  here 
and  in  Pforzlieim,  a  short  distance  from  here,  and  in  Italy,  who  does 

business  under  the  name  of ,  and  who  is  an  exporter  of  filigree 

work  and  jewelry  to  the  United  States,  was  asked  by  me  to  state  the 
highest  and  lowest  rates  of  wages  which  gohlsmiths,  «&c.,  earn,  which 
he  emphatically  refused  to  do,  with  the  remark  that  I  should  say  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  that  on  account  of  its  high  protect- 
ive tariff,  which  depresses  business  here,  and  keeps  down  the  wages  of 
the  workingmen  of  Europe,  it  does  not  deserve  to  have  any  favors 
shown  it,  and  that,  as  for  himself,  he  would  not  render  it  any.  Others, 
again,  have  shown  me  much  courtesy. 

I  feel,  in  view  of  the  magnitude  and  difiBculty  of  the  subject,  that  I 
can  hardly  do  more  than  attempt  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  German  work- 
ingman,  and  of  the  conditions  under  which  he  labors. 

RATES   OF   WAGES. 

The  rates  of  wages  paid  in  this  vicinity  to  clerks,  workingmen,  and 
laborers  run,  so  far  as  I  have  learned  them,  about  as  follows,  the  wages 
of  the  great  mass  of  workingmen  being  from  45  to  71  cents  per  day,  viz : 


Occupations. 


Bakers  (with  board) 

Barbers 

Basket-makers 

Basket-makers  (with  board) 

Beer  brewers 

Billiards  and  tables,  makers  of  ... 

Belt-makers 

Blacksmiths 

Bleachei  s 

Bleacliers,  foremen 

Book-ljinders 

Book-binders,  women 

Book-keepers 

Brass  IVmudera  and  turners 

Brick  layers  and  stoue  masons 

Brick-laye  I  sand  stone  masons,  foremen 

Bnekmakeis 

Brush-makers  

Butcliers  (with  board  and  lodging) . . . 

Caps  for  bottles,  makers  of 

Carpenters 

Carpenters,  foremen 

CeUarmen  in  wine  cellars 

(jellarmen  in  wine  cellars,  superiuten 

d--nts 

Cement-makers 

Cement-maUers  (piece-work) 

Chair-makers  (cane  seated) 

Champagne  factory  workmen 

Chemical  workers  -   

Chemical  vrorkers,  foremen 

Cigar-makers 

Cigar-maker.'i,  women 

Clerks  in  stoies  : 

Males 

Feniali's 

Compositors 

Compositors,  foremen 


'Wages  per 
week. 


3  57 


$2  38 
7  14 
4  28 


11  42 

5  71 
2  8.5 

13  75 

;  5  00 

'  5  00 

i  6  42 

''  2  85 

4  76 

2  38 

4  28 
I  4  5) 

6  42 

5  70 

I  6  42 

4  28 

5  70 

4  28 

3  .^7 

5  70 
10  00 

I  4  28 
2  38 

113  50 

1 10  00 

8  56 

II  42 


Occupations. 


Confectioners  (per  month  with  board) 
Color*,  makers  of: 

Mineral 

Tar  employed 

Aniline 

Aniline,  foremen 

Coopers  

Copper-smiths 

Copper.smiths,  foremen 

Carvers  in  wood 

Cotton  spinners 

Cotton  spinners,  women 

Distillers  (only  ordinary  establish- 
ments)   

Draymen  in  the  country  (per  day  for 

each  horse) 

Draymen  in  the  city 

Drivers  of  hacks  (depend  largely  on 

gratuities) 

Dyers 

Dyers,  women 

Engl  avers 

Euvelope-raakers 

Envelope-makers,  women 

Firemen  in  factories 

Folders  of  leather 

Fresco  painters 

Furniture-raakers  : 

Iron 

Wood 

Gardeners 

Gasworks,  workmen  in 

Gilders  

Glass-blowers 2 

tilaziers 

Glove-makers': 

Piece- work 

Women 


"Wages  per 
week. 


$4  76 

2  56 

2  85 

3  57 
5  70 
3  57 
3  00 


1  42 
3  57 


1  66 
3  57 


3  57 
2  14 
2  38 
2  14 

1  42 

2  85 

4  28 
7  14 

2  85 

3  57 

2  85 

3  57 

4  70 

3  85 

4  28 

2  85 
2  14 


$23  8ft 

3  57 

4  28 

4  28 
10  Oft 

5  00 
5  71 

7  14 
9  52 
4  28 
2  85 

4  28 

1  66 

4  28 

1  42 

4  28 

2  85 
19  04 

2  14 

1  42 

5  00 
5  70 

8  56 

3  57 
7  14 

3  57 

4  28 

5  95 
5  00 
5  71 

4  28 

2  85 


416 


LABOR  IX  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Occupationti. 


Wases  per 
week. 


Goldsmiths $3 

Hair-dressers |3 

Ilair-dressi^rs,  tim-  ladies" 

Haiuess-uiakei's  aud  saddlers I  3 

Hatters         2 

Hatters,  woraeu 2 

liorsealioers  ....  I  3 

Iron  and  steel  works  : 

Blacksmiths 2 

Founders 2 

Macbiue  builders 2 

Jewelers 

Job  printers 4 

Job  printers,  ibremen 7 

Joiuers 3 

Knitteis  of  hose  (women) 1 

Laborers  (coranion) 2 

Lead  (woikers  in} i  2 

Lime-burners I  2 

Litbojrraphers I  3 


Locksmiths 

Maccaroui-makers    

Maccaruuiniakers  (women) 

Machine-shops : 

Best  turners  (piece-work) 

Bench  hands 

Smiths    

Eiigineors 

Firemen • 

Day  laborers  and  helpers 

Millers  (with  board) 

Milliners  - 

Musical  instruments,  makers  of 

Oil  eloth  makers --. 

Packers.         

Painters  and  plasterers* 

Painters,  fresco 

Paper-hangers  and  upholsterers* 

Paper,  makers  of 

Paper,  makers  of  (women) 


$5  71 

7  U 
9  50 
0  42 
5  71 

2  85 

4  7(5 

3  75 

8  50 

5  71 

4  28 
8  50 

H  42 
7  14 


Pli<)toj;ra]>hers    

Plasterers  and  iiainters 

Plumbers  anil  };as-titler8... 

Plufah-makers 

Plush-makers  (women) 

Potters 

Pressmen  (printing-offices) 

Pump-makers 

Hoofers 

P.O]) 


Sack-makers    

Saddlers  .md  harness-makers. 
Seamstresses  (with  board)  ... 


3  25 

3  57 

2  85 
7  14 

4  9J 

4  23 


7  14 

6  42 

7  14 
5  00 

3  57 
2  85 
2  25 

4  28 

5  71 
4  28 


5  00 
5  00 
8  56 
7  14 
5  42 
2  85 

2  50 
5  00 

11  42 
5  00 

5  71 

3  28 
1  71 

6  42 

7  14 

3  20 
5  71 

4  7« 
4  90 
G  42 
3  50 


Occupations. 


Sculptors 

Servants,  domestic : 

Male  (with  boanl) 

Female  (with  boaid) 

Servants  in  hotels  (chambennaids).. 

Shoe  factories: 

Lasters 

Machinists 

Cutters 

Sewing  girls 

Shoemakers  

Shoemakers,  foremen 

Shoemakers,  sewing  girls 

I  Slaters  

I  Soapmakers 

Soapmakers,  overseers 

j  Soi-tei  8 

Sorters,  women 

I  Spinners  of  cotton 

1  Spinners  of  cotton,  women 

j  Spinners  of  horse-hair 

)  Spinners  of  horse-hair,  women 

I  Si)inners  of  wool 

■  Spinners  of  artificial  wool 

:  Stevedores  (mainly  piece-work)  per 

1       day    ^  

1  Stone-masons  and  bricklayers. 

I  Stone-masons  aud  bricklayers,  fore- 

I       men 

j  Stone-quarry  men 

j  Stoves  ( Fayence)  makers  of 

I  Sugar-makers 

1  Sugar-makers,  women 

Tailors 

j  Tanners : 

j  Country 

Tanners  of  morocco 

Taimers  of  chamois  skin  (country) . . 

I  Telegraph  operators 

;  Tinners    

Truu  k-makers 

Turners : 

Wood 

Wood  (with  board) 

I  Umbrella-makers 

i  Varnishors 

Varnish-makers 

Wagon  and  carriage  builders 

Waiters  (usually  aboutf7  per  month) 

Watchmakers  ". 

Wool -spinners  

Wool  (artilioial),  makers  of 

Wool  (artihcial),  makers  of,  women. 


Wages  per 
week. 


o         r5 


a  28 

1  00 
34 
70 


2  25 
1  70 


1  42 

2  45 


1  00 
3  05 


5  45 


3  57 
1  70 

1  25 

2  85 

3  44 

2  85 
2  85 

2  85 
8  25 

3  57 

3  30 

2  85 

1  00 

2  85 

4  28 

3  57 

3  57 
85 

4  28 

1  42 

2  43 
1  71 


*  These  two  are  combined  here. 

The  above  are  the  lowest  and  highest  wages  generally  paid  about  here, 
not  the  absolutely  lowest  nor  tlie  absolutely  highest,  lor  the  first  would 
require  to  be  reckoned  iroin  zero  as  a  basis,  wliile  the  second  are  often- 
times given  from  good  will  on  the  i)art  of  the  employer  because  of  long 
service,  &c. 

AVERAGE   WAGES   IN  MAYENCE. 

I  have  not  made  a  column  of  averages,  because  1  could  not  ver^'  well 
do  so  witiiout  knowing  the  exact  number  of  men  employed  in  any  given 
case  and  the  ])recise  wages  paid  to  each  individual,  winch  detailed  in- 
formation enii)loyes  are  usually  not  willing  to  commuuicate.  It  can  be 
safely  said,  however,  that  common  day  laborers  receive  on  an  average 
43  cents  a  day,  aud  mechanics  and  skilled  workingmen  70;  that  is  $2.60 
per  week  in  the  one  case  and  $4.25  iu  the  other.    In  the  country,  of  course, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  417 

wages  are  entirely  difierent,  the  item  of  board  or  no  board  and  the  de- 
gree of  remoteness  of  a  i)hice  from  cities  or  lines  of  travel  making  it 
difficult  to  fix  them  with  accuracy. 

The  wages  earned  are,  as  a  rule,  according  to  American  ideas,  exceed- 
ingly small,  and  barely  suffice  to  keej)  the  recipients  on  their  feet.  What 
the  mechanics  and  laborers  make  it  is  customary  to  pay  to  them  weekly, 
but  certain  manufacturing  establishments,  in  order  to  protect  themselves 
against  strikes  or  serious  misbehavior  of  any  kind  on  the  part  of  their 
employes,  are  given  to  keeping  their  men  about  one  week  in  arrears. 

HOUSE   INDUSTRY   OF   HESSE. 

In  the  mountainous  parts  of  Hesse  the  people  are  engaged  at  what  is 
called  house-industry;  that  is,  in  making  articles  at  home,  such  as  nails 
for  shoes  and  locl<!!*i,  &c.,  safety  needles,  hairpins,  and  other  things  out 
of  wire,  tilet-work,  wooden-ware  and  toys,  and  many  other  objects.  In 
the  labor  the  whole  family  generally  participates,  and  manages  thereby 
to>ke  out  unitedly  only  a  bare  subsistence,  as  several  examples  will 
show.  Nailsmiths  get  from  10  to  12  cents  for  each  1,000  nails  turned  off. 
Working  from  5  in  the  morning  to  8  at  night,  with  a  wife  and  children 
to  assist  him  a  little,  a  man  can  make  two  or  three  thousand  nails  per 
day,  for  which  20  to  28  cents  will  be  received.  For  large  needles  2  to  2^^ 
ceLts  each  is  paid.  Laboring  thirteen  hours  a  day  a  man  can  hardly 
earn  more  than  28  cents  a  day.  At  tilet-work  a  practiced  woman,  work- 
ing thirteen  hours  a  day,  can  seldom  make  more  than  15  cents  a  day. 
Just  think  of  it!  But  little  more  than  1  cent  an  hour.  Sewing  enameled 
pearls  on  lace  is  mostly  done  by  girls,  who  receive  for  each  one  hundred 
pearls,  sewed  on — it  being  even  more  under  certain  circumstances — 1 
cent.  Practiced  women,  working  fourteen  hours  a  day,  can  earn  at  this 
handicraft  15  cents.  Of  wooden  spoons  a  good  workman  will  turn  off 
in  a  day,  working  from  thirteen  to  fourteen  hours,  five  dozen,  for  which 
he  is  paid  4^  a  dozen,  without  wood,  which  he  has  to  furnish  himself. 
His  income,  therefore,  from  such  a  source  will  amount  to  only  about  16^ 
cents  a  day;  but  when  wife  and  children  are  at  hand  to  assist  it  can  be 
brought  up  to  23  or  28  cents.  The  lowest  wages  of  a  weaver  in  these 
same  districts  who  weaves  ordinary  articles,  such  as  rough  towels,  &c., 
are  11 J  cents  per  day ;  the  highest  47  cents,  which  is  paid  for  fine  work. 

FARM  WAGES. 

Of  farm  hands  there  are  different  kinds.  Those  who  are  engaged  at 
the  most  menial  kind  of  work,  attending  to  horses,  «S:c.,  receive  from  $45 
to  $70  per  year,  with  board  and  lodging,  which  latter  means  living  in 
the  stables,  among  the  cows  and  horses.  The  permanent  day  laborer  is 
paid  27  cents  a  day,  and  is  granted  about  one  quarter  of  an  acre  of  land 
to  plant  with  potatoes,  «&c.,  for  his  own  use,  and,  when  he  has  the  necessary 
implements,  is  loaned  horses  with  which  to  plow,  &c.;  and,  moreover,  is 
sometimes  given  piece-work  to  do,  at  which  as  much  as  70  cents  per  day 
can  be  earned.  The  man  who  is  only  temporarily  employed  gets  33  cents 
a  day,  but  in  harvesting  seasons  50  and  even  75  cents  are  paid.  Women 
do  only  the  lighter  kinds  of  farm  work,  and  are  commonly  paid  23  cents 
a  day,  without  board.  Good  gardeners  are  worth  45  to  58  cents  a  day. 
In  the  vineyards  good  wages  are  paid,  especially  when  the  grapes  are 
picked.    In  remote  parts,  of  course,  wages  are  even  less  than  here  stated. 

STORE  AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Book-keepers  and  correspondents  are  usually  paid  about  $500  a  year, 
and  are  expected,  in  the  most  of  cases,  to  be  conversant  with  English 
or  French,  or  both.    Good  salesmen  in  stores  are  paid  about  $300  a 
92  A— LAB 27 


418 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


year,  but  there  is  a  vast  army  of  others  whose  compensatiou  is  a  cle- 
scending  scale,  limited  only  by  0,  Very  flue  salesmen  are  paid  as  high 
as  $600  per  year,  but  this  is  an  exceptionally  good  salary. 

RAILROAD   EMPLOYJ&S. 

How  railroad  employes  are  compensated  will  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing table  of  wages  of  the  Hessische  Ludwigs  Eailroad',  which  is  the 
only  line  passing  through  Mayence,  and  one  of  the  very  few  railroads 
in  Germany  still  in  private  hands,  viz,  per  annum  : 


Occupations. 


Salary. 


Deductions. 


Lowest. 


Eighest. 


For 

dwell- 
ing. 


357  00 
285  00 
238  00 

500  00 
333  00 
333  00 


273  00 


226  00 
226  00 


Depot  superintendents j    $570  00 

Station-masters: 

First  class  

Second  class : 

Third  class 

Controllers : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Koadmasters •  •  -  - 

Freight  superintendents 

Car-inspectors 

Engineers : 

Extra  class    

First  class  

Second  class 

Loading-masters  (freight) 

Clerks 

Train  superintendents 

Train  conductors:* 

First  class 

Second  class \ 

Car  registers I      214  00 

Rolling-freight  receivers !      226  00 

Freight-messengers 214  00 

Baggage-masters 

Couplingma.stcrs 

Station  assistants  

Engineer  apprentices 

Firemen : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Car  attendants : 

First  class — - 

Second  class  

Third  class 

Conductors  (ticket-collectors) : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Brakesmen  : 

First  class 

Second  ('lass 

Third  class ■ 

Freightmeii 

Foremen,  three  classes 

Office  servants 

Switchmen  : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Directors  of  stopping-places 

Bridgesuiierintendents 

Harbor-masters 

Porters  or  station  hands  : 

First  class 

Second  class 

Watchmen  (at  crossings) : 

First  class , 

Second  class 

Third  class 

Clerks  (per  day) 

Couplers  (per  day) 


166  00 


$714  00 


Per  ct. 
10 


428 

00 

357 

00 

285  00 

595 

00 

500 

00 

476 

00 

428 

00 

333  00 

333 

00 

285  00 

250 

00 

285  00 

285 

00 

285 

00 

262 

00 

238 

00 

250 

00 

238  00 

238  00 

226  00 

226 

00 

226 

00 

226 

00 

190  00 

166 

00 

For  uni- 
forms. 


190  00 
166  00 
154  00 

214  00  ;. 

190  00  1. 
166  00  ] 

190  00  I. 
166  00  i. 

142  00 ;. 

226  00    . 

166  00  1. 
190  00  j . 

178  00 
166  00  |. 

143  00 
166  00 
166  00 
166  00 

166  00 
154  00 

154  00 

142  00  i 

135  00  ! 

59  1. 

57  !. 


10 


$15  90 

10  20 
10  20 
10  20 


10  20 
9  00 
12  63 

4  05 
4  05 
4  05 


13  50 
13  50 

5  71 
8  10 


8  56 
6  93 

10  20 
4  05 

4  05 
4  05 

12  63 
12  63 
12  63 

12  63 
12-63 
12  63 

9  75 
9  75 
9  75 

12  63 


8  10 

6  50 

6  50 

6  50 

8  50 

8  50 

10  20 

8  09 
8  09 

6  50 
6  50 
6  50 
4  88 
4  88 


'  Not  ticket  collectors. 


LAFJOR    IN    EUROPE  —  GERMANY. 


419 


CORPORATION   WAGES. 


What  salaries  the  city  of  Mayence  pays  to  its  mayor,  officials,  teach- 
ers, and  employes  per  anuuoi  are  set  forth  in  the  subjoined  table,  viz : 


Occupations. 


Mayor 

Two  assistants,  each 

General  secretary 

Registrar  and  assistant  to  secretary 

Treasurer  ". . . 

Book-keeper  in  treasurer's  office 

Collector  of  taxes 

Bureau  of  public  works: 

Chief  engineer 

Director  

Engineers 

Assistant 


Salary. 


$2,  142  00 
1,  428  00 
952  00 
571  20 
761  60 
571  20 
761  60 

862  80 

.   714  00 


Occupations. 


Bureau  of  piiblic  works— Continued, 

Assistant  engineer    

Geometrician    

Police  Department : 

Counselor 

Commissioner 

Do 

Inspector 

Librarian 

Customs  controller 


Salary. 


$571  20 
571  20 

880  60 
714  00 
618  80 
571  20 
952  00 
571  20 


To  all  of  the  aforesaid,  excepting  the  mayor  and  his  two  assistants, 
an  increase  of  $47.60  in  salary  is  made  at  the  completion  of  the  tenth, 
fifteenth,  and  twentieth  years  of  service,  thus  the  general  secretary 
during-  the  first  ten  years  of  service  gets  $952  per  annum,  from  the  tenth 
to  the  fifteenth,  $999.00 ;  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  twentieth  year  of 
service,  $1,047.20;  and  after  twenty  years,  $1,094.80. 


Occupation. 


Miscellaneous : 

Calculator,  harbor  collector,  and  harbor  master,  each 

Clerk  of  first  class  in  treasurer's  office 

Secretary  in  library,  police  secretary,  clerks  of  first  and  second  classes,  city  gardener, 
each 

Clerks  of  third  and  fourth  classes,  clerk  of  second  class  in  treasurer's  office,  police 
clerk  of  first  class,  superintendent  of  warehouse,  customs  receiver  of  first  class, 
director  of  cattle-yard,  buihling  inspector,  each 

Inspector  of  river  shore,  chief  superintendent  of  customs,  each 

Clerks  of  fifth  and  sixth  classes,  clerk  of  third  class  iu  treasurer's  office,  weigher  of 
first  class,  customs  receiver  of  second  class,  chief  sergeant  of  police,  officer  in  charge 
of  police  precinct,  road  inspector,  each , 


During  first 
ten  years 
of  service. 


$523  60 
476  00 


380  80 


380  80 
380  80 


342  72 


These,  also,  just  mentioned,  receive  an  advance  of  $47.60  in  salary  at 
the  expiration  of  the  tenth,  fifteenth,  and  twentieth  years  of  service,  but 
there  are  other,  still  inferior,  employes  whose  additional  compensation 
at  the  end  of  each  of  these  periods  amounts  to  only  $23.80,  viz : 


Occupations. 


During  first 
ten  years. 


Clerks  of  seventh  and  eighth  classes,  customs  receiver  of  third  class,  weigher  of  second 
class,  each 

Clerks  of  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  classes,  harbor  examiner,  messenger  to  treasurer's 
office,  customs  receiver  of  fourth  class,  police  clerks  of  second  and  third  classes,  super- 
intendent of  cemetery,  each 

Inspector  of  materials  for  streets,  policemen,  customs  and  harbor  inspectors,  watchmen  at 
warehouse,  each       

Messengers  of  first,  second,  and  third  classes,  messenger  to  library,  messenger  tohureau 
of  public  works,  each 

County  policemen,  hajbor  workmen,  each  


295  25 
271  32 


247  52 
247  52 


The  police  receive  a  slight  extra  allowance  for  cloth  ing. 


420 


LABOR    JN    EUROPK — GERMANY. 
SCHOOL   TEACHERS'   WAGES. 


School  superintendents  and  teachers  are  classified  and  paid  as  fol- 
lows: 


Salary.   ' 

Salary. 

Temporary  teachers  : 

Temporary  female  teachers: 

PreviouH  to  final  examination  

$166  60 

Pievioiis  to  final  examination 

$166  69 

Subseqiuut  tlitnto 

190  40 

Subsequent  theieto 

190  40 

After  three  years  of  good  service . . . 

214  20  . 

Aftei  three  \eai8  of  good  service.. 

214  2« 

Allowance  for  rent : 

Unmarried 

I 

47  6* 

47  60  1 

Female  teachers  : 

83  30 

j 

During  first  ten  years  ot  service... 
A  fter  lirst  ten  years  of  service 

285  60 

Teacher.s : 

3D9  4« 

During  first  ten  years  of  service 

309  40  ' 

Afier  fifteen  years  of  service 

333  2e 

After  Hrst  ten  years  of  service 

368  90 

After  twentv  yeais  of  service 

345  1« 

Alter  fifteen  years  of  service 

428  40 

Alter  twenty-five  years  of  service. 

357  00 

A  fter  twenty  years  of  service 

487  90 

Allowance  for  rent 

59  &e 

After  twentv-fivc  years  of  service  .. 

547  40 

Allowance  for  rent: 

59  50 

Married  teachers 

119  00 

The  city  has  a  number  of  dwelling-places  for  teachers,  consisting  of 
four  or  five  rooms  with  a  kitchen,  which  are  granted  to  teachers  in  lieu 
of  the  allowance  for  rent,  so  far  as  they  will  go,  and  length  of  service 
determines  the  disposition  of  them. 

Ofticials  and  teachers  are  wretchedly  compensated,  I  think. 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

Taken  as  a  class,  the  workingmen  of  Germany,  where  married,  live 
in  so  very  ordinary  a  manner  that  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  live  ;  they 
simply  exist.  They  have  to  pay  a  slight  rent,  i)nrchase  a  very  few  plain 
garments,  and  subsist,  in  the  main,  upon  potatoes,  rye  bread,  common 
sausage,  beer,  and  very  inferior  cofl'ee.  In  this  city  and  vicinity,  beef, 
it  api»ears,  is  ]>artaken  of  every  day  by  nearly  all,  but,  of  course,  the 
workingmen  can  afford  to  ])Uichase  the  poorest  i)ieces  of  flesh  only. 
When  vegetables  are  very  cheap  they  are  able  to  enjoy  them  also,  to  a 
slight  extent. 

The  most  common  necessaries  of  life  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  the 
market  are  quoted  at  the  following  i)rices  in  the  last  published  oflicial 
report  of  the  Government  of  Uesse  Darmstadt,  which  was  for  the  month 
of  June,  the  quotations  being  those  of  March  last,  viz : 


Articles. 


Wheat  flonr per  pound 

Rye  flour do . . 

Rye  bread 

Butter per  pound 

Beef do  - 

Veal do  . 

Mutton  do.. 

Pork do.. 

Potatoes per  100  pounds 

Peas 

Beans 

Milk* ppr  liter 

Eggs per  dozen 

CoU'eo,  roasted  in  the  laean per  pound 

Petroleum per  liter 

Coal per  220  pounds 


*  According  to  tables  in  Morgan's  Tariff,  the  liter  equals  1}^  quarts. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  421 

A  workingman,  when  a  ressideut  of  the  town,  usually  has  two  or  three 
rooms,  very  ordinarily  furnished,  in  some  undesirable  street,  oftentimes 
in  the  third  or  fourth  floor  of  a  house,  for  which  he  pays  from  $23  to 
$59.00  per  annum,  jjenerally  about  $45,  and  his  entire  expenses  will  run 
from  about  $150  to  $285,  which  latter  sum  exceedingly  few  make.  One 
workingman,  represcMiting  the  very  poorest  class,  whom  I  questioned 
on  this  subject,  said  that  he  has  two  fourth-story  rooms,  for  which  he 
pays  $G.GG  per  quarter,  that  is  $26.04  per  year.  In  this  house  1  have 
been,  a  dilapidated  structure,  in  a  narrow  street,  whose  stairway  is  so 
crooked  and  so  dark  that  a  stranger  ascends  it  with  difficulty.  He  has 
a  wife  and  four  children,  and  in  these  two  rooms  they  all  dwell  together, 
eat  and  sleep.  He  earns  about  50  cents  a  day,  to  which  his  wife  adds 
a  little  something  by  occasionally  doing  washing  or  other  work.  He 
requires  personally  in  the  course  of  a  year,  he  says,  one  pair  of  pants, 
which  with  difficulty  can  be  made  to  wear  so  long,  for  which  he  pays 
$2.38;  two  shirts  at  71  cents  each,  $1.42;  three  blouses  at  71  cents  each, 
$2.13;  shoes  to  the  value  of  $5.71 ;  socks,  $1.42;  working  coat,  $2.14; 
vest,  59  cents;  hat,  95  cents.  Clothing  for  wife,  about  $19 ;  for  chil- 
dren, abou-t  $8.33.  Fuel,  in  winter,  at  about  35i  cents  per  week,  and 
in  summer  at  18,  costs  about  $13.11.  Six  times  a  year,  every  two 
months,  taxes  to  state,  38i  cents  each  time,  $2.38 ;  six  times  a  year  to 
the  city,  28^  cents  each,  $1.71.  Dinner  for  himself,  wife,  and  four  chil- 
dren, winch  consists  of  soup,  tiesh,  potatoes,  and  sometimes,  something 
green,  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  times  per  year,  at  20  cents,  $73; 
rent,  $20.04  ;  beer,  two  glasses  per  day,  at  2^  cents  per  glass,  for  three 
hundred  and  thirteen  days,  $15.05;  Sunday  expenditures,  at  23^  cents 
(mark)  per  Sunday,  $12.57.     Total,  $189.13. 

Here  is  a  total  of  $189.13,  without  any  allowance  whatever  being 
made  for  breakfasts  and  suppers  and  certain  incidental  expenses,  or  an 
excess  of  expenditures  over  income  of  $32.63,  reckoning,  excepting 
Sundays,  three  hundred  and  thirteen  working  days  at  50  cents  per  day 
($150.50),  which  deficit  must  be  made  up  by  the  wife  in  some  way. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  what  the  man  with  50  cents  a  day,  with  a  wife 
to  assist  him  a  little,  is  able  to  do.  He  can  exist  not  much  better  than 
a  beast  in  a  hovel.  And  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  there  are  Social 
Democrats  in  Germany  ? 

This  man  with  2^  cents  purchases,  he  says,  a  package  of  surrogate 
coffee,  which  lasts  about  two  weeks,  pays  9^  cents  for  a  pound  of  beet 
sugar,  lOi  cents  for  a  large  loaf  of  rye  bread,  14  cents  a  pound  for 
workingmen's  beef,  but  is  never  so  extravagant  as  to  buy  a  pound, 
one-half  to  two-thrds  of  a  pound  being  sufficient  for  himself  and  family, 
6  cents  a  pound  for  horse-flesh,  which  he  often  has  fried,  5  to  0  for' a 
kumpf  of  potatoes  (a  kumpf  being  9  avoirdupois  pounds),  drinks  a 
glass  or  two  of  beer  a  day  at  2^  cents  per  glass,  and  on  Sundays  lays 
out  25  cents  or  so  for  pleasure. 

The  standard  bill  of  fare  of  the  workingmen  at  noon  is  a  mess  of 
potatoes,  and  a  little  meat,  or  peas  or  beans,  cooked  together  in  the  form 
of  a  thick  soup,  to  which  a  little  green  cabbage  or  lettuce,  or  some- 
thing of  the  kind,  is  sometimes  added.  This  dish  they  eat  day  after 
day,  with  very  little  change  in  the  character  of  its  contents  or  manner 
of  preparation.  It  is  brought  to  them  by  their  wives  oftentimes,  when 
the  men  work  in  the  open  air,  in  a  tin  pail  or  earthenware  dish,  and  the 
wives  sit  near  at  hand  while  the  men  eat.  The  women  in  a  great  many 
cases  bring  along  with  them  also  similar  food  for  themselves,  which 
they  eat  in  the  company  of  their  husbands.     Day  after  day  I  see  these 


422  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

people  thus  dining"  togetlier,  with  lar<;e  pieces  of  n^e-bread  in  their 
hands  and  the  tin  pails  in  their  laps,  in  which  is  contained  frequently 
a  sort  of  potato  soup  only,  (I  mean  in  this  description  of  course  only 
common  day-laborers.) 

Where  §-22  or  $335  a  year  is  earned,  that  is,  from  71  cents  to  $1.07 
per  day,  the  expenditures  will  run  about  as  follows : 


Articles. 


Kent 

Food    

Clothing 

Fuel 

Taxes  

Incidentals 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$35  70 

$59  50 

119  00 

166  60 

47  60 

59  50 

11  90 

11  90 

2  83 

9  50 

4  97 

28  00 

Total ,      222  00  1        335  00 


From  $214.20  to  $333.20  a  year  is  all  that  the  letter-carriers*  of  this 
city  receive.  They  are  consequently  far  less  favorably  situated  than 
the  same  class  of  men  in  the  United  States,  and  must  live  in  a  corre- 
spondingly inferior  way.  Their  clothing,  however,  costs  them  but  little, 
for  for  wearing  apparel  from  their  salaries  is  deducted  every  year  the  very 
smallsum  of  90  cents,  for  which  they  receive  every  twelvemonthsacapand 
a  pair  of  pants,  every  eighteen  months  a  coat,  and  every  three  ,\ears  an 
overcoat.  The  shoes  the  Government  does  not  furnish.  Their  hours  of 
«vork  are  from  o.30  a.  m.  to  8  p.  in.,  with  a  resto/  from  two  to  three  hours 
during  the  day,  which  depends  entirely  upon  the  mails. 

Young  unmarried  workingmen  who  make  50  or  75  cents  a  day  pay 
from  $8.56  to  $10.23  per  month  for  board  and  lodging,  washing  also 
included. 

A  young  bookkeeper,  or  clerk,  or  teacher,  whose  salary  amounts  to 
$285  per  annum  can,  with  economy,  live  respectably  on  that  smallsum; 
an  unmarried  man,  I  mean  ;  but  cannot  throw  any  money  away.  For 
$4  or  $5  a  month  he  can  rent  a  tolerably  fair  room.  This  will  also  in- 
clude his  breakfast,  which  will  be  a  cuj)  of  coffee  and  a  roll,  for  it  is  the 
custom  of  the  country,  both  among  rich  and  poor,  to  take  only  a  cup  or 
two  of  coflee,  with  one  or  two  rolls,  in  the  morning.  Quite  a  fair  din- 
ner, of  two  or  three  courses,  made  up  of  soup,  meat,  and  vegetables, 
tolerably  well  cooked,  he  can  get  in  a  restaurant  for  15  cents,  and  his 
suijper,t  if  simple,  may  be  made  to  cost  not  more  than  that  amount, 
that  is,  30  cents  a  day  for  the  two  meals  or  $9  i)er  month.  If  he  boards 
where  he  rooms,  which  is  seldom  done,  he  may  be  able  to  do  a,  little 
better,  but  not  much.  He  can  hardly  for  less  than  the  i)rices  I  have 
mentioned  obtained  much  better  than  i)rison  fare. 

I  cannot,  for  the  life  of  me,  comprehend  how  men  with  families  man- 
age to  live  upon  the  meager  incomes  they  have  and  keej)  themselves 
decentlj'  clad.  Herrings,  sausage,  and  cheese  must  form  staple  articles 
of  diet  with  them,  and,  taken  as  a  nation,  the  Germans  must  live  very 
plainly. 

From  a  young-  married  book-keeper,  with  one  child,  whose  salary  is 
$371.28  per  annum,   I  learn   that  his  exijenditures  are  as  follows : 

'These  are  mostly  old  soldiers. 

tThis  supper  will  usually  be  a  jjlass  of  beer,  with  a  piece  of  rye  bread,  without 
butter,  and  some  sausage  raw,  or  cheese. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  423 

Food,  $106.60;  rent,  $85.68;  clothing,  $59.50;  fuel,  $23.80;  taxes, 
$11.90;  incidental  expenses,  $23.80;  total,  $371.28. 

Anotlier  book-keeper,  elder  and  also  married,  with  a  son  nearly  grown, 
has  kindly  prepared  for  me  a  statement  from  his  books,  which  makes 
the  following  exhibit,  viz  : 

Food,  $357;  rent,  $130.90;  clothing,  $95.20;  wages  of  one  female 
servant,  $28.56  ;  fnruitnre  and  household  articles,  $35.70 ;  fuel,  $23.80 ; 
taxes,  $23.80;  schooling  for  son,  $23.80;  incidental  expenses,  $83.30; 
total,  $802.06. 

In  this  case  the  annual  income  amounts  to  $833,  and  the  individual 
lives  just  about  as  a  man  with  $900  or  $1,000  in  Washington  does.  So 
far  as  my  experience  goes  I  should  say  that  it  costs  men  of  moderate 
means  about  the  same  to  live  here  that  it  would  in  America,  but  in  the 
upper  circles  it  is  not  customary  to  make-outlays  with  so  free  a  hand  as 
in  America.  If  families  live  here  cheaper  than  American  families  it  is 
frequently  because  they  live  plainer,  oftentimes  in  a  manner  that  an 
American  of  similar  station  in  life  would  not  think  of  enduring.  In  the 
case  last  instanced  by  me  the  rent  paid,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  about  $140 
per  annum,  but  the  rooms,  nine  in  number,  with  a  kitchen  and  use  of  the 
cellar  of  the  house,  while  very  nice,  are  in  the  fourth  story  of  a  house, 
in  a  good  locality,  and  have  low  ceilings  and  are  small  in  size.  Rents, 
however,  are,  I  should  say,  lower  as  a  rule  than  in  the  United  States. 

WAGES  NOW    COMPARED    WITH   THOSE    OF   1878. 

Upon  this  point  the  testimony  varies,  some  maintaining  that  the  rates 
of  wages  paid  to  workingmenare  about  the  sametoday  that  they  were 
in  1878,  while  others  are  of  the  opinion  that  on  the  whole  slightly  better 
wages  are  obtained  now  than  six  years  ago.  But  wages  ought  to  be 
higher  now  than  then,  for  business  in  Germany,  while  far  from  being 
all  that  could  be  desired  of  it,  is  on  a  more  satisfactory  and  prosperous 
basis  than  it  was  in  1878.  I  have  read,  too,  that  at  a  congress  of  the 
iron  and  steel  manufacturers  of  Germany,  held  at  Berlin  in  May  last,  the 
report  of  the  secretary  showed  that  the  iron  and  steel  association  is 
composed  of  356  manufacturers,  employing  240,000  workingmen  and  rep- 
resenting a  capital  of  $250,000,000,  and  also  that  since  the  new  German 
customs  tariff  went  into  operation,  which  was  at  about  the  time  that  is 
being  considered,  the  number  of  workingmen  employed  in  the  iron  and 
steel  works  had  risen  33  per  cent,  and  that  there  had  been  an  increase 
of  52  per  cent,  in  the  entire  amount  of  wages  paid  and  an  average  ad- 
vance of  14  per  cent,  in  the  wages  of  the  individual.  Wages,  1  think 
it  may  be  said,  are  about  10  per  cent,  better. 

A  certain  tailor  has  furnished  me  with  a  comparative  statement  of 
the  prices  paid  in  his  branch  of  business  for  piece-work,  now  and  about 
1870,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  what  advance  has  been  made  in  this 
line.  To  live  it  costs  a  workingman  not  more  than  25  cents  or  so  more 
a  week  now  than  then,  he  says  ;  so  that  it  appears  that  the  higher  rates 
of  wages  are  all  in  the  interest  of  the  laborer. 


424  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Tailors'  piece-work  wages  in  1870,  <yr  thereabouts,  compared  with  those  of  1884. 

"Wages. 
Articles. 


men's  clothing. 


Black  frock-coat  or  double  breasted 

Same,  or  ordiuary  coat 

Same,  sin^jle-breastM 

Cloth  coat  of  light . stuff 

Same,  ■without  waist 

Winter  overcoat,  padded 

Spring  or  summer  overcoat,  lined  with  silk 

Same,  ordinary    

Quilted  silk  coats  

Same,  house  coats ' 

"Vests : 

Double-breasted,  of  white  piqu6  or  cashmere 

Standing  and  single-breasted 

Transparent 

Pants : 

Black,  satin 

Other  stuff 


B0Y8     CLOTHES. 


Coat«  for  confirmation . 
Confirmation  overcoat. 
Sack: 

With  waist 

Without  waist 

Pants  and  vests 


children's  suits. 


Overcoat        

Jackets  or  sailor  blouses. 

Same,  ordinary 

Pants : 

With  body 

Ordinary 

Havelock 

Blouse  with  belt 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Livery  for  servants 

Same,  with  tippet 

Frock  and  coat 

Same,  for  waiter 

Sacks  for  waiters 

Cashmere  or  alpaca  coats,  with  waist 

Linen  or  piqu6  coat: 

Witli  waist 

Without  waist  

Alpaca  or  cashmere  vestings,  with  waists 

Fireman's  sack 

Havelock  : 

Ordinary 

With"  sleeves 

Sleeping  ceat : 

with  trimming,  but  without  padding  . .. 

Witliout  trimming  and  without  padding. 
Gaiters : 

Large 

Small 

Sacks  for  cook.s 

Sacks  for  gymnasts  

Drawers : 

Plain 

More  diflicult  to  make 

Undershirts 

"Vests  in  linen,  alpaca,  &c.,  easUy  made 

Riding  bree<'ho8,  with  leather  . .' 

Same,  trimmed 


$4  28 

3  33 

3  09 

2  85 

2  61 

5  71 

3  57 

2  85 

5  23 

3  57 

83 

75 

23 

78 

78 

2  38 

2  38 

2  14 

1  54 

59 

1  90 

1  42 

1  19 

85 

72 

1  66 

95 

3  33 

4  76 

3  33 

2  85 

1  90 

2  38 

1  90 

1  42 

1  54 

1  42 

1  90 

2  38 

2  38 

1  90 

72 

35 

83 

72 

28 

47 

72 

1  19 

1  66 

1  42 

Note.— For  work  by  the  hour,  1884,  7  to  8J  cents ;  1870,  5  to  7  cents. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  425 

THE    HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

Their  habits  of  life  and  of  work  may  in  general  be  characterized  as 
bad,  that  is,  not  vicious  nor  slothful,  but  irresolute  and  nerveless.  They 
lack  that  snaj)  and  vim  which  is  so  cliaracteristic  of  the  Americans,  and 
move  and  work  in  a  listless,  half-hearted  sort  of  w  ay.  How  steady  they 
are  it  has  been  difficult  for  me  to  determine.  One's  first  imi)ulse  is  to 
say  that  all  classes  in  Germany  devote  one  half  ot  their  time  to  the  beer- 
shops,  but,  while  a  great  many  pass  entirely  too  much  time  in  this  way, 
such  a  statement  would  not  be  borne  out  by  the  actual  facts.  To  the 
inquiry,  "  To  what  extent  do  the  working  classes  frequent  the  beer- 
shops?"  one  gentleman,  connected  with  a  very  large  factory,  replies, 
"  Not  much,  for  they  do  not  have  the  money  to  spend  ;  the  married  man 
will  drink,  on  the  average,  a  glass  or  two  of  beer  in  a  w^'ek  and  on  Sun- 
days two  or  three,  but  no  more."  Another  gentleman,  a  m;aiufacturer, 
maintains  that  beer  is  the  ruin  of  the  German  workingmen,  that  they 
drink  every  time  they  get  a  chance,  that  when  it  is  i)rohibited  to  them 
they  smuggle  it  into  the  workshops,  and  that  the  most  of  them  spend 
two  or  three  hours  every  night  in  the  beer  shops.  "  My  experience  has 
been  steady,"  said  he  to  me,  "  that  they  will  work  hard  all  week  to  earn 
big  wages,  but  that  by  Tuesday  all  is  si)ent.  They  begin  drinking  on 
Saturday  night,  and  keep  it  up  till  their  money  is  gone.  I  have  tried 
to  save  their  money  for  them,  but  have  found  it  useless  to  do  so."  One 
intelligent  workingman  whom  I  questioned  upon  the  subject  said  that 
the  German  workingman  drinks  on  the  average  four  or  live  glasses  (one 
German  glass  being  about  two  American)  of  beer  a  day.  Another,  a 
laborer,  said  they  drink  only  one  or  two  glasses  a  day,  and  very  little 
schuaps,  because  they  cannot  aftbrd  it.  The  common  opinion,  however, 
is  that  the  lower  classes  devote  entirely  too  much  time  to  the  beer 
houses,  and  this,  too,  is  more  in  accord  with  what  one  would  naturally 
expect  to  find  to  be  the  case  in  Germany.  Schnaps  (brandy)  is  drank 
to  a  limited  extent,  and  drunkenness  is  therefore  somewhat  rare. 

Sunday  is  beer  day.  By  foot,  by  rail,  or  by  steamer  the  peoi)le  in 
summer  on  Sundays  flock  out  of  the  towns  to  the  summer  gardens  and 
pass  the  day  drinking,  bowling,  turning,  shooting,  &c.  He  must  be  a 
very  poor  man  indeed  who  does  not  spend  something  in  pleasure  on 
Sunday.  But  the  Germans  are  rather  orderly,  and  when  at  night  the 
steamers  and  trains  return  filled  to  overflowing  with  soldiers,  servant- 
girls,  workingmen,  &c.,  not  one-half  the  noise  will  be  heard  that  would 
greet  one's  ears  from  a  similar  party  in  America.  In  winter  it  is  the  res- 
taurants and  theaters  that  are  packed  on  Sundays,  in  summer  the  woods 
that  are  filled. 

The  workingmen  work  about  ten  *  hours  a  day,  in  an  easy,  sleepy 
way.  They  begin  at  about  6  o'clock  in  the  morning,  about  half  past  8 
take  a  rest  for  half  an  hour,  when  some  bread  and  cheese,  or  sausage, 
and  coffee,  or  beer,  are  partaken  of;  stop  at  12  for  an  hour  or  an  hour 
and  a  half  for  dinner;  about  half  past  4  take  again  a  little  something 
to  eat  and  drink,  during  a  half  hour's  pause,  and  at  G  or  7  get  through 
with  the  arduous  duties  of  the  day  with  very  little  accomplished,  1 
shouhl  think.  And  this  takingof  one's  easeis  to  be  met  with  everywhere, 
and  among  all  classes.  At  1-5  o'clock  business  men  quit  their  places  of 
business  for  two  or  three  hours,  going  home  and  eating  a  heavy  dinner, 
and  in  many  cases  taking  a  nap,  and  then  have  to  be  at  their  offices 
until  late  to  make  up  for  the  time  lost  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Thus 
a  spirit  of  ease  and  procrastination  obtains  possession  of  all,  and,  as  a 

*  Exclusive  of  resting  pauses. 


426  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

result,  hardly  aiiythiug  is  ever  ready  for  delivery  at  the  time  agreed 
upon. 

This  manner  of  wasting  time  is  due  probably  simply  to  bad  habits, 
which  have  grown  up  in  the  country,  and  Avhich  may  not  be  inherent  iu 
the  peo])le,  because  the  very  men  who  thus  act  work  iu  America  as  dili- 
geutlj'  as  anybody  else.     Said  a  miller  once  to  me : 

I  do  not  know  why  it  is  that  in  Chicago,  in  a  mill  where  I  was,  that  twenty  men 
used  there  to  tnrn  out  as  ninch  flonr  in  a  f>ivcn  time  as  we  can  herewith  forty  or  fifty, 
but  it  is  so.  All  things  are  eijual,  and  yot  with  twenty  men  I  cannot  he'gin  to  do  as 
much  work  as  was  accomplished  in  America  by  that  number. 

I  am  certain  myself  that  every  industrious  laborer  and  mechanic  iu 
America,  let  him  be  what  he  will,  Irish,  German,  English,  or  American, 
as  a  rule  turns  oft"  twice  as  much  work  a  day  there  as  the  same  species 
of  workman  here  of  superior  quality.  The  man  in  America  is  better 
paid,  housed,  fed,  aud  clothed,  but  he  is  worth  more.  The  workingmen 
here  too  are  not  only  slow,  but  are  wanting  in  skill  and  judgment. 
They  lose  oftentimes  almost  as  much  time  contemplating  a  piece  of  work 
as  the  man  in  America  would  require  to  do  it  in,  and  do  not  work  well 
without  direction.  I  do  not  know  to  what  cause  to  attribute  this  shift- 
lessness  ou  the  part  of  the  workingmen  of  Germany,  whether  to  poor 
food,  to  beer,  to  a  lack  of  incentive  from  the  feeling  that  their  lot  is  a 
fixed  one,  or  to  what  cause;  for,  as  I  said  above,  these  men  in  America 
start  iu  and  work  with  as  much  energy  as  anybody  else,  but  they  cer- 
tainly do  not  do  so  at  home  in  the  Fatherland.  It  doubtless  is  that  in 
America  the  workingmen,  by  reason  of  the  free  institutions  of  the  country 
and  of  the  energizing  atmosphere  which  he  breathes,  becomes  independ- 
ent, self-reliant,  high-spirited,  and  ambitious,  while  here  he  feels  that 
his  opportunities  are  limited  aud  his  state  servile.  He  is,  therefore, 
rather  disposed  to  be  patient  and  to  accept  whatever  lot  is  imposed 
ui)on  him,  and  to  look  to  the  state  for  remedial  legislation,  thus  forget- 
ting, if  he  ever  knew,  that  "  the  gods  help  those  who  helj>  themselves." 
The  American  idea  is  that  the  people  make  the  state,  but  the  German 
seems  to  me  to  proceed  upon  the  theory  that  the  state  makes  the  peo- 
ple. At  any  rate,  insttnul  of  being  independent,  self-reliant,  and  going 
ahead,  each  for  himself,  each  man  seems  to  be  afraid  to  move  and  to 
look  to  another,  aud  so  it  goes  up  from  storj^  to  story,  each  waiting 
for  a  superior  to  take  the  initiative.  It  may  be  said  that  the  (Jermau 
workingmen  are  industrious  if  their  work  is  laid  out  for  them,  and  if 
under  supervisiou,  but  not  so  if  left  to  themselves  to  plan  or  tind  work. 

What  the  German  is  somewhat  lacking  in,  it  seems  tome,  is  intuition. 
That  faculty,  I  think,  the  American  possesses  in  an  eminent  degree, 
and  is  his  distinguishing  trait  of  character.  The  German  is  a  great 
student,  a  great  memorizer,  more  so,  1  am  inclined  to  think,  than  the 
American,  for  all  Germany  is  studying  itself  blind,  trying  to  know 
everything,  as  well  that  which  is  useless  as  that  which  is  useful,  but  he 
studies  largely  with  a  view  to  uuiking  himself  learned,  the  American 
more  with  a  view  to  use  in  ))ractical  life.  The  German  cultivates  his 
memory,  the  American  his  wit.  The  consequence  is  that  the  German 
theorizes  while  the  American  acts,  aiul  analyzes  while  the  American 
creates.  He  thus  becomes  critical  and  skeptical  aiul  vacillating  in 
judgment.  This  remark  may  seem  out  of  place,  and  yet  it  is  necessary 
to  a  proper  consideration  of  the  German  workingman  and  merchant,  for 
in  consequence  of  it  tliey  acquire  halting  and  slow  ways  of  thinking  and 
acting  and  become  indis])osed  to  act  pr()mi)tly  in  any  matter.  Thus  it 
is  with  the  workingmen,  they  hesitate  to  exercise  their  own  judgment, 
and  are  afraid  of  responsibility.     This  absence,  not  entirely,  but  in  part, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  427 

of  self-reliance  and  quick  judgiueut,  makes  them  unreliable  in  the  sense 
of  inefficient  and  unskillful.  They  are  persevering  and  enduring^,  and 
will  work  rather  faithfully  at  whatever  is  set  before  them,  but  they  have 
little  idea  of  contriving  and  inventing. 

They  are  less  intelligent  than  American  workingmen,  because  they 
lack  Yankee  comprehension  and  i:>enetration,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  be  less  disposed  to  look  out  simply  for  number  one. 

They  do  not  save  much,  because  they  cannot  if  they  would.  In  America 
the  workingman  receives  wages  which  enables  him  to  put  a  little  some- 
thing by,  when  he  is  industrious  and  saving,  with  which  to  obtain  a  home 
at  some  future  day,  and  this  home  a  large  body  of  our  citizens  have  in 
view  as  the  end  of  life,  but  the  German,  i;:  general,  has  not  this  op- 
portunity, and  consequently  does  not  possess  the  home  inspiration  in 
the  degree  that  it  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  United  States,  and,  besides, 
I  also  doubt  whether  he  is,  notwithstanding  his  many  good  traits,  as 
thrifty  and  saving  as  the  Puritan  stock  of  America.  It  is  very  hard 
for  a  man  of  the  working  classes  here  to  become  well  to  do  or  influen- 
tial. Such  cases  do  occur,  but  they  are  rare.  Self-made  men  are  few 
in  number  compared  to  the  multitude  of  them  which  are  to  be  found 
in  America. 

Conditions  here  and  in  the  United  States  are  altogether  different,  and, 
as  a  necessary  result,  tlie  two  peoples  are  wholly  uidike  in  genius,  and 
will  become  more  and  more  so.  The  Americans*  and  their  institutions 
are  not  fully  understood  here  and  cannot  be.  People  here,  and  this,  of 
course,  affects  the  workingmen,  do  not  seem  to  me  to  take  so  enlarged  a 
view  of  all  things  as  our  citizens  do.  The  liberty  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ing, while  ])revailing  to  a  large  extent,  is  not  yet  fully  enjoyed,  and  con- 
sequently the  peoi)le  remain  somewhat  short-sighted  and  circumscribed 
in  their  views,  though  becoming  less  and  less  so.  The  workingman  is 
held  in  check  by  this  sphere  of  restraint,  and  by  the  laws  which  impose 
a  penalty  upon  free  speech.  An  unguarded  utterance  made  in  public 
may  subject  a  man  to  fine  and  imi)risonment.  The  workingmen  espe- 
cially, in  view  of  their  socialistic  tendencies,  are  closely  watched,  and  all 
symptoms  of  ebullition  at  once  prescribed  for.  A  great  deal  of  liberty  of 
speech  and  of  the  press  is  enjoyed,  but  much  yet  remains  to  be  granted. 
The  factional  spirit,  too,  which  in  the  past  was  so  destructive  of  German 
unity  and  progress,  has  not  yet  entirely  died  out  of  the  nature  of  the 
people,  but  is  fast  disappearing  under  the  new  order  of  things  brought 
about  by  the  sagacity  and  force  of  character  of  Prince  Bismarck.  It 
can  still,  nevertheless,  be  seen,  witnessed  everywhere,  in  the  disposition 
of  the  workingmen  to  quarrel  among  themselves,  if  not  held  in  strict 
discipline,  and  to  split  into  cliques,  in  the  tendency  of  the  students  at 
the  universities  to  form  into  rival  clubs  and  to  duel,  and  in  the  inability 
of  the  people  at  large  to  divide  into  two  opposing  parties  politically. 
For  this  reason  it  is  hard  to  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the  political  and 
economical  sentiments  of  the  people  on  account  of  the  many  wheels 
moving  within  wheels. 

Although  a  good  many  j^eople  seem  to  be  alarmed  at  the  socialistic 
movement  and  its  growth,  I  do  not  apprehend  that  anything  very  seri- 
ous is  going  to  spring  from  it,  because  the  workingmen,  if  they  should 
ever  get  so  far  as  revolution,  will  never  have  nerve  enough  to  carry  it 
forward,  and  even  if  they  should  possess  this  nerve  in  a  sufficient  degree 
would  split  all  to  pieces  the  very  moment  they  obtained  power.     It  is 

*  By  Americans  I  mean  all  persons  living  permanently  in  the  United  States,  who  are 
there  assuming  and  contributing  to  a  distinct  and  new  type  of  man,  made  up  princi- 
pally of  English,  German,  and  Irish  blood,  influenced  strongly  by  climatic  conditions. 


428  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

true  that  they  may  break  out  some  day  into  violence,  but  it  will  be  a  policy 
of  blindness  and  destruction  only,  and  will  endure  but  a  very  short  time, 
from  want  of  an  inlierent  tendency  to  union,  and  by  reason  of  the  thou- 
sand and  one  Uto])ian  schemes  that  will  be  broached  by  their  leaders. 

The  Germans  require  very  strong  leaders,  whose  will  is  law.  They 
are  not  monarchists  by  accident  or  by  force  of  circumstances,  but  because 
the  national  character  calls  for  such  a  species  of  government.  Every 
form  of  government,  I  think,  is  an  expression  of  the  national  life  of  the 
people  who  live  under  it,  not,  in  my  opinion,  because  the  i)eo])le  are  per- 
force compelled  to  recognize  and  subn)it  to  it,  but  because  their  genius 
has  brought  about  just  such  a  system  of  government  as  the  character  of 
the  nature  of  the  people  at  large  demands,  and  the  institutions  of  any 
country  reveal  the  internal  character  of  the  people  who  evolve  them. 
Following  this  rule,  I  conclude  that  the  German,  while  loving  a  certain 
species  of  liberty,  is  more  attentive  to  the  law  of  authority  than  to  the 
right  of  i»rivate  judgment,  and  the  workingman  in  all  that  he  does  must 
be  viewe<l  in  this  light.  The  spirit,  however,  is  changing,  and  the  Gov- 
ernment is  accordingly  becoming  more  constitutional  and  more  i)arlia- 
mentary,  for  when  the  life  of  any  nation  changes  the  form  of  govern- 
ment also  undergoes  a  transformation,  but  the  revolution  must  take 
place  in  particulars,  before  it  manifests  itself  in  generals. 

The  ideas  which  float  hither  from  America  work  like  so  much  leaven 
among  all  classes,  and  would  probably  exert  a  much  greater  influence 
than  they  do  could  not  the  more  enterprising  and  independent  of  the 
dissatisfied  members  of  the  population  emigrate  to  the  United  States. 
In  a  large  measure,  the  high-spirited  and  self-reliant  of  the  middle  and 
lowerclasses,  as  soon  as  they  become  discontented,  contrive  to  get  away. 
The  home*  country  thus  becomes  relieved  of  those  who  might  disturb 
the  peace. 

The  Socialistic  movement  is  at  the  bottom  simply  an  exhibition  of 
restlessness  on  the  part  of  the  lower  classes.  The  leaders  of  it  probably 
cherish  all  sorts  of  Utopian  and  anarchical  principles,  but  the  great 
mass  of  the  workingmen  who  take  an  interest  in  it  do  so,  I  am  per- 
suaded, without  fully  understanding  its  purport.  They  feel  that  their 
state  is  altogether  too  servile  and  unnatural  a  one,  and  that  they  do 
not  receive  a  fair  share  of  what  their  hands  produce,  and  take  an  in- 
terest in  the  movement  because  it  holds  out  some  promise  of  a  relief  of 
the  burdens  which  they  bear,  but  the  idea  of  overturning  all  of  the 
governmental  principles  of  the  ])resent  time,  and  of  a  division  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  rich  and  well  to  do  is  far  absent,  I  believe,  from  the  thought 
or  wish  the  great  body  of  them.  There  is  too  much  conservatism  in  the 
German  character  ior  that,  and  too  fine  a  sense  of  justice.  What  they 
want  is  a  reduction  of  the  i)eriod  of  military  service,  which  bears  very 
heavily  upon  the  laboring  classes,  from  three  years  to  two  or  one,  the 
abolition  of  all  exce[)tional  laws,  iree  speech  and  a  free  ])ress  and  the 
right  of  i)ublic  assembly,  an  obligatory  education  for  the  children  of  the 
workingman  at  the  public  exi)ense,  absolute  prohibition  of  child  labor, 
limitation  of  female  labor,  cessation  of  military  and  convict  labor  in  com- 
petition with  private  enteri)rise  extension,  of  the  rights  of  the  people, 
protection  of  the  workingman,  and,  above  all,  just  hours  of  labor  at 
fair  rates  of  compensation.  What  the  rabid  men  want  amounts,  in  sub- 
stance, to  anarchy. 

Much  com])laint  is  made  over  the  emjjloyment  in  the  barracks  and 
military  estal)lishmcnts  of  men  who  work  at  trades,  especially  by  the 
tailors  and  shoemakers.  As  soon  as  a  young  num  has  served  an  ap- 
prenticeshij)  of  two  or  three  years,  and  has  hardly  become  a  skilled 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  429 

workman,  he  is  called  upon  by  the  Government  to  fulfill  his  military  du- 
ties. In  the  case  of  the  tailors  and  shoemakers,  especially  of  the  former, 
there  are  a  great  many  who  are  not  of  snfticient  physical  develoi)ment 
to  go  through  the  military  evolutions,  being  oftentimes  hunch-backed, 
cTijipled,  or  infirm,  for  when  a  boy  of  poor  ])arents  is  good  for  nothing 
else  he  is  i)ut  at  a  sedentary  occupation.  These  the  Government  nuikes 
use  of  by  settin<;  them  to  work  at  their  trades  for  three  years.  If  a  nmn 
is  strong  and  well  developed,  and  is  fortunate,  he  marches  aud  counter- 
marches, ffoes  through  all  suits  of  gymnastic  performances  and  gun  ex- 
ercises, and  during  the  three  years  of  his  service  in  the  army  never  once 
does  anything  in  the  way  of  his  trade;  but  if  the  physicians  declare 
him  to  be  physically  incompetent  to  undergo  the  severities  of  military 
discipline  he  is  used  for  three  years  in  sticking  uniforms  together,  and 
makes  no  progress  at  his  trade,  but  acquires,  perhaps,  a  slouchy  way 
of  working.  At  twenty-three  or  twenty-four  he  is  through  his  military 
obligations,  marries, and  the  rest  of  his  life  fights  valiantly  for  a  forlorn 
sj)ecies  of  existence.  Such  is  the  lament  that  is  made.  Of  the  merits 
of  the  question  1  know  nothing. 

The  farming  classesotthis  neighborhood  are  a  sturdy,  well-built,  philo- 
sophical looking  race  of  beings,  who  are  represented  to  me  by  a  number 
of  responsible  ]>arties  to  be  industrious  aud  quite  contented  with  their 
lot.  The  land  in  this  duchy  is,  in  the  main,  divided  up  into  a  host  of 
small  or  medium  sized  farms,  not  much  encumbered  by  mortgapfes, 
whose  proprietors  are  oftentimes,  unaided,  fully  able  to  cultivate  their 
little  possessions.  Very  few  men  employ  more  than  two  or  three  field- 
hands  except  in  harvest-time.  Many  of  the  men  also  employed  in  the 
towns  in  the  factories  own  little  patches  of  ground  which  they  and 
their  wives  manage  to  keep  tilled.  These  latter  raise  mostly  garden 
stuff,  which  the  women  carry  to  market  and  sell.  The  ])eo])le  of  the 
Odenwald  are  comi)aratively  well  built,  but  in  the  poorer  districts  are 
small  and  weak,  owing  to  the  influences  of  food  and  dwellings,  and  the 
undertaking  too  early  in  life  of  trying  work.  The  well-to-do  jjeasauts 
use  much  salted  and  dried  meat,  and  good  farinaceous  food,  while  their 
poorer  neighbors  and  the  laboring  classes  must  be  content  with  a  potato 
bill  of  fare.  Bread  is  made  of  grain  and  potato  flour,  and  also  from 
a  species  of  buckwheat.  The  Odenwalders  are  a  good  deal  shut  off 
from  intercourse  with  the  outside  world,  and  consequently  a  good  many 
old  habits  and  customs  are  to  be  met  with  among  them,  but  they  are 
not  altogether  removed  from  the  influences  of  modern  culture.  The 
land  is  mountainous  and  not  very  productive,  and  what  is  produced  is 
only  obtained  with  great  labor.  Their  products  they  frequently  carry 
on  their  backs  to  the  nearest  town,  hours  distant  from  their  fields. 
Nevertheless,  they  are  often  well  to  do,  and  are  not  to  be  reckoned  as  be- 
longing to  the  poorest  portions  of  Germany.  In  that  i)art  of  Hesse, 
known  as  Spessart,  in  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  duchy,  the  people  are 
a  great  deal  worse  off,  and  live  in  miserable,  unhealthy,  and  overcrowded 
houses.  There  is  not  poverty  and  misery  to  be  seen  there  only,  but 
famine  even.  The  old  houses  in  the  Odenwald  villages  are  low  and 
dark,  and  in  winter,  when  shut  up  and  much  heated,  very  unhealthy. 
Frequently  the  cattle  stables  are  kept  cleaner  than  the  rooms  in  which 
human  beings  dwell.  The  Odenwald  is  largely  forest  land.  Northeast 
of  Frankfort  lies  a  district  of  mountainous  country  known  as  the  Vogels- 
berg.  There  dwelling,  barn,  and  stable  will  usually  be  found  to  be  all 
under  one  roof,  with  no  back  building,  for  all  of  which  one  entrance 
suffices.  On  one  side  will  be  a  door  opening  into  the  dwelling  room, 
while  on  the  other  side  will  be  one  conducting  the  visitor  to  the  cattle  stall. 


430  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

This  Vogelsberjj  the  people  in  the  valley  of  the  Uhine  look  upon  as  be- 
ing the  Siberia  of  Besse,  being-  shrouded  in  winter  three-fourths  of  the 
year  and  cold  the  other  fourth.  The  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits  and  at  cattle-raising.  In  summer  many  of  them  go  to  more 
fertile  regions,  where  they  hire  themselves  as  tield-hamls.  They  are 
said  to  be  good  workers  and  pretty  hardy,  and  to  be  very  unfriendly  to- 
wards new  ideas  and  things.  In  winter  they  busy  themselves  spinning 
and  working  in  wood.  "Wo  Hessen  und  Hollander  verderben,"  runs 
an  old  German  saying,  "  kann  Niemaud  Nahrung  erwerben,"  which 
reads,  as  near  as  I  can  render  it  into  English,  that 

The  mau  is  not  to  be  found  who  can  thrive 

^yhe^e  the  Hessians  and  Dutchmen  can't  keep  alive. 

But  I  must  confess  that  I  cannot  see  the  applicability  of  it  in  the  case 
of  either  Hessian  or  Dutchman.  The  manner  of  living  among  the 
Vogelsbergers  is  extremely  simple,  milk  and  eggs  taking  the  place, 
even  among  the  well  to  do,  of  flesh.  Sauerkraut  and  potatoes,  or  mil- 
let-pap, with  dried  meat,  are  Sunday  food  in  winter.  The  butter  that 
is  made  is  almost  all  sold,  and  the  peasant  women,  it  is  said,  out  of 
what  they  make  meet  the  household  expenses  and  pay  the  taxes. 
Rhine-Hesse  is  very  fertile,  and  a  fine  vineland,  and  its  inhabitants,  con- 
sequently, are  pretty  well  to  do.  There  is  little  cattle-raising  done  and 
hardly  any  sheep-raising,  from  lack  of  pasturage.  In  its  factories  it 
employs  a  great  many  hands. 

FEELING   BETWEEN   EMPLOYERS   AND   EMPLOYifiS. 

To  the  question  put  by  me  to  a  man  of  position  in  a  very  large  estab- 
lishment, "  What  relation  subsists  between  employers  and  employes," 
came  the  reply,  "  You  just  say  that  they  are  the  most  desperate  ene- 
mies." Said  another,  a  manufacturer,  "  Employers  and  employes  treat 
one  another  as  beings  of  another  race  or  type,  and  the  want  of  a  cor- 
dial feeling  in  Germany  between  employers  and  employes  is  the  bane  of 
all  industry  here."  The  trouble  in  Germany,  as  well  as  elsewhere  la 
the  world,  is  that  men  are  not  just  to  one  another.  The  employer  seems 
to  look  upon  his  emploj6  as  a  piece  of  machinery,  out  of  which  as 
much  as  possible  for  as  little  as  possible  is  to  be  got,  while,  on  the  other 
hand  the  employe  looks  upon  his  i)rincipal  as  an  oppressor  and  extorter, 
to  whom  as  little  as  possible  should  be  rendered,  instead  of  each  cordi- 
ally respecting  the  other  and  working  for  the  welfare  of  that  other. 
While  upon  this  point,  the  United  States  cannot  l)e  held  up  as  a  model 
country,  where  absolute  justice  reigns  among  men,  still  the  i-elations 
between  employers  and  employes  are,  I  think,  on  a  more  satisfactory 
basis  there  than  here,  with  a  great  deal  more  of  equality  and  re(;iprocal 
interest  prevailing  between  them. 

Germany  just  now  is  entirely  too  materialistic,  and  materialism  is 
undoubtedly  cold  and  selfish.  To-daj',  it  seems  to  me,  there  are  two 
great  factors  determining  the  national  life  of  Germany,  by  one  or  the 
other  of  which  nearly  every  man  is  swayed — materialism  and  socialism, 
both  of  which  are  closely  related  to  each  other,  ami  both  of  which  at 
their  fiood-tide  are  death-dealing  and  destructive  of  a  true  order  of  so- 
ciety. So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  the  men  of  culture  and 
means  are,  as  a  class,  materialistic,  while  the  less  instructed  and  poor 
are  socialistic.  The  latter  is  but  the  reflected  shadow  of  the  former,  for 
a  selfish  materialism  on  the  i)art  of  the  well  to  do  cannot  fail  to  beget  a 
threatening  socialism  on  the  part  of  the  poor.  Here  rests  the  life  and 
thought  of  Germany,  whose  i)hilosophers  have  weaved  a  spider's  web, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  431 

in  wliicli  the  peo])!©  have  become  entaugled.  In  the  United  States, 
while  matters  in  this  respect  are  not  all  that  one  could  well  wish  them 
to  be,  still  there  is  a  constant  ferment  goinj>-  on,  and  men  and  women 
are  busy  in  a  multitude  of  different  ways  trying-  to  reach  and  elevate 
the  nnfortunate  and  misguided  and  bring  about  a  truer  and  more  fra- 
ternal feeling  between  man  and  man  ;  but  this  species  of  life,  1  regret 
very  much  to  say,  seems  to  exist  to  but  a  very  slight  extent  here.  For 
military  and  scholastic  purposes  Germany  is  doing  wondrous  things, 
but  to  the  heart-life  of  the  people,  to  all  that  which  makes  a  man  really 
a  man,  little  attention  seems  to  be  paid.  If  to  be  a  tradesman  is  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  social  outlaw,  what  must  be  the  status  of  the  working- 
man  ?  It  may  be  that  I  am  wrong  on  this  point,  aud  I  trust  that  I  am, 
but  so  Germany  appears  to  my  eyes. 

ORaANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

Labor  is  restless  and  threatening,  but  not  well  organized.  The  Gov- 
ernment, too,  is  somewhat  afraid  of  workingmen's  clubs.  Among  masters 
manj'  organizations  exist,  but  very  few  among  the  real  workingmen. 
So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  trades  unions  among  men  who 
work  by  the  day,  such  as  exist  among  masons,  brick-hiyers,  «&c.,  in  the 
United  States,  where  the  uumber  of  apprentices,  &c.,  are  dictated  to  em- 
ployers, are  unknown  here,  aud  would  not  be  tolerated.  The  working- 
men  of  Germany  have  not  yet  learned  the  principle  of  demanding  aud 
receiving.  Chambers  of  commerce  are  the  chief  organizations  by  which 
manufacturers  and  merchants  are  banded  together.  Other  organiza- 
tions also  exist  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  one  another  posted  in  regard 
to  what  is  going  on,  for  fixing  rates  of  wages,  and  for  mutual  protection 
against  strikes.  They  simply  pledge  themselves  not  to  employ  within 
a  specified  time,  two  years  being  commonly  designated,  any  working- 
man  whom  one  of  their  uumber  has  discharged  for  good  cause,  or  who 
has  struck  work,  and  attach  penalties  to  violations  of  this  engagement. 

PREVALENCY   OF   STRIKES.     , 

Strikes  are  usually  sparadic,  aud  not  general.  Formerly,  I  am  told, 
they  occurred  more  freq  uently  than  now.  They  are  not  much  undertaken, 
because  they  are  generally  unsuccessful,  and  besides  the  workingman 
is  compelled  by  law  to  give  his  employer  fourteen  days'  uotice  of  an 
intention  to  quit  work,  while  the  employer,  on  the  other  hand,  must  give 
his  employe  a  like  fourteen  days'  notice  before  he  can  discharge  him. 
This  provision  of  law  can,  of  course,  be  qualified  by  written  conti^acts, 
and  does  not  apply  to  cases  of  serious  misbehavior.  The  Government 
does  not  oppose  individual  striking,  but  the  workingmen  are  not  allowed 
to  band  together  for  the  purpose  of  iutluenciug  one  another  in  such  a 
matter  by  pressure  or  force.  The  necessity  of  fourteen  days'  notice  and 
the  plan  adopted  among  employers  of  agreeing  not  to  employ  any  man 
who  has  struck,  discourage  strikes. 

Differences  between  employers  and  employes  are  settled  b^-  particular 
officials,  when  any  such  have  been  especially  designated  by  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  purpose.  When  there  are  none  such,  then  by  the  communal 
authorities.  Appeals,  however,  can  be  taken,  and  the  matter  in  dispute 
laid  before  the  courts.  Courts  of  arbitration  can  also  be  erected,  in 
which  employers  and  employes  shall  be  equally  represented. 

FREEDOM  OF   PURCHASE. 

The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wher- 
ever they  please,  and  employers  are  prohibited  from  imposing  any  restric- 


432  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tions  in  this  regard.  The  law  obliges  enii)loyers  to  pay  their  men  in  the 
currency  (»f  the  En]])ire,  and  does  not  allow  them  to  c're<lit  their  men  with 
all  sorts  of  goods,  but  i)ermits  them  to  sn))i»ly  necessaries  of  life,  and  to 
charge  the  same  against  the  men  if  fnrnished  at  cost  prices ;  and  dwell- 
ing-places, board,  fuel,  medicines,  and  medical  attendance  as  well  as 
tools  and  materials,  can  also  be  afforded,  but  further  than  this  are  all 
engagements  and  contracts  void  at  law. 

Wages  are  usually  paid  weekly  in  imperial  money,  as  said  above. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

Concerning  co-oi)erative  societies  I  have  simply  to  remark  that  they 
have  proved  a  dead  failure  in  this  region. 

GENERAL    CONDITION    OF   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

This  question  I  have  felt  compelled  to  treat  of  under  other  heads, 
where  similar  inquiries  have  been  made. 

PROTECTION    IN   MATTER   OF   ACCIDENTS,   ETC. 

In  all  establishments  where  labor  is  performed  all  arrangements  nec- 
essary to  the  health  of  the  workers  and  their  preservation  from  accident 
must  be  made,  and  for  the  pu' pose  of  more  effectually  carrying  into 
effect  the  provisions  of  law  on  this  subject  there  are  a  class  of  olficials 
throughout  the  Empire,  known  as  f;ictory  inspectors,  whose  sole  business 
it  is  to  visit  all  factories,  and  once  a  year  make  a  report  to  the  General 
Government,  which  is  published,  of  the  manner  in  which  the  same  are 
conducted.  It  is  their  duty  to  report  the  number  of  factories  and  their 
increase  or  decrease,  character  of  the  same,  circumstances  under  which 
they  are  worked,  number  of  employes,  sex,  age,  state  of  industry  in 
general  and  economical  condition  of  workingmen,  their  progress  or 
retrogression  in  compari.sou  with  preceding  years,  activity  of  the  police 
ofticials  in  performing  their  duties  with  respect  to  factories,  relation  of 
the  same  to  the  local  otilicials,  to  employers,  and  to  workingmen,  giv- 
ing special  attention  to  youthful  laborers  and  to  the  emplojment  of 
women  in  factories.  The  number  of  children  and  young  people  em- 
ployed must  be  stated,  their  distribution  among  the  various  branches 
of  industry,  increase  or  decrease  of  the  number  at  labor,  character 
of  the  work  ui)on  which  they  are  engaged,  to  what  extent  they  work  in 
conjunction  with  adults,  character  of  the  rooms  in  which  they  i)ass  their 
resting  pauses,  the  kinds  of  factory  schools  for  children,  influence  cf 
labor  upon  the  physical  development  and  morals  of  young  persons  of 
both  sexe.s,  aid  expressions  of  tlie  views  and  wishes  of  employers  and 
parents  of  youthful  laborers  are  to  be  given.  The  nund)er  of  cases  of 
accident  are  to  be  reported,  and  how  each  occurred  and  what  result  it 
had,  whether  death  or  disability  ensued;  also  to  what  extent  laborers 
are  i)rotected  from  danger.  They  are  also  to  make,  as  far  as  possible, 
a  statement  of  all  cases  of  illness  occurring  among  workingnu^n  from 
factory  intinen(;es  unfavorable  to  health,  mentioning  whether  the  labor 
is  too  trying,  whether  the  light  is  bad,  whether  the  air  is  too  hot,  too 
dry,  or  too  dusty,  whether  poisonous  materials  or  articles  are  used,  »&c. 
Where  defects  exist  in  the  arrangement  or  administration  of  factories 
they  are  to  be  reported  and  measures  taken  to  remove  them,  and  a  full 
description  is  to  be  nnide  of  all  model  establishments,  that  they  may 
be  patterned  after.     They  must  also  set  forth  how  the  workingmau  is 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  433 

nourished  sit  home  and  in  the  factoiy,  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of 
life,  the  wages  received,  the  character  of  the  habitations  in  which  the 
workingmen  dwell,  and,  in  fact,  treat  of  every  subject  which,  in  the 
slightest  degree,  can  interest  or  affect  the  workingman.  They  are  em- 
powered, too,  whenever  anything  is  discovered  to  be  going  on  contrary 
to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  Empire  regarding  workingmen  to  take 
steps  to  have  it  remedied.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  I  doubt 
not  that  many  abuses  exist.*  The  inspectors,  also,  are  too  limited  in 
number  to  make  thorough  inspections,  for,  in  some  cases,  they  must 
visit  on  an  average  three  factories  a  day  in  order  to  make  the  round  of 
their  district.  There  are  forty-six  of  them  for  the  whole  realm.  Their 
annual  report  forms  a  volume  of  about  1,000  pages,  but  is  largely  an 
enumeration  of  cases  of  accidents  and  their  results,  which  are  very 
minutely  set  forth.  As  an  aid  to  me  in  preparing  this  report,  I  ob- 
tained and  looked  through  the  report  last  published,  which  is  for  1882, 
but  I  gleaned  very  little  therefrom,  although  much  interesting  material 
is  contained  in  it. 

Employers  are  liable  for  accidents  among  their  workingmen,  unless 
it  can  be  shown  that  due  provision  had  been  made  for  the  protection  of 
laborers,  and  that  they  had  been  fully  apprised  thereof.  In  this  respect 
a  pai)er  signed  by  the  workingman  before  the  accident  setting  forth 
that  he  had  been  informed  of  and  provided  with  the  necessary  means 
of  protection  against  an  accident,  is,  I  believe,  the  only  complete  bar  to 
a  claim. 

In  consequence  of  the  socialistic  agitation  more  attention  is  probably 
paid  to  the  workingman  and  his  claims  than  would  otherwise  be  the 
case,  and  various  measures  for  the  protection  and  relief  of  the  laboring 
classes  are  being  devised,  with  a  view  to  quieting  somewhat  the  rest- 
lessness which  prevails  among  them.  The  legislation  of  the  past  few 
years  has  been  very  much  in  their  favor,  notwithstanding  the  socialistic 
law,  and  the  Government  is  undoubtedly  earnestly  endeavoring  to 
improve  their  condition,  but,  while  doing  so,  is  seeking,  I  think,  to  be 
a  little  too  paternal,  and  to  make  of  the  workingman  a  very  depend- 
ent subject,  but,  perhaps  this  is  precisely  what  the  German  charac- 
ter requires.  During  the  present  year  the  Reichstag  has  accordingly 
ado])ted  the  second  of  a  series  of  experimental  laws  aflecting  the  eco- 
nomical condition  of  the  workingman,  which  the  opponents  of  these  acts 
look  upon  as  another  giant  stride  of  the  Government  in  the  direction  of  a 
communistic  state.  This  is  the  accidents  insurance  bill.  Previously, 
on  the  15th  of  June,  1883,  an  act,  part  of  which  went  into  operation  on 
the  1st  of  December  last  and  the  remainder  of  which  will  take  effect 
upon  the  1st  of  December  next,  was  passed  by  the  Reichstag,  providing 
a  compulsory  system  of  insurance  of  the  workingmen  in  the  matter  of 
sickness,  by  which  a  certain  measure  of  income  during  limited  periods 
of  illness  becomes  assured  to  them.  Both  must  prove  to  be,  in  sub- 
stance, beneficent  measures,  but  they  are  based  upon  a  principle  which 
is  in  serious  conflict  with  the  principles  of  individual  liberty  recognized 
in  the  United  States. 

By  the  first  of  these  two  enactments,  the  act  of  June  15,  1883,  nearly 
all  the  laboring  men  of  the  Empire  are  compelled  to  contribute,  at  stated 
periods,  insignificant  sums  to  common  funds,. termed  kasses,  to  which 
their  employers  also  are  obliged  to  add  a  certain  percentage.  Thereby 
they  become  so  situated  that  when  ill  for  any  period  of  time  not  extend- 
ing beyond  thirteen  weeks  they  will  receive  j^roper  medical  treatment, 

*  The  laws  of  all  states  read  well,  but  they  are  oftentimes  more  honored  in  the 
breach  than  in  the  observance. 

92  A— LAB 28 


434  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

medicines,  and  api)liauces,  and  also  daily  a  sum  sufticient  in  amount  to 
keep  them  and  tlieir  families  from  absolute  want.  Tbe  law,  however, 
afl'ects  chierty  those  persons  who  are  permanently  employed  in  masses, 
and  does  not  exert  a  compulsory  power  over  those  who  are  engaged  in 
independent  work,  except  in  certain  instances,  who,  nevertheless,  are 
not  excluded  from  a  participation  in  its  benefits,  but  are  at  full  liberty, 
and  invited,  to  join  the  kasses  created.  These  kasses  are  designated 
as  communal,  place,  factory,  Jauilding,  guild,  miners',  and  aid  Kasses,  and 
to  them  must  belong  all  factory  operatives,  all  miners,  all  workers 
in  salt-pits,  bogs,  ditches,  quarries,  forges,  furnaces,  on  railroads  or 
steamship  lines  within  the  Empire,  on  wharves  or  dock,  upon  canals, 
roadways,  water-courses,  dikes,  buildings,  and  all  enterprises  of  the  kind, 
at  hand-work  or  other  industrial  employments,  and  in  works  where 
steam-boilers  or  anj'  kind  of  wind,  water,  steam,  gas,  hot-air,  &c.,  is 
used  to  drive  machinery — so  far  as  such  machinery  is  not  absolutely 
temporarily  employed  and  does  not  belong  to  an  industrial  establish- 
ment— that  is,  when  paid  salaries  or  wages,  or  when  employed  for  a 
longer  period  than  one  week.  The  communes  are  also  authorized  to 
extend  the  provisions  of  the  act  to  i)ersons  employed  upon  farms  or  in 
forests,  to  any  i)erson  carrying  on  independently  a  trade  or  craft  who 
does  work  on  account  of  another,  to  persons  who  are  employed  by  a 
principal  outside  of  an  industrial  establishment,  to  all  persons  em- 
ployed in  transportation  businesses,  to  mercantile  employes  and  appren- 
tices, and  to  employes  and  apprentices  in  apothecaries,  thus  bringing 
almost  every  em  ploy  6  within  the  scope  of  the  act.  To  officials  in  the 
service  of  the  Empire,  or  of  a  state  of  the  Empire,  or  of  a  commune,  who 
are  paid  fixed  salaries,  the  act  does  not  apply,  and  also  to  persons  who 
in  case  of  illness  would  be  cared  for  by  their  employers  for  the  space  of 
thirteen  weeks,  or  who,  during  this  period,  would  get  uninterruptedly 
the  whole  of  their  salary  or  wages. 

The  most  general  kind  of  kasses  are  the  communal  kasses.  To  these 
kasses  ajjpertain  all  persons  who  are  under  the  obligation  to  be  in- 
sured, and  yet  do  not  belong  to  one  of  the  other  kasses.  They  are 
erected  and  managed  by  the  communes  free  of  charge,  and  it  is  incum- 
bent upon  each  commune  to  provide  one  in  the  interest  of  the  work- 
iugmeu  within  its  jurisdiction,  but  several  communes  can  unite  together 
and  make  the  insurance  a  matter  of  common  concern,  or  can  be  com- 
pelled to  do  so,  wlien  such  a  union  is  considered  necessary  and  advan- 
tageous. Membership  is  effected  by  the  person  to  be  insured  informing 
the  communal  authorities  in  writing,  or  by  word  of  mouth,  that  he 
attaches  himself  thereto,  but  no  claim  to  support  is  acquired  if  at  the 
time  of  this  act  he  was  in  a  sick  condition.  The  support  granted  is 
free  medical  attendance,  medicines,  and  all  other  necessary  appliances, 
and  from  and  after  the  third  day  from  the  commencement  of  the  illness  for 
each  day  that  the  diseased  person  remains  ill  during  a  period  of  not 
more  than  thirteen  weeks  a  sum  of  numey  equal  to  one-half  of  the 
customary  wages  of  an  ordinary  laborer.  When  the  disease  is  brought 
about  by  debauchery,  intemperance,  rowdyism,  &c.,  this  money  is  not 
at  all  or  only  in  part  to  be  paid.  Persons  who  do  not  lie  under  any 
obligation  to  liecome  members  of  this  kasse,  but  voluntarily  do  so,  are 
not  entitled  to  aid  until  they  have  been  six  weeks  members.  The  aid 
payments  are  made  weekly.  In  place,  however,  of  this  aid  the  invalids 
can  be  placed  in  a  hospital  and  there  cared  for,  if,  when  married,  or 
members  of  a  family,  the  illness  is  of  such  a  nature  that  they  cannot 
be  properly  ministered  unto  at  home;  and  those  who  have  no  family 
ties  must  in  all  cases  be  provided  for  in  the  hospitals.     Are  any  persons 


LABOE    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  435 

dependent  upon  such  an  invalid  for  support  they  receive,  so  long-  as 
the  latter  is  a  hospital  patient,  one-half  of  the  amount  of  money  which 
he  would  have  been  entitled  to  had  he  been  cared  for  bj^  his  own 
family,  pjach  member  of  this  species  of  kasse  pays  ordinarily  weekly 
as  dues  an  amount  not  exceeding  1^  per  cent,  of  the  customary  wages 
of  a  common  laborer  of  the  commune,  which,  however,  under  excep- 
tional circumstances,  may  be  set  at  2  per  cent.,  but  can  uever  go  beyond 
that  figure ;  and  the  employer  of  the  man  must  in  every  case  contribute 
a  sum  equal  to  one-third  of  the  laborer's  dues.  A  workiugmau  is  thus 
forced  to  put  weekly  into  a  common  treasury  au  insignificant  sum,  about 
2^  cents,  to  which  his  employer  adds  from  about  one-half  to  one  cent, 
and  in  return  enjoys  the  assurance  that  if  he  becomes  ill  at  any  time 
for  a  period  of  thft-teen  weeks  or  less  he  will  receive  from  the  fund  to 
which  he  has  contributed  about  20  or  25  cents  a  day ;  that  is,  in  the  case 
of  this  kasse,  which  is  for  the  most  ordinary  individuals.  Members  of 
the  other  kasses  are  much  better  situated.  Two  per  ceut.  is  levied  as 
dues  only  when  it  becomes  evident  that  li  per  cent,  will  uotcover  the  dis- 
bursements made.  When  the  receipts  amount  to  more  than  the  dis- 
bursements reserve  funds  are  to  be  built,  and  if,  when  that  is  done,  the 
receipts  permanently  continue  to  exceed  the  disbursements,  the  rate 
of  dues  is  to  be  lowered,  or  the  rate  of  aid  raised.  These  kasses  are 
all  to  be  administered  by  the  communal  authorities. 

PLACE   KASSES. 

When,  at  any  given  point,  there  are  at  least  one  hundred  persons  at 
band  for  the  purpose,  though  it  may  be  done  under  certain  circum- 
stances when  there  are  less,  the  communes  are  authorized  and  may  be 
compelled  to  create  place  kasses.  These  are  in  the  rule  for  workingmen 
who  are  engaged  in  a  certain  species  of  industry  at  any  particular 
place.  They  allow  au  aid  in  case  of  illness  for  a  period  which  can  be 
set  at  one  year,  of  an  amount  equal  to  as  much  as  three-fourths  of  the 
average  wages,  so  far  as  this  average  does  not  exceed  71  cents  a  day  of 
the  men  composing  them,  as  well  as  medical  attendance,  &c.,  and  a  like 
grant  to  women  for  a  i)eriod  of  three  weeks  after  confinement,  which 
can  be  extended  to  six,  and  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  member  an 
amount  to  his  next  of  kin  equal  to  forty  times  the  customary  wages 
of  a  day  laborer  of  the  place.  Free  medical  attendance,  &c.,  can  also 
be  accorded  to  wives  of  members  of  the  kasse,  and  these  wives  can  be 
made  entitled  to  receive  support  for  three  to  six  weeks  after  confine- 
ment, and  upon  the  death  of  the  wife  or  a  child  of  a  member,  burial 
money  can  be  granted.  But  these  kasses  cannot  be  extended  to  other 
species  of  disability  or  otherwise,  than  as  mentioned,  to  wives  and  or- 
phans. When  debauchery,  &c.,  has  caused  disease  the  right  to  assist- 
ance is  forfeited.  The  dues  of  the  members  are  to  be  governed  by  the 
character  and  degree  of  the  expenditures  to  be  made.  The  commune 
provides  a  constitution  and  by-laws  for  these  kasses,  which  must  re- 
ceive the  api)roval  of  higher  officials.  These  kasses  are  empowered  to 
acquire  privileges  and  make  contracts,  and  to  sue  and  be  sued.  When 
a  person  is  under  obligation  to  insure  he  becomes  a  member  of  this  species 
of  kasses,  by  going  to  work  in  the  branch  of  industry  for  which  it  is  pro- 
vided, from  the  moment  he  enters  upon  work,  if  not  already  a  member  of 
some  other  kasse,  and  when  no  obligation  to  insure  exists  by  a  verbal  or 
written  notice  from  the  party  interested  that  he  attaches  himself  to  the 
kasse.  The  former  are  entitled  to  assistance  from  the  day  of  acquisi- 
tion of  membership,  the  latter  not  until  six  weeks  have  expired.     Mem- 


436  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

bership,  in  the  case  of  obligatory  insurance,  is,  as  a  rule,  lost  when  a 
member  of  a  kasse  leaves  the  branch  of  business  for  which  it  was  organ- 
ized, and,  when  voluntarily  acquii-ed,  by  failing  twice  in  succession  to 
pay  accruing  dues.  INIembers  of  the  kasse  who  get  out  of  work  re- 
ceive, while  out  of  employment,  during  a  period  of  three  weeks  or  less, 
when  they  have  been  that  length  of  time  members,  aid  from  it.  Each 
kasse  is  required  to  have  a  reserve  fund,  to  which  one-tenth  of  the  con- 
tributions made  shall  be  devoted,  which  fund  is  to  be  collected  until  it 
becomes  equal  in  amount  to  the  average  annual  expenditures  of  the 
kasse. 

As  soon  as  a  place  kasse  has  been  formed  by  the  authorities  the 
members  thereof  hold  a  meeting,  with  a  representative  of  the  Govern- 
ment iusi)ectors  as  chairman,  and,  if  few  in  numbei*,  elect  direc^tly  a 
board  of  directors;  but  if  the  kasse  is  composed  of  five  hundred  or 
more  members  they  choose  a  general  committee,  who  in  turn  select  a 
board.  The  directors  represent  the  kasse  judicially  and  extra-judi- 
cially,  and  conduct  the  administration  thereof,  under  the  superintend- 
ence, of  course,  of  the  Government  inspectors,  and  so  far  as  the  manage- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  the  kasse  is  not  vested  by  statute  and  the  laws 
of  the  kasse  in  the  board  of  directors  the  consent  of  the  general 
committee  is  requisite  to  all  their  acts.  The  general  committee  has 
especially  the  right  to  have  the  annual  accounts  examined  by  a  special 
committee,  to  proceed  against  directors  in  all  causes  arising  from  bad 
management,  and  to  amend  the  laws  and  rules  of  the  kasse.  Employ- 
ers who  are  under  obligation  to  contribute  to  the  kasse  have  a  right  to 
be  represented  among  the  directors,  and  in  the  general  committee.  The 
degree  of  representation  is  governed  by  the  amounts  paid  into  the 
kasse  by  them,  but  they  are  not  entitled  to  more  than  a  one-third 
voice.  If  the  members  of  any  kasse,  or  their  representatives,  decline 
to  vote  for  directors,  or  for  a  general  committee,  the  Government 
inspectors  select  them.  The  funds  of  the  kasse  are  to  be  invested  in 
the  safest  securities,  and  deposited  in  the  most  reliable  banks.  The 
kasse  is  obliged  to  make  periodical  reports  to  the  Government  inspectors 
concerning  its  members,  cases  of  illness  and  death,  amounts  contributed 
and  disbursed,  &c.,  and  the  higher  Government  officials  have  the  privi- 
lege of  prescribing  the  manner  in  which  the  accounts  of  the  kasse  shall 
be  kept.  Directors,  as  well  as  accountants  and  treasurers,  hold  a  simi- 
lar relation  to  the  kasse  that  guardians  do  to  wards,  and  can,  in  like 
manner,  be  i)roceeded  against  for  all  misdemeanors. 

These  kasses,  in  places  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants,  are  super- 
vised by  the  communal  authorities  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
higher  officers  of  the  Government  or  by  officers  appointed  especially  for 
the  puri)ose  by  the  state.  These  men  see  that  all  legal  and  statutory 
provisions  are  complied  with,  examine  the  books  and  accounts  of  the 
kasse  and  revise  them,  and  can  cause  meetings  of  the  ofidcers  of  the 
kasse,  which  they  are  to  conduct.  They  can  also,  when  the  ofdcers  of 
the  kasse  do  not  fulfill  their  duties,  appoint  i)ersons  to  take  their  places. 
All  or  several  of  the  kasses  in  the  district  of  one  inspector  can,  by  com- 
mon consent,  form  a  union  and  have  a  common  accountant  and  treasurer, 
make  contracts  in  common  with  physicians,  ai)othecaries,  and  hospitals, 
and  create  and  conduct  together  establishments  for  the  care  and  heal- 
ing of  their  in\alid  members. 

A  kasse  ceases  wlien  the  number  of  members  sinks  permanently  to 
less  than  fifty  and  when  it  becomes  manifest  that  the  kasse  cannot  be 
maintained.  The  dissolution  is  effected  by  direction  of  the  higher  Gov- 
ernment officials,  but  can  be  opposed.    If  a  kasse  dissolves  its  member* 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  437 

are  to  be  turned  over  to  other  place  kasses  or  to  the  communal  kasse. 
The  assets  of  the  kasse  are  then  to  be  employed  in  satisfying-  its  debts 
and  whatever  claims  to  aid  that  may  have  arisen  previous  to  its  disso- 
lution. If  any  amount  remains  it  is  to  be  turned  over  to  that  place 
kasse  or  communal  kasse  to  which  the  members  of  the  dissolved  kasse 
may  be  adjoined.  They  can  also  be  dissolved  at  the  request  of  their 
general  committee. 

In  the  case  of  both  communal  and  place  kasses,  employers  are  re- 
quired to  inform  the  proper  authorities  of  the  employment  by  them  of 
any  person  upou  whom  the  obligation  to  insure  rests  within  three  days 
from  the  commencement  of  said  em])loyment,  and  also  of  the  termina- 
tion of  the  same.  They  are  also  required  to  deduct  from  the  wages  of 
their  employes  the  amounts  due  to  the  kasses,  and  must  contribute  to  the 
same  one-third  of  the  amount  levied  by  law  upon  their  employes. 

Controversies  between  insured  parties  or  their  employers  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  communal  or  place  kasses  on  the  other  are  to  be  decided 
by  the  Government  inspectors,  but  against  the  decisions  of  the  latter  ap- 
peals to  the  courts  can  be  made. 

FACTORY  KASSES. 

Any  manufacturer  who  employs  fifty  or  more  persons  who  are  obliged 
to  be  insured  is  entitled  to  establish  a  factory  kasse  in  their  behalf.  He 
can  even  be  compelled  to  do  so  when  the  commune  in  which  his  factory 
is  situated  or  the  invalid  kasse  to  which  his  men  belong  asks  it  of  the 
Government,  but  before  being  obliged  to  do  so  he  and  his  men  are  to  be 
heard  in  the  matter.  When  less  than  fifty  persons  are  employed  by 
any  one  manufacturer  a  kasse  can  be  erected,  first,  when  the  character 
of  work  is  especially  injurious  to  health,  in  which  case  the  proprietor  of 
the  factory  can  be  forced  to  set  up  a  kasse ;  and,  secondly,  when  the 
authorities  are  satisfied  that  the  kasse  will  be  self-sustaining.  If,  when 
called  upon  to  establish  a  kasse,  he  does  not  comply,  a  manufacturer 
can  be  compelled  to  pay  as  a  fine  to  a  communal  or  place  kasse  a  sum 
equal  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  wages  of  his  men. 

Membership  in  such  a  kasse  is  acquired  by  the  mere  act  of  working 
in  the  factory,  when  there  is  an  obligation  to  insure,  and  in  other  cases 
by  a  notification  from  the  party  interested  that  he  attaches  himself  to 
the  kasse.  It  is  lost  in  the  first  case  by  the  employment  permanently 
ceasing,  and  in  the  latter  by  a  failure  to  pay  dues. 

In  these  kasses  contributions  and  support,  instead  of  being  according 
to  the  average  wages  of  members,  can  be  based  uijon  the  amount  of 
wages  each  workman  receives,  so  far  as  these  wages  do  not  exceed  95 
cents  a  day. 

The  laws  of  the  kasse  are  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  manufacturer  or  his 
representative  and  submitted  to  the  persons  composing  the  same  for 
approval,  and  they  can  provide  that  the  chairmanships  of  the  board  of 
directors  and  of  the  general  committee  shall  be  held  by  the  manufact- 
urer or  his  representative ;  and  as  the  proprietor  of  the  factory  is  per- 
sonally responsible  for  the  funds  of  the  kasse,  the  right  to  designate  its 
accountant  and  treasurer  is  also  vested  in  him,  who  are  to  be  there  at 
his  expense. 

One  third  of  the  amount  paid  into  the  kasse  is  to  be  met  by  the 
manufacturer,  and  if  the  receipts  prove  not  to  be  sufficient  to  meet 
the  disbursements  he  must  make  up  the  deficiency  from  his  own  pocket. 

Disputes  between  employers  and  members  of  the  kasses  are  to  be  set- 
tled by  the  special  officials,  whose  duty  it  is  to  decide  all  questions  at 


438  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

issue  between  employers  and  employes,  and,  wliere  there  are  none  such, 
by  the  comninnal  authorities,  but  an  appeal  to  court  is  provided  for. 

If  the  factory  or  factories  for  which  a  kasse  has  been  established  be- 
comes temporarily  closed,  or  the  number  of  employes  so  limited  that  they 
become  less  in  nnniber  than  double  the  number  of  persons  required  to 
form  a  board  of  directors,  the  administration  of  the  same  can  be  as- 
sumed by  the  Government  inspectors,  who  are  to  appoint  a  representa- 
tive to  act  in  their  behalf,  and  in  such  a  case  all  the  funds,  books,  &c., 
of  the  kasse  are  to  be  surrendered  to  these  inspectors  ;  but  this  is  not 
to  take  place  if  the  industry  is  of  such  a  character  that  regular  period- 
ical cessations  of  work  or  limitations  of  the  number  of  workmen  occur. 
A  kasse  is  to  cease  to  exist  when  the  factory  or  factojies  for  which  it 
was  brought  into  being  become  closed  or  the  number  of  members  be- 
comes permanently  less  than  the  lowest  number  allowed  by  law,  or 
proves  incapable  of  fulfilling  the  objects  for  which  it  was  created  :  and, 
lastly,  when  the  head  of  the  establishment  whose  employes  compose  it 
neglects  to  have  the  kasse  and  its  affairs  properly  attended  to,  in  all  of 
which  cases  the  kasse's  membership  and  funds  are  to  be  turned  over  to 
a  place  or  communal  kasse. 

In  other  respects  the  provisions  of  law  relating  to  place  kasses  are  to 
be  observed. 

BUILDING  KASSES 

Are  for  individuals  employed  upon  railroads,  canals,  roadways,  water- 
courses, dikes,  fortifications,  and  other  like  works  in  course  of  construc- 
tion, when  a  comparatively  large  number  of  men  are  employed.  The 
parties  having  the  works  in  charge  can  be  forced  to  have  their  men  in- 
sured, and  if  they  do  not  will  be  compelled  to  meet  from  their  own  pock- 
ets all  expenses  attending  the  illness  or  death  of  their  employes.  The 
kasses  cease  when  the  particular  works  for  which  they  have  been  erected 
are  brought  to  an  end,  or  when  the  parties  having  the  work  in  charge 
neglect  to  have  the  kasses  properly  administered.  The  provisions  re- 
specting factory  kasses  apply  also  here. 

GUILD   KASSES. 

These  are  kasses  erected  by  trades  unions  in  behalf  of  their  ulembers, 
and,  while  allowed  more  latitude  and  a  greater  degree  of  self-govern- 
ment, are  subject  in  many  respects  to  the  provisions  affecting  place 
kasses. 

MINERS'   KASSES. 

These  are  for  miners,  and  are  similar  in  character  to  factory  kasses. 

AID  KASSES. 

By  these  are  meant  the  societies  voluntarily  organized  among  men  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  aid  to  one  another  and  their  families  in  cases 
of  illness  and  death.  These,  of  course,  enjoy  a  large  freedom  of  ad- 
ministration. 

Such  are,  as  above  set  forth,  the  leading  features  of  the  law  of  the 
Empire  making  provisions  for  rendering  assistance  to  workingmeu  when 
ill.  It  is  a  rather  length}'  statute,  being  made  up  of  eighty-eight  sec- 
tions. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  439 

INSURANCE   AGAINST  ACCIDENTS. 

The  act  providing-  relief  iu  the  case  of  accidents,  passed  by  the 
Reichstag  a  short  time  ago,  and  adopted  by  the  Bundesratli  a  few  days 
since,  is  even  longer  than  that  on  the  subject  of  invalid  insurance, 
having  one  hundred  and  eleven  sections,  but  may  be  briefly  described 
as  follows : 

All  persons  employed  iu  mines,  salt-pits,  in  establishments  for  sepa- 
rating ores,  quarries  and  excavations,  upon  wharves  and  in  lumber- 
yards, in  factories  and  foundries,  including  work  superintendents,  so 
far  as  the  salaries  of  the  latter  do  not  exceed  $47G  per  annum,  as  well 
as  all  workmen  and  work  superintendents  who  are  engaged  at  wall, 
room,  roof,  and  well  work,  and  in  stonecutting,  and  chimney-sweeps, 
wherever  a  liability  to  casualty  exists,  are  to  be  assured  a  certain  meas- 
ure of  relief  in  the  event  of  accidents,  and  an  imperial  insurance  office 
is  to  be  established  to  have  control  of  the  matter. 

The  object  of  the  law  is  to  afford  to  every  workingman  who  becomes 
injured  by  accident  while  in  the  performance  of  his  work,  except  in 
cases  where  the  injury  has  been  brought  about  by  the  willful  and  crim- 
inal act  of  the  victim,  whatever  medical  and  surgical  treatment  may 
be  necessary  from  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth*  week  from  the 
day  on  which  the  accident  occurred,  and  a  pecuniary  support  so  long 
as  the  disability  shall  continue,  amounting,  in  the  case  of  total  disability, 
when  his  average  wages  do  not  go  beyond  95  cents  a  day,  to  66|  per 
cent,  of  his  average  wages,  and  in  the  case  of  partial  disability,  so 
much  thereof  as  the  degree  of  inability  to  labor  may  call  for;  and  in 
the  case  of  death,  a  sum,  as  burial  expenses,  equal  to  twenty  times  the 
amount  of  his  wages  for  one  day,  which  sum  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than 
$7.14.  Be  a  widow  left  she  is  to  receive  until  her  decease  or  remarriage 
20  per  cent,  of  the  wages  her  husband  was  accustomed  to  earn,  and  each 
one  of  his  surviving  children,  up  to  its  fifteenth  year,  is  to  get  a  sum 
equal  to  15  per  cent,  of  these  wages,  which  is  to  be  20  per  cent,  when 
the  mother  is  dead  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  widow  no  claim  is  to  rest  if 
the  marriage  be  contracted  after  the  accident  occurred.  When  there 
are  parents  or  grandparents  left  whose  sole  support  the  deceased  was 
they  will  get  until  their  death  or  a  cessation  of  the  requirement  of 
assistance  an  amount  equal  to  20  per  cent,  of  his  wages. 

xTo  effect  the  object  of  the  law  all  emploj^ers  of  workingmen  engaged 
in  the  above-mentioned  industries  are  to  be  obliged  to  form  themselves 
into  relief  associations,  and  to  provide,  by  regular  contributions  to  com- 
mon funds,  the  relief  in  behalf  of  their  men  contemplated  by  statute. 
These  associations  may,  with  permission  of  the  Bundesrath,  be  volun- 
tarily as  well  as  compulsorily  organized,  but  an  association  will  not  be 
permitted  to  be  built  in  any  case  unless  it  appears  that  it  will  be  able 
to  meet  all  demands  made  upon  it. 

The  Empire  is  to  be  divided  into  associational  districts,  and  these 
again  subdivided  into  what  are  to  be  termed  sections,  all  under  the 
supervision  and  direction  of  an  imperial  insurance  office  at  Berlin,  and 
like  branches  of  industry  brought  together  as  much  as  possible.  The 
associations  and  sections  will  be  permitted  to  draft  their  own  constitu- 
tions and  regulate  their  own  affairs,  but  are  to  be  supervised  by  Govern- 
ment officials,  and  to  be  under  obligation  to  submit  all  matters  of  im- 
portance in  the  way  of  government  to  the  insurance  office  at  Berlin  for 

*  Until  the  expiration  of  the  thirteenth  week,  by  the  law  of  June  15,  1883,  the  in- 
valid kasses  provide  for  him,  bnt  if  not  a  member  of  any  one  of  them  the  duty  de- 
volves upon  his  employer. 


440  LABOR    IN    EUROPE— GERMANY. 

approval.  They  are  to  elect  their  own  officers  and  directors,  who  must 
be  members  of  the  associations  or  sections  for  which  they  are  chosen, 
and  persons  thus  selected  are  not  to  be  excused  from  service  except 
upon  such  grounds  as  lie  in  the  case  of  guardians  and  wards,  it  being 
provided  that  any  man  who  otherwise  declines  an  office  conferred  upon 
him  can,  as  a  penalty  therefor,  be  compelled  by  the  association  to  which 
he  belongs  to  pay  into  its  treasury  for  the  whole  period  he  would  have 
filled  such  oflice  double  dues. 

The  associations  are  to  create  what  shall  be  termed  "danger  classes," 
to  which  the  establishments  belonging  to  them  are  to  appertain;  the  de- 
gree of  liability  to  accidents  among  its  employes  determining  the  class 
of  danger  to  which  any  establishment  shall  be  attached,  and  to  fix  the 
scales  of  dues  to  be  paid  by  their  members ;  the  scales  and  all  subse- 
quent alterations  therein  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  imperial 
insurance  office.  At  the  end  of  the  first  two  years  after  their  adoption 
the  scales  are  all  to  be  revised  in  accordance  with  the  results  experienced 
during  this  period,  and  at  the  expiration  of  every  succeeding  five  years 
a  further  revision  is  to  take  place,  to  be  governed  by  the  number  of 
accidents  which  have  occurred  and  the  degree  of  relief  found  necessary 
to  be  furnished. 

Every  proprietor  of  an  industrial  establishment  is  to  belong,  by  virtue 
of  law,  to  that  association  which  has  been  erected  by  the  Government 
for  the  district  in  which  his  business  is  located,  or  for  that  branch  of  in- 
dustry in  which  he  is  interested. 

For  the  i)urpose  of  determining  disputed  questions  of  factor  damages 
which  may  arise  under  the  provisions  of  the  act,  courts  of  arbitration 
are  to  be  set  up,  in  which  the  workingmen  shall  have  a  representation 
equal  to  that  of  their  employers,  every  associatioual  district  or  section 
thereof  to  have  one  such  court.  Each  court  is  to  be  composed  of  a  pre- 
siding officer  and  four  associates,  with  nine  substitutes,  one  for  the  presi- 
dent of  the  court,  and  two  for  each  of  the  other  four  members  of  it. 
Of  the  five  persons  constituting  a  court,  the  chief  one  is  to  be  a  public 
official,  appointed  by  gov^ernmental  authorities,  and  of  the  other  four, 
two  are  to  be  selected  by  the  members  of  the  insurance  association  or  sec- 
tion for  which  the  court  has  been  established,  and  the  other  two  are  to 
be  chosen  through  the  workingmen's  place,  factory,  guild,  or  miners' 
kasses  of  the  district  over  which  the  court  is  to  have  jurisdiction,  when 
of  their  members  ten  are  employed  in  the  establishments  affected.  Sub- 
stitutes are  to  be  selected  in  the  same  way.  The  period  of  service  of 
the  four  associate  members  of  a  court  and  their  substitutes  is  setatfour 
years,  but  is  to  be  so  regulated  that  the  terms  of  one-half  of  them  shall 
exi)ire  every  two  years.  If  the  persons  elected  decline  to  serve,  or  an 
election  does  not  take  i)lace,  the  governmental  authorities  are  to  name 
the  individuals  who  are  to  forma  court,  from  among  employers  and  em- 
ployes. All  questions  before  these  courts  are  to  be  decided  by  majority 
votes,  and  they  are  only  to  transact  business  when  there  is  an  equal  rep- 
resentation of  employers  and  employes.  All  further  rules  and  regula- 
tions affecting  these  courts  and  proceedings  before  them  are  to  be  fixed 
by  imperial  decree,  with  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrath.  The  costs  of 
proceedings  before  them  are  to  be  borne  by  the  insurance  associations. 
Against  the  decisions  of  the  courts  a  final  recourse  to  the  imperial  in- 
surance office  is  permitted  in  certain  cases. 

Whenever  an  accident  occurs  in  any  establishment  by  which  an  em- 
ploy(3  becomes  disabled  for  a  longer  period  than  three  days,  or  is  killed, 
the  proprietor  thereof,  or  his  manager,  must  inform  the  police  of  the 
catastrophe  by  a  written  communication  within  two  days  after  he  be- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY.  441 

comes  aware  of  the  same.  If  death  or  a  disability  of  more  than  thirteen 
weeks'  dnration  is  the  result  of  the  accident,  the  police  are  to  make  an 
inquiry  into  the  circumstances  attending  the  matter,  at)d  to  establish 
the  cause  aud  character  of  the  accident,  the  uames  of  those  killed  or  in- 
jured, the  character  of  the  injuries  received,  and  the  names  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  victims'  families  and  of  those  dependent  upon  them.  In  this 
exami)nition  can  take  part  the  employer,  or  his  representative,  of  those 
hurt,  a  representative  of  the  association  to  which  the  establishment  is 
adjoined,  and  a  representative  of  the  invalid  kasse  to  which  the  injured 
parties  belong;  and  in  all  cases  notification  that  an  examination  is  to  be 
held  must  be  given  to  these  parties.  As  far  as  possible  those  who  were 
witnesses  of  the  accident  and  experts  are  also  to  be  called.  A  report 
is  to  be  made  of  the  facts  disclosed  by  the  investigation,  which  the  par- 
ties interested  are  to  be  allowed  to  read,  and  to  have  copies  of,  if  de- 
sired. The  association  concerned  is  then  to  make  the  provisions  of 
relief  called  for  by  the  statute,  which,  if  not  satisfactory  to  the  party 
or  parties  interested,  are  to  be  complained  of  to  the  insurance  office  at 
Berlin,  by  which  the  subject  will  be  laid  before  the  proper  court  of  arbi- 
tration for  consideration  and  settlement. 

For  the  purpose  of  protecting  themselves  against  the  occurrence  of 
accidents,  the  insurance  associations  are  emjjowered  to  watch  the  estab- 
lishments belonging  to  them,  and  to  insist  upon  the  adoption  and  main- 
tenance of  arrangements  for  the  avoidance  of  accidents,  but  whatever 
rules  of  action  may  be  agreed  upon  in  this  direction  must  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  imperial  insurance  office. 

The  imperial  insurance  office,  which  is  to  be  located  at  Berlin,  is  to  con- 
sist of  a  president  and  two  permanent  members,  the  three  to  be  appointed 
for  life  by  the  Emperor,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Bundesrath,  and 
of  eight  other  members,  for  each  of  whom  there  are  to  be  two  substi- 
tutes in  the  case  of  those  selected  by  the  employers  and  employes. 
Their  term  of  office  is  to  be  four  years,  and  of  the  eight,  four  are  to  be 
designated  by  the  members  of  the  Bundesrath  from  among  their  num- 
ber, two  by  the  insurance  associations  and  two  by  the  workingmen. 
The  other  officers  the  chancellor  of  the  Empire  is  to  name.  This  oiffce 
is  to  have  a  superintendence  over  all  the  insurance  associations,  and  to 
see  that  the  provisions  of  law  respecting  them  are  properly  observed, 
and  it  is  empowered  to  cause  examinations  to  be  made  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  associations  conduct  their  affairs,  whose .  books  and  rec- 
ords may  be  demanded  at  anytime  for  inspection.  All  questions  of 
controversy  which  arise  in  the  associations  regarding  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  officers  thereof,  the  construction  of  their  statutes,  and  the 
legality  of  elections  are  to  be  decided  by  the  insurance  office.  When 
certain  questions  are  under  consideration,  such  as  the  following,  the  in- 
surance office  is  to  be  competent  to  transact  business  only  when  at  least 
five  of  its  members,  including  the  president,  are  present,  among  whom 
the  employers  and  workingmen  must  have  at  least  one  representative 
each,  viz:  (1)  When  it  is  to  be  determined  whether  an  industrial  estab- 
lishment is  to  be  classed  among  those  in  which  a  liability  to  accident 
exists,  and  therefore  obliged  to  have  its  men  insured ;  when  approvals 
of  organic  changes  in  associations  are  to  be  made  or  refused  ;  when  the 
propriety  of  dissolving  any  association  is  to  be  considered  ;  and  when 
the  erection  of.  courts  of  arbitration  is  to  be  resolved  upon  ;  (2)  when 
decisions  affecting  controversies  regarding  the  property  rights  of  asso- 
ciations whose  organic  form  has  been  changed  are  to  be  made;  (3) 
when  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  courts  of  arbitration  are  to  be  con- 
sidered; (4)  in  the  case  of  consideration  of  regulations  respecting  the 


442  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

avoidance  of  accidents,  and  (5)  in  the  case  of  decisions  upon  complaints 
concerning  penalties  imposed  by  the  directors  of  associations.  In  other 
respects,  the  Emperor,  with  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrath,  is  to  pre- 
scribe the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  office. 

The  various  independent  states  composing  the  German  Empire  are  also 
authorized  to  establish  insurance  oflices  for  the  superintendence  of  the 
associations  within  their  limits,  to  which  the  rights  and  powers  apper- 
taining to  the  imperial  insurance  office  are  to  be  largely  transferred. 
These  insurance  officers  are  to  consist  of  three  life  members  and  four 
others,  with  substitutes,  chosen  for  periods  of  four  years,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  in  which  those  of  the  imperial  office  are  selected. 

These  are  the  main  features  of  the  act,  but  there  are  many  other  minor 
points  which  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  mention. 

Now  that  the  two  foregoing  measures  have  become  laws,  the  Govern- 
ment at  Berlin,  it  is  said,  has  begun  the  preparation  of  a  bill  for  the 
relief  of  workingmen  and  their  families  against  the  consequences  of  old 
age  and  of  permanent  disabilities  due  to  other  causes  than  accidents, 
by  pensions. 

While  upon  this  subject  of  insurance  it  may  also  not  be  out  of  place 
to  remark  that  the  German  Government  is  charged  with  entertaining 
the  idea  of  taking  the  entire  fire  and  life  insurance  business  into  its  own 
hands,  and  compelling  everyone  to  pay  insurance  tax,  on  both  property 
and  life  to  the  state  instead  of  to  private  corporations. 

CONSIDERATION  OF  MORAL  AND  PHYSICAL  WELL-BEING  OF  EMPLOYES 

BY  EMPLOYERS. 

So  far  as  1  can  see,  there  is  no  deep  interest  taken  by  employers  in 
the  moral  and  physical  well-being  of  their  men.  Some  few  establish- 
ments provide  dwelling-places  and  sleeping-halls  for  their  men,  and 
furnish  them  with  soup  during  the  day  and  warm  food  at  noon,  at  cost 
prices,  but  I  doubt  not  that  so  far  as  my  district  is  concerned  they  can 
be  almost  counted  on  my  fingers.  In  all  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  there  is, 
I  believe,  but  one  factory  which  has  a  kindergarten  for  the  children  of 
its  employes,  some  fifty  of  which  are  taught  at  the  expense  of  the  owner 
thereof.  In  several  there  are  bathing-places  for  the  use  of  the  working- 
men.  Most  of  the  large  factories  have  savings-banks,  but  the  contribu- 
tions are,  I  understand,  very  meager  in  amount.  To  such  a  bank  in  a 
factory  in  this  neighborhood,  which  employs  about  a  thousand  hands, 
the  aggregate  amount  contributed  weekly  from  among  the  whole  thou- 
sand is  only  $7  to  $9.50,  I  am  told.  The  proprietors  of  this  establish- 
ment receive  all  sums,  from  4i  cents  to  $2.38  weekly,  which  their  work- 
ingmen may  desire  to  place  with  them,  and  guarantee  upon  all  amounts 
not  exceeding  $9.50  deposited  interest  at  the  rate  of  (>  per  cent,  per 
annum,  and  upon  all  amounts  over  this  sum  and  less  than  $119,  interest 
at  5  per  cent.  Deposits  are  made  by  the  emi)loyes  directing  their  dis- 
bursing clerk  to  i)ut  each  week  a  certain  amount  of  their  wages  into  the 
bank,  which  deposits  are  noted  at  the  end  of  each  month  in  a  book  which 
they  hold.  To  withdraw  the  whole  or  any  i)art  of  an  investment  four- 
teen days'  notice  must  be  given.     The  money  thus  received  ]Messrs. 

invest  in  the  most  solid  securities  in  behalf  of  their  men,  and 

if  the  rate  of  interest  promised  is  not  thus  obtained  the  difference  is 

made  up  by  the  Messrs. out  of  their  own  ])ockets  as  a  present  to 

the  bank.  These  gentlemen  also  foster  among  their  men  an  invalid  and 
burial  association,  whose  provisions  are  as  follows : 

All  persons  employed  by  them  become,  immediately  on  their  entrance 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  443 

upon  work,  members  of  this  union,  and  the  moment  a  person  ceases  to  be 
connected  with  the  factory  this  membership  in  the  union  also  expires,  and 
he  is  notentitled  to  receive  back  the  amount  he  may  have  paid  into  the 
union.  Into  the  treasury  of  the  union  each  man  whose  wages  do  not  ex- 
dcee  33  cents  a  day  pays  2i  cents  weekly  ;  those  who  make  more  than 
that  amount  5  cents.  He  thus,  when  he  has  been  three  months  a  member 
of  the  union,  acquires  a  claim  to  be  supported  by  the  society  when  his 
inability  to  work  is  established  by  his  physician  and  two  of  the  direct- 
ors of  tiie  union,  except  in  cases  where  his  disability  is  the  result  of  de- 
bauchery, drunkenness,  or  rowdyism  ;  and  any  member  who,  while  ab- 
sent from  work  and  a  subject  of  support,  is  seen  in  a  restaurant,  with 
the  exception  of  those  who,  while  on  the  way  to  visit  their  physicians, 
stop  to  drink  a  little  something  to  strengthen  them,  immediately  thereby 
forfeits  his  right  to  tbe  same  ;  but  in  special  cases,  where,  for  instance 
an  injury  is  sustained  while  at  work,  the  directors  of  the  union  can 
grant  support,  even  if  the  workman  has  not  been  three  months  a  mem- 
ber thereof.  If  a  person  obtains  a  doctor's  certificate  through  decep- 
tion he  is  compelled  to  return  what  he  has  received  from  the  society  and 
for  a  year  thereafter  to  pay  double  dues.  The  amount  an  invalid  who 
earned  33  cents  a  day  receives  is  12  cents  per  day  for  three  months,  if 
not  a  member  of  one  year's  standing,  and  so  much  for  a  year  when  he 
has  been  a  member  more  than  one  year.  He  whose  wages  were  more 
than  33  cents  a  day  is  paid  23i  cents  for  each  day  of  disability.  When 
the  illness  is  of  more  than  a  year's  duration  the  society's  obligation  to 
aid  ceases.  By  paying  4i  cents  per  week,  however,  after  the  expiration 
of  this  period  he  secures  to  his  family  his  burial  expenses  in  case  of 
death.  When  a  member  of  the  union  dies  his  widow,  or  children,  or 
parents,  or  brothers  and  sisters  are  entitled  to  receive  from  the  funds 
thereof  $5.95  as  burial  expenses  and  $20.50  from  the  union  and  $5  from 

Messrs.  in  addition.     Messrs and  all  their  overseers  and 

and  superintendents  constitute  the  directors  of  this  association.  To 
expel  a  member,  to  increase  or  decrease  dues,  or  to  alter  the  reglilations 
of  the  association  the  consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  directors  and  of 

Messrs. is  necessary.     Upon  the  funds  of  the  association  interest 

at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum  is  allowed. 

They  have  also  a  pension  association  for  the  purpose  of  assuring  to 
every  man  employed  by  them  an  income  for  life.  All  male  laborers, 
without  any  exception,  by  virtue  of  their  employment,  are  members  of 
this  association,  and  the  moment  they  leave  the  factory  this  member- 
ship ceases,  and  they  are  not  entitled  to  the  return  of  what  they  may 
have  deposited.  All  members  who  are  less  than  twenty-five  years  old 
pay  IJ  cents  per  week  as  dues,  all  between  twenty-five  and  forty  pay  2 
cents,"and  all  more  than  forty  years  old  3  cents.  So  soon  as  a  member 
becomes  fifty  years  of  age  he  is  entitled  to  a  pension,  if  he  has  been  ten 
consecutive  years  a  member  and  is  declared  by  two  competent  physi- 
cians to  be  unable  to  work,  provided  the  incapacity  has  not  been  brought 
about  by  debauchery,  drunkenness,  or  rowdyism.  But  if  he  becomes 
able  to  work  again  the  pension  ceases.  If  he  becomes  injured  by  ma- 
chinery while  at  work  a  pension  can  be  accorded  to  him,  even  if  not  yet 
fifty  years  old,  but  this  is  to  be  granted  for  the  space  of  one  year  only. 
The  pension  is  $68  per  year,  paid  weekly  or  monthly,  which  can  neither 
be  attached  nor  transferred  to  third  parties.    The   directors  consist  of 

Messrs. ,  and  their  overseers  and  superintendents.     Five  per  cent. 

interest  is  to  be  paid  on  the  funds  collected.     The  union  can  only  be 

dissolved  bj^  the  suspension  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  .     Should  a 

dissolution  occur  all  those  drawing  pensions  at  the  time  will  have  the 


444  LABOR  IX  EUROPE GERMAXy. 

same  properly  secured  to  them,  and  whatever  sum  remains,  after  satis- 
faetiou  of  their  claims,  will  be  equitably  divided  among  the  other  mem- 
bers. 

The  workingmen  are  forced  to  belong  to  these  organizations,  and,  as 
regards  i)ensioning,  some  of  them  claim  that  upon  one  pretext  or  an- 
other ]\Iessrs. employes  are  dismissed  before  the  pension  age  is 

arrived  at,  and  that  the  sum  for  pensions  continually  increases  in  amount 
without  any  one  ever  deriving  any  benefit  from  it.  Of  course  into  the 
merits  of  such  a  controversy  I  cannot  enter,  and  only  state  the  charge 
as  an  expression  of  the  workingmen's  sentiments  upon  the  subject.* 

Several  years  ago  this  same  firm  had  some  lodging-houses  erected  for 
the  single  men  in  its  employ,  which  were  to  be  let  to  them  at  favor- 
able rents,  but  upon  the  condition  that  the  men  were  all  to  be  at  home 
by  10  o'clock  in  the  evening.  This  they  declined  to  agree  to,  and  the 
habitations  remained  unoccupied.  The  firm  also,  I  am  told,  once  under- 
took to  supply  its  men  with  potatoes,  at  cost  prices,  but  the  great  body 
of  them  would  not  buy  them,  because  they  said  their  employers  wanted 
to  make  something  more  out  of  them.     Thus  it  goes  on. 

As  an  exami:)le  of  how  the  employes  of  railroads,  when  private  cor- 
porations, are  provided  for,  I  will  cite  the  Hessische-Ludwigs  Railroad, 
an  important  railroad  on  this  side  of  the  Rhine,  which  is  still  in  private 
hands.  Tliis  company  has  a  jjension,  widows'  and  orphans'  fund,  which 
is  regulated  as  follows  : 

Every  employe  of  the  road  is  entitled  and  obliged  to  contribute  to 
the  fund,  which  is  raised  by  the  dues  of  the  employes,  by  fines  levied 
on  the  same,  by  fines  accruing  from  violations  of  the  police  regulations 
of  the  road,  by  sums  jmid  for  cards  of  permission  to  inspect  the  road 
and  its  depots,  by  the  net  profit  on  the  sale  of  railroad  regulations, 
schedules,  and  freight  rates,  by  the  sale  of  unclaimed  articles  left  by 
travelers  in  depots  or  on  trains,  by  such  amounts  as  the  company  may 
feel  called  upon  to  give,  by  all  grants  made  by  last  wills  and  testaments 
in  favor  of  this  fund,  as  well  as  all  presents  made  to  employes  of  the 
road,  so  far  as  a  particular  person  or  object  is  not  expressly  designated, 
and,  lastly,  by  the  interest  derived  from  an  investment  of  the  above 
funds.  Every  permanent  employe  of  the  road  who  receives  less  than 
$1,070  per  year  pays  annually  to  this  fund  4  per  cent,  of  his  salary; 
besides  this,  he  pays  as  admission  fee  the  sixth  part  of  his  income 
for  one  year.  The  regular  jiayments  are  made  monthly,  while  the 
entrance  money  is  paid  in  twelve  installments  when  the  income  is  less 
than  $285,  and  in  six  when  it  is  above  that  figure.    Any  one  who  has 

*  Since  writing  tho  above  I  have  read  tlie  following  in  a  Frankfort  jonrnal,  which, 
probably  relates  to  the  very  hrm  I  have  mentioned: 

Mai/ence. — Recently  a  workman  made  complaint  before  the  connty  court  liere  against 
the  proprietors  of  a  large  factory,  and  demandeil  the  payment  of  his  wages  for  four- 
teen days,  and  the  recognition  of  his  rights  in  the  pension  funds  of  the  establishment. 
The  attorney  (according  to  the  Mayence  Journal)  of  the  I'omplainant  said  that  his 
client  had  been  almost  twenty-five  years  in  the  employment  of  tho  defendants,  with- 
out having  been  once  punished;  that  he  was  a  good  and  desirable  workman,  as  is 
evident  from  the  fact  tliat  years  ago  the  complainant  made  a  contract  with  the  de- 
fendants binding  himself  to  remain  twelve  years  longer  with  them  ;  that  having 
been  absent  from  the  factory  for  two  days  in  succession,  with  permission  of  his  fore- 
man, but,  as  the  defendants  all<'ge,  without  such  permission,  ho  was  discharged  with- 
out receiving  the  required  length  of  notice,  and  denied  the  return  of  the  sums  of 
money  contriimted  by  him  to  the  pension  fund  of  the  factory  for  the  last  twenty-five 
years  almost;  wherefore,  he  prayed  that  the  defendants  might  be  comi)elled  to  paj 
fourteen  days'  wages  and  to  return  what  had  been  paid  into  their  pension  fund.  The 
court  fixed  a  time  within  which  proof  was  to  be  adduced,  but  before  the  period  had 
expired  the  defendants  satisfied  tho  deinands  of  the  complainant  on  their  pension 
fund. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  445 

coutributed  to  this  fund  steadily  for  three  years  is  then  entitled,  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life,  if  he  becomes  disabled,  to  receive  20  })er  cent, 
of  his  salary  when  three  years  in  the  service  of  the  road,  to  22  i)er  cent, 
when  four  years,  24  per  cent,  when  five,  34  per  cent,  when  ten,  54  per 
cent,  when  twenty,  and  so  on  up  to  the  fortieth  year  of  service,  wlien  the 
employe  has  a  right  to  retire  from  work  on  a  pension  of  75  jier  cent,  of 
his  salary.  The  pension  to  a  widow  is  one-half  of  the  amount  which  her 
husband  would  have  received  had  he  become  disabled  while  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  duties.  But  if  the  marriage  be  contracted  after  the  man 
becomes  a  pensioner,  or  by  an  emplo*ye  who  had  agreed  not  to  marry 
without  permission  of  the  directors  of  the  company,  the  widow  gets 
nothing,  unless  the  salary  of  the  deceased  amounted  to  more  than  $285 
a  year,  or  the  marriage  had  been  approved  by  the  directors.  If  the  widow 
has  legitimate  children  by  the  deceased  employ6  less  than  eighteen 
years  of  age  she  gets  further,  on  account  of  each  child,  one-ninth  of  the 
sum  to  which  her  husband  would  have  been  entitled  as  a  pensioner, 
but  the  amount  thus  granted  her  cannot  exceed,  when  there  are  more 
than  three  such  children,  two-sixth  part  of  one-half  of  their  father's  rate 
of  pension.  Through  crime,  drunkenness,  gross  carelessness,  or  wilfull 
violation  of  the  regulations  of  the  comi>any  the  right  to  a  pension  is  for- 
feited. If  a  iiensioned  emi)loy6  accepts  service  in  the  company,  or  on 
another  road,  or  from  state  or  communal  authorities,  for  which  compen- 
sation is  received,  the  company  reserves  the  right  to  deduct  from  the 
amount  of  his  pension  a  sum  equal  to  what  he  thus  earns;  and  if  after 
being  pensioned  he  becomes  able  to  render  service  to  the  company  and 
declines  to  do  so  the  pension  ceases.  If  a  widow  marries  she  loses  her 
pension,  which  is  transferred  to  the  children,  if  there  are  any.  When 
an  employ^  is  dismissed  by  the  company  whatever  amount  he  has  i)aid 
to  the  pension  fund  is  returned  to  him.  All  differences  between  the 
company  and  its  employes  in  reference  to  pensions  are  settled  by  three 
arbitrators,  one  being  named  by  the  comjjany,  one  by  the  complainant, 
and  the  third  by  the  two  other  arbitrators  conjointly. 

POLITICAL  RIGHTS,   TAXATION,  ETC. 

All  subjects  of  the  Empire  who  are  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  up- 
wards, excepting  those  in  the  active  service  of  the  army  and  navy, 
and  who  have  not  been  convicted  of  any  criminal  offense,  are  entitled 
to  vote  for  members  of  the  Reichstag;  and  all  in  this  neighborhood, 
not  belonging  to  the  army  or  navy,  who  are  twenty-five  years  and 
over,  and  who  pay  any  taxes,  not  having  been  convicted  of  crime  or 
grave  misdemeanor,  have  the  right  to  vote  for  all  elective  city  and  state 
officers.  As  almost  all  the  workingmen  must  pay  taxes  nearly  all  en- 
joy the  right  of  suffrage.  The  taxes  levied  are  all  graduated  according 
to  the  incomes  had  and  the  property  possessed,  and  are  fixed  to  em- 
brace nearly  all  classes  of  the  ])oinilation.  A  new  law,  however,  goes 
into  effect  next  April,  which  will  exempt  some  who  now  pay  taxes  from 
doing  so  in  the  future.  What  the  exact  aggregate  amount  of  taxes 
paid  by  each  class  of  persons  in  tlie  community  is  I  do  not  know.  Those 
whose  income  is  from  $119  to  $160  i)er  annum  pay  yearly  to  the  city  of 
Mayence  $1.15,  and  to  the  state  $1.54;  those  with  an  income  of  $100  to 
$214  pay  one  and  a  half  times  these  sums,  while  those  whose  incomes 
are  from  $214  to  $238,  are  taxed  double  as  much  as  the  first  class  men- 
tioned.    Beyond  these  amounts  the  incomes  of  very  few  workingmen  go. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  is  in  favor  of  the  workingman. 


446  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

EMIGRATION. 

Expectation  of  gain  is  the  principal  cause  which  leads  to  the  emigra- 
tion of  the  people,  coupled  with  a  desire  to  live  under  a  freer  form  of 
government,  though,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  latter  incentive  has 
probably  little  weight.  The  ones  who  emigrate,  so  far  as  I  can  learn, 
are  those  who  are  somewhat  industrious  and  despair  of  ever  being  able 
to  accumulate  much  at  home,  or  who  have  been  tolerably  well  to  do 
and  have  become  reduced,  and  who  think  that  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  through  economy  and  industry,  they  will  be  able  to  gather 
together  a  little  capital.  Many,  too,  are  young  never  do-wells,  whose 
parents  send  them  thither  to  get  rid  of  them.  The  emigrants  are  from 
all  classes  of  society,  but  are  principally  from  among  those  of  the  pop- 
ulation who  are  engaged  at  farm  and  hand  labor.  The  favorite  locali- 
ties with  the  people  of  this  vicinity  are,  I  am  told,  the  Northwestern 
States,  Wisconsin  particularly  being  well  regarded.  The  army  here 
has  very  little  to  do  with  the  matter,  it  is  claimed,  as  most  of  those  who 
leave  the  country  do  so  after  having  performed  their  share  of  military 
service. 

FEMALE  LABOR. 

Number  of  women  and  children  icho  lahor. — ^ly  consular  district  is 
so  constituted,  embracing  i^ortions  of  different  states,  that  I  cannot 
state  with  any  exactness  the  number  of  women  and  children  within  it 
who  work  for  a  livelihood.  This  consular  district  is  made  up  of  parts 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  of  a  part  of  what  used  to  be  the  Duchy  of  Nassau, 
now  belonging  to  Prussia,  and  of  a  portion  of  Prussia  proper.  In 
Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1882  there  were  2,912  young  persons  who  were  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  years  old,  and  l(i8,  who  were  between  twelve  and 
fourteen,  employed  in  the  factories;  1,826  of  them  being  boys  and  1,254 
girls.  Of  the  whole  number  70  per  cent,  are  said  to  be  at  work  in 
match  factories.  In  Nassau  at  the  same  time  in  the  factories  were  164 
between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  fourteen,  97  boys  and  67  girls,  and  3,406 
who  were  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  old,  2,238  boys  and  1,168  girls. 
In  all  Hesse-Darmstadt  the  number  of  women  engaged  at  the  different 
occupations,  according  to  a  census  taken  in  June  5, 1882,  are  as  follows: 

In  agricultural  pursuits,  gardeuiug,  and  cattle-raising 41,421 

In  forestry,  hunting,  and  fisliiug II 

In  mines,  furnaces,  and  salt-i)its,  and  at  turf-digging 8 

At  industries  wliere  stone  or  earth  is  employed,  such  as  quarrying,  making 

earthen  ware,  glass-blowing,  &c 96 

Working  in  metals 199 

Making  machines,  implements,  instruments,  and  apparatus 3(5 

In  chemical  establishments 210 

In  making  charcoal,  tar,  pitch,  rosin,  material  for  illuminating  purposes,  fats, 

oils,  and  varnish 159 

In  textile  industries 1,405 

At  pai)er  and  leather  industries 1,  387 

At  wood-carving  and  in  making  articles  from  wood 312 

In  tobacco  factories 2,  473 

In  bakeries  and  confectionery  establishments 135 

In  ])rcparing  foods  and  drinks 262 

Making  and  cleaning  clotlies,  among  whom  were  6,820  seamstresses  and  2,574 

washerwomen  ami  ironers 10,  766 

As  bricklayers,  carpenters,  glaziers,  painters,  roofers,  surveyors,  &c 85 

As  photographers 11 

As  printers,  in  stone,  metal,  an<l  colors 104 

As  cutters  and  founders  of  wooden  and  metallic  types 41 

Trading  in  goods  and  products 3, 135 

As  pcdlers 500 

In  post  and  telegraph  offices 9 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  447 

As  railroad  employes Si) 

As  uicsseugeris,  trunk  carriers,  guides,  &c 88 

lu  prepaiiug  bodies  for  interment 18 

Upon  ships 14 

In  connection  with  drayage 29 

In  household  service  (nurses,  servants  who  do  not  dwell  with  their  employ- 
ers, &c. ) 1,552 

In  labor  of  a  changeable  character 1,530 

In  churches  and  in  «  stablishnients  of  a  religious  character 344 

In  libraries,  art-galleries,  and  as  teachers 913 

Taking  care  of  the  sick 1,  069 

As  authors,  editors,  correspondents,  &c 7 

In  musical  and  theatrical  pursuits 120 

Total 68.478 

The  population  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  is  936,340. 

Statistics  respecting  Nassau  and  the  other  parts  of  my  district  I  am 
unable  to  j)resent,  but  could  give  them  for  the  whole  of  Germany,  but 
do  not,  because  it  seems  to  me  to  be  out  of  my  province  for  me  to  do  so. 

WAGES  PAID   TO   WOMEN. 

The  wages  paid  to  women  are  about  25  to  50  per  cent,  less  than  those 
received  by  men.  Those  who  work  by  the  day  or  week  at  ordinary 
labor  or  in  the  factories  make  from  15  to  50  cents  a  day  usually,  the 
most  of  them  earning  about  30  cents  a  day. 

HOURS   OF   LABOR   OF   WOMEN. 

Women  work  about  the  same  number  of  hours  that  men  do,  but  in 
certain  kinds  of  establishments,  from  moral  considerations,  they  are  not 
allowed  to  labor  at  night. 

MORAL   AND   PHYSICAL   CONDITION. 

The  moral  tone  of  female  factory  operatives  is  exceedingly  low,  and 
they  are  regarded  as  being  very  inferior  to  servant  girls  even.  As  a 
rule,  the  roughest  class  of  women  only  are  to  be  found  working  in  the 
factories.  They  are  looked  upon,  I  believe,  as  beings  of  very  little  ac- 
count.   Those  only  go  to  the  factories  who  are  good  for  nothing  else. 

MEANS  PROVIDED  FOR  THEIR  IMPROVEMENT. 

A  little  something  is  being  done  for  their  preservation  and  elevation, 
but  not  much,  and  there  is  not  much  probably  that  can  be  done.  The 
Government  is  prohibiting  the  employment  of  women  at  night  in  estab- 
lishments where  there  are  men,  also  in  those  where  the  character  of 
labor  is  such  that  not  much  clothing  can  be  worn  ;  is  insisting  upon 
separate  privies  being  provided  for  the  women,  so  that,  as  has  been  and 
still  is  the  case  in  many  establishments,  both  sexes  may  not  be  com- 
pelled to  frequent  the  same  resorts,  and  upon  separation  of  male  and 
female  laborers  while  at  work  ;  is  prohibiting  the  employment  of  women 
within  three  weeks  after  confinement;  is  opposed  to  their  sleeping  at 
night  in  the  factories,  and,  through  the  factory  inspectors,  is  endeavor- 
ing to  keep  them  under  the  supervision  of  female  superintendents  who 
shall  teach  them  good  morals,  and,  after  working  hours,  show  them 
how  to  sew. 


448  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

PROVISIONS  AGAINST  FIRE    AND   OTHER  DANGERS. 

Each  employer  of  laborers,  both  male  and  female,  is  required  by  law 
to  take  such  precautions  against  the  occurrence  of  accidents  among  them 
as  the  peculiar  character  of  the  industry  in  which  he  is  engaged  calls 
for. 

SANITARY  MEASURES   AND    CARE   OF   SICK. 

The  same  remarks  made  in  regard  to  men  apply  to  women  in  this 
mVitter. 

INCREASE   OF   WAGES   SINCE   1878. 

There  seems  to  have  been  a  slight  increase  since  1878,  in  the  wages 
paid  to  working  people.    Necessaries  of  life  are  somewhat  higher. 

EDUCATION,   ETC. 

The  women  who  labor  have  all,  with  rare  exceptions,  enjoyed  the  ad" 
vantages  afforded  by  the  common  schools  of  the  empire.  All  children 
are  required  by  law  to  be  schooled  from  their  sixth  to  their  fourteenth 
year. 

Very  few  married  women  work  in  the  factories,  and  when  they  do,  of 
course  their  children  and  households  take  care  of  themselves  the  best 
way  they  can,  unless  there  is  some  female  relative  or  friend  to  conduct 
things  properly.  In  this  neighborhood  women  are  not  quite  as  great 
toilers  as  in  various  other  parts  of  Germany,  and  occupy  a  much  higher 
plane  than  they  do  in  some  other  states  of  the  empire  where  they  are 
oftentimes  simply  mere  beasts  of  burden,  and  looked  upon  pretty  much 
as  so  much  cattle  would  be. 

The  employment  of  women  in  factories  has,  I  consider,  a  deadening 
and  demoralizing  eflect  upon  them,  prejudicial  to  the  best  interests  of 
the  state,  and  destructive  of  the  family  circle. 

MISCELLANEOUS — YOUNG  PEOPLE. 

The  German  Government  is  very  watchful  of  the  interests  of  young 
people  employed  in  the  fiictories,  whether  from  moral  or  military  con- 
siderations I  do  not  know,  and  is  very  careful  to  require  all  employers 
of  young  persons  to  pay  due  regard  to  their  health  and  physical  require- 
ments. Employers  are  expected  to  give  due  attention  to  the  health  of 
all  young  persons  in  their  employ  who  are  less  than  eighteen  years  of 
age,  and  grant  to  them  ample  time  to  receive  needful  school  instruc- 
tion. 

Manufacturers  are  prohibited  from  having  in  their  employ  children 
who  are  less  than  twelve  years  old,  and  can  only  use  children  who  are 
between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  fourteen,  when  they  work  not  more  than 
six  hours  per  day.  These,  too,  if  they  have  not  been  to  school  the  re- 
quired length  of  time  can  only  go  into  the  factories  when  provision  is 
made  in  thc^ir  behalf  for  an  attendance  at  some  school  three  hours  each 
day.  Young  persons  who  are  more  than  fourteen,  but  less  than  sixteen, 
years  of  age,  cannot  be  kept  busy  more  than  ten  hours  i)er  day.  Their 
hours  of  labor  are  not  to  begin  before  5  o'clock  in  the  morning,  nor  con- 
tinue beyond  half  past  eight  at  night,  and  between  the  hours  regular 
pauses  must  be  granted,  which  for  those  between  twelve  and  fourteen 
are  to  be  half  an  hour  in  length,  and  for  those  between  fourteen  and 
sixteen  half  an  hour  during  the  forenoon,  an  hour  at  midday,  and  half 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  449 

an  hour  in  the  afternoon.  During  these  pauses  they  are  not  only  not 
to  work,  but  not  even  to  remain  in  the  work-rooms,  unless  all  work  in 
those  ])arts  of  them  where  they  labor  be  completely  suspended.  On 
Sundays  and  holidays  they  are  not  to  work,  and  also  during  the  hours 
necessary  to  receive  religious  instruction,  make  confession,  attend  com- 
munion, &c.  When  they  enter  upon  work  the  employer  has  to  inform 
the  police  of  tiie  fact,  setting  forth  the  character  of  the  employment  and 
the  number  of  hours  of  labor,  and  the  number  and  length  of  the  pauses 
granted.  In  the  establishments  where  young  persons  are  employed 
there  must  be  posted  up  in  conspicuous  places  the  regulations  of  the 
Empire  concerning  them,  as  well  as  a  statement  of  their  hours  of  labor 
and  the  periods  of  rest  to  which  they  are  entitled,  and  the  mauageis  and 
proi)rietors  thereof  are  expected  to  conform  strictly  thereto.  When 
natural  events  or  accidents  interrupt  the  regular  running  of  a  factory, 
the  authoriti*  s  permit  the  provisions  of  law  respecting  hours  of  labor 
and  pauses  to  be  temporarily  departed  from.  In  factories  which  are 
especially  injurious  to  health  or  morals,  young  persons,  as  well  as  women, 
can  be  prohibited  from  being  employed,  or  permitted  to  do  so  only  under 
certain  conditions. 

Concerning  the  employment  of  women  and  young  persons  in  rolling- 
mills  and  foundries  the  Government  has  the  following  regulations : 

Rolhnfi-mills  and  foundries. — Women  are  not  permitted  to  be  used 
in  the  direct  work  of  such  establishments,  and  children  less  than  four- 
teen years  of  age  are  not  to  be  employed  at  all.  Male  minors  between 
the  age  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  can  be  employed,  but  only  under  the 
following  conditions  :  (1)  When  a  competent  physician  certifies  that  the 
labor  will  not  injuriously  afJ'ect  the  health  of  the  performer;  (2)  when 
they  are  not  compelled  to  work  more  than  twelve  hours,  including  rest- 
ing i^auses,  or  ten  hours  continuously,  on  a  stretch,  auy  pause  of  less 
than  one  quarter  of  an  hour  in  duration  not  to  be  reckoned  as  such,  nor 
more  than  sixty  hours  in  the  aggregate,  exclusive  of  pauses,  during  any 
one  week  ;  (3)  with  a  length  of  rest  between  every  two  periods  of  work 
of  twelve  hours,  within  which  no  work,  of  any  descrii:)tiou,  is  to  be 
done ;  (4)  no  work  to  be  performed  on  Suudajs  between  the  hours  of 
6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m.,  and  in  the  hours  previous  to  or  subsequent  to  them, 
except  when  before  or  at  the  close  of  the  period  of  labor  an  uninter- 
rupted interval  of  rest  of  at  least  twenty  four  hours  is  granted  to  the 
young  persons  ;  and  (5)  no  work  also  to  be  rendered  by  young  persons 
when  adults  are  at  rest. 

Glass  icorJis. — In  rooms  in  which  work  is  done  before  furnaces  women 
are  not  allowed  to  be,  and  wherever  an  extraordinarily  warm  tempera- 
ture prevails  no  young  women  are  to  labor  or  remain  ;  but  the  Buudes- 
rath  can  make  exceptions  in  the  application  of  this  rule.  Boys  un- 
der fourteen  can  be  employed  when  provision  is  made  for  their  at- 
tendance at  school  at  least  twelve  hours  each  week,  but  they  are  not  to 
do  any  grinding,  and  in  establishments  where  table-glass  is  manufact- 
ured they  are  not  to  work  before  the  melting  and  stretching  furnaces, 
or  to  be  permitted  to  carry  objects  of  more  than  5  kilograms  in  weight. 
In  tliose  works  which  are  driven  night  and  day,  with  regular  alterna- 
tions of  labor  and  rest,  the  following  rules  are  to  be  observed  respect- 
ing young  male  laborers:  (1)  Boys  under  fourteen  are  not  to  be  em- 
ployed more  than  six  hours  in  twenty-four,  including  resting  pauses,  and 
not  more  than  thirty-six  in  any  one  week;  (2)  young  persons  (fourteen  to 
eighteen)  are  not  to  be  kept  at  work  longer  than  twelve  hours,  including 
pauses,  or  ten  hours  continuously,  interruptions  in  work  of  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  in  duration  not  to  be  co  mted  as  pauses,  and  are  not 
92A— LAB 29 


450  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

to  work  more  than  sixty  hours  in  any  one  week;  (3)  they  are  not  to  do 
any  work  when  adults  are  resting-;  (4)  a  period  of  twelve  hours  for  rest 
is  to  occur  between  every  two  periods  of  work;  and  (5)  no  work  is  to 
be  done  on  Sundays  between  0  a.  m.  and  G  p.  m.  Where  the  works  are 
iiTeguhirly  run,  these  conditions  apply  :  (1)  A  period  of  work  for  boys  is 
to  be  only  one-half  the  length  of  an  adult's  period,  and  is  not  to  con- 
tinue for  more  than  six  hours,  except  when  j^auses  of  an  hour's  length 
each  time  is  grauted  between  the  hours  of  labor,  and  there  are  not  to 
be  more  than  seventy-two  hours  of  work  done  in  any  two  weeks ;  {'2)  in  the 
caseof  young-  persons  (fourteen  to  eighteen)  the  number  of  hours  is  not  to 
exceed  sixty  a  week,  and  when  they  labor  continuously  for  ten  hours  they 
must  enjoy  a  rest  of  at  least  one  hour,  and  when  longer  must  be  granted 
at  least  one  hour  and  a  half;  (3)  between  two  working  periods  is  a  rest- 
ing interval  of  at  least  the  length  of  an  adult's  period  of  labor  to  be 
given  to  boys  under  fourteen,  and  to  those  between  fourteen  and  eight- 
een a  ])ause  equal  to  the  length  of  the  last  completed  period  of  labor, 
during  which  those  under  fourteen  are  not  to  be  put  at  any  kind  of 
work,  while  those  between  fourteen  and  eighteen  can  be  put  at  light 
side  work,  when  the  interval  which  occurs  is  a  long  one,  but  the  time 
that  is  thus  used  is  to  be  reckoned  in  the  aggregate  length  of  time  they 
can  be  employed  in  any  one  week  ;  (4)  no  work  is  to  be  done  on  Sundays 
between  6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m.;  and  (5)  no  labor  is  to  be  i>erformed  while 
adults  are  at  rest. 

Spinning  ■mills. — Respecting  spinning-mills,  the  regulations  are  (I): 
That  young  persons  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  work  or  loiter  in  rooms 
where  combing  is  going  on,  or  where  wool  is  being  pulled  apart;  and 
(2),  that  young  people  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  when 
exclusively  used  as  assistants  in  the  driving  of  machinery,  may  work 
eleven  hours  a  day,  but  no  longer,  when  a  i)roper  physician  grants  a 
certificate  that  the  young  j)erson  will  not  be  injured  in  health  i)y  such 
length  of  labor. 

Coal  mines. — Regarding  coal  mines,  the  Government  has  the  follow- 
ing exceptional  regulations:  That  where  a  day's  labor  consists  of 
two  i)eriods  of  work  the  first  is  not  to  commence  with  young  persons 
before  5  a.  m.,  or  the  second  to  extend  beyond  10  p.  m.,  and,  in  either, 
not  more  than  eight  hours  of  labor  rendered ;  that  during  each  day  of 
labor  resting  pauses,  anu)unting  altogether  to  one  hour,  must  be  granted; 
and  that  they  are  not  to  be  allowed  to  go  to  work  until  a  competent 
physician  has  declared  that  they  can  endure  the  strain  imposed  upon 
them. 

Persons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  are  engaged  at  any  kind 
of  labor  are  required  to  be  provided  with  what  are  termed  labor  books 
(Arbeitsbiicher),  more  properly  called,  I  think,  licenses  to  work,  whose 
production  an  employer  is  always  to  demand  before  engaging  minors  to 
work.  These  he  holds  so  long  as  the  employment  continues;  exhibits 
them  whenever  requested  to  do  so  hy  a  proper  official,  and,  upon  ces- 
sation of  the  employment,  returns  them  to  their  owners;  but  children 
who  have  not  attended  school  the  full  length  of  time  required  by  law 
are  not  furnished  with  them,  but  with  what  are  designated  as  labor 
cards.  The  books  are  issued,  iiee  of  charge,  by  the  police,  but  are  not 
granted  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  the  minor's  school  duties  have  been 
fulfilled.  Such  a  book  bears  the  name  of  the  holder,  the  i)lace  and  date 
of  his  birth,  and  his  signature,  and  when  he  enters  upon  work  anywhere 
his  employer  notes  in  the  book  the  date  of  commencement  and  charac- 
ter of  the  employment,  and  when  it  comes  to  a  close,  the  date  of  ter- 
mination, subscribing  his  signature,  but  he  is  not  permitted  to  make  any 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  451 

remarks  aft'ectiiig  the  reputation  of  bis  employe,  either  favorably  or 
unfavorably. 

The  cards  for  children  are  issued  by  the  police  at  the  request  of  their 
parents  or  guardians,  or  with  their  consent,  and  bear  the  name  of  the 
child  and  date  of  its  birth,  its  religious  confession,  name,  station,  and 
place  of  residence  of  the  parents  or  guardians,  and  set  forth  what  ar- 
rangements have  been  made  for  having  school  instruction  imparted. 
These  cards  the  employers  receive  and  hold  as  iu  the  case  of  labor 
books. 

The  penalty  attached  to  violations  of  the  provisions  of  law  and  regu- 
.lations  of  the  Empire  respecting  the  employment  of  young  persons  and 
women  is  $500,  or  six  months'  imprisonment. 

JAS.  HENRY  SMITH. 

United  States  Commercal  Agency, 

31ayence,  July  25,  1884. 


SAXONY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BULLOCK,  OF  ANNABEEG. 

The  statements  one  finds  in  the  German  newspapers  and  reviews  about 
the  condition  of  the  working  classes  must  be  taken  cum  grano  salis. 
They  are  almost  always  colored  according  to  the  views  held  by  the 
writers  towards  the  questions  of  labor  and  social  reform  which  have  for 
some  time  been  engrossing  the  attention  of  the  German  law-makers. 
Some  writers  maintain,  with  a  formidable  array  of  statistics  to  back  up 
their  conclusions,  that  the  condition  of  the  working  classes  is  becoming 
every  year  less  endurable,  and  that  the  proletariat  is  steadily  and 
alarmingly  increasing.  Another  class  of  writers  assert,  with  as  great 
confidence  and  equal  plausibility,  supported  by  statistical  citations, 
that  the  condition  of  the  working  classes  is  gradually  improving,  and 
is  better  than  it  has  been  at  any  time  during  the  last  fifty  years,  except 
during  a  short  period  following  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  The  wide 
divergence  of  these  views  can  generally  be  traced  to  some  local  color- 
ing or  interest.  It  often  happens  that  one  industry'  languishes  while 
another  flourishes,and  it  is  only  in  years  of  exceptional  prosperity  that 
every  branch  of  industry  prospers.  Those  who  are  interested  in  any 
branch  of  trade  or  industry  that  is  depressed  very  naturally  incline  to 
the  belief  that  everything  is  going  to  the  bad,  and  they  are  not  slow  in 
rushing  into  print  with  their  views  and  propositions  for  governmental 
relief. 

The  assertion  that  the  rich  are  growing  richer  at  the  expense  of  the 
poor  who  are  growing  poorer,  is  not  verified  by  the  facts,  so  far  as  Sax- 
ony is  concerned,  at  least,  and  there  are  no  apparent  reasons  why  a  dif- 
ferent state  of  affairs  should  exist  in  other  rich  industrial  states.  The 
able  and  cautious  statistician.  Dr.  F.  H.  von  Neumann  Spallart,  has 
clearly  shown  that,  in  Saxony,  while  the  rich  have  increased  in  num- 
bers they  have  individually  become  richer,  and  that  the  income  from 
capital  invested  not  manufacturing  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  growth 
of  the  capital  thus  invested.  On  the  other  hand,  the  poor  have  not  be- 
come poorer,  but  relatively  less  poor.  The  number  of  working  people 
who  are  depositors  in  the  savings  banks  of  Saxony  has  shown  a  most 
favorable  increase  since  the  last  five  or  six  years,  and  the  average 
amounts  of  the  individual  deposits  show  a  like  favorable  result.    The 


452  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

savings  banks  of  Saxony  pay  3^  per  cent,  and  4  per  cent,  interest,  and 
offer  absolute  security  to  the  depositor.  Their  influence  lias  been  most 
salutary  in  promoting-  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes,  and  on  account 
of  their  wise  and  conservative  management  they  have  contributed 
greatly  to  the  public  good. 

It  is  the  concurrent  opinion  of  intelligent  observers  who  have  given 
the  snbject  attention  that  a  considerable  degree  of  amelioration  in  the 
condition  of  the  working  classes  of  Saxony  has  taken  place  since  1879, 
especially  as  compared  with  the  preceding  six  years.  But  notwith- 
standing this  unquestionable  improvement,  the  difference  between  the 
conditions  of  the  American  and  the  Saxon  artisan  remains  so  great 
that  the  latter  would  regard  as  an  extravagant  luxury  what  the  former 
considers  a  necessity.  A  comparison  of  the  tables  of  wages  and  prices 
will  show  that  the  Saxon  laborer  can  afford  only  the  barest  necessaries 
of  life,  and  in  very  stinted  quantities  at  that.  It  will  take  many  years 
of  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Saxon  laboring  classes  before 
they  attain  anything  like  the  degree  of  comfort  and  independence  en- 
joyed by  their  more  favored  American  brethren.  It  is  true  that  the  work- 
ing people  in  Saxony  buy  their  wearing  apparel  30  per  cent,  to  40  per 
cent,  cheaper  upon  an  average  than  the  same  articles  wonld  cost  iu  the 
United  States,  but  this  advantage  is  fully  offset  by  the  greater  cost  of 
provisions  in  Saxony,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great  difference  of  wages  in 
favor  of  the  American  laborer.  The  working  people  of  Saxony  gener- 
ally wear  coarse  but  good  and  substantial  clothing  without  any  extrav- 
agance of  ornamentation. 

SAXON  INDUSTRIES. 

The  industry  of  this  consular  district  is  almost  exclusively  domestic, 
or  "house  industry," a  report  upon  which,  entitled  "The  Saxon  House- 
Industry,"  will  be  found  in  Consular  Eeports  No.  33,  September,  1883. 
In  this  district  there  are  no  large  manufactories  where  great  numbers 
of  working  people  are  brought  together  in  one  establishment.  It  is 
mainly  owing  to  this  that  organized,  or  even  unorganized,  strikes  do 
not  occur.  It  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  house  industry  that  it 
avoids  the  concentration  of  large  numbers  of  working  people  in  one 
place.  Those  engaged  in  the  house  industry  enjoy  an  exceptional  de- 
gree of  independence  as  compared  with  those  laborers  who  are  em- 
ployed in  factories.  They  live  mostly  in  the  country  or  small  villages, 
where  rents  are  cheap  and  the  surroundings  healthful,  with  no  tempta- 
tions to  extravagance  or  dissipation.  It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the 
incomes  of  those  em ploj'ed  iu  this  liranch  of  industry,  owing  to  the 
many  conditions  upon  which  the  amount  of  the  income  may  depend. 
In  ordinary  years  an  adult  male  worker  of  average  skill  engaged  in 
making  trimmings,  laces,  end)roidery,  or  musical  instruments — the 
I)rincipal  i)roductioMS  of  this  district — will  earn  about  $14-{.80  to  $154.70. 

GENERAL   TRADES  WAGES. 

The  tables  of  wages  and  prices  which  accompany  this,  marked  No.  1 
and  No.  2,  respectively,  have  been  compiled  after  most  careful  investi- 
gation. The  reductions  from  (lerman  into  United  States  standards  of 
weights  and  measures  were  made  acconliv.g  to  the  comi)utations  used 
bj'  the  United  States  Customs  authorities.  In  the  reduction  of  values 
the  German  Reich s-mark  was  taken  at  23.8.  cents,  as  fixed  by  the 
Treasury  Department. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


453 


GENERAL   TRADES. 

Wayes  paid  per  iveelc  of  seroiiy-iwo  hours  in  the  consular  district  of  Aniniberg,  Saxony,  for 
yood  workmen  ^vho  have  sei'ved  apprenticeships  in  their  respective  trades. 


Occupations. 


Basket- iiial<ers 

Blacksmitlis 

Bookbinders 

Gills 

Foremen 

Buililiiiji  trades  : 

Brick-layers 

Gas-fitters 

Masons 

Plasterers  

Tenders 

Bntclici's  (with  board) 

Carpenters 

Chair-makers 

Day  laborers 

Furriers 

Glaziers 


Wap 

es. 

$2 

85 

3 

33 

4 

76 

2 

00 

5 

00 

4 

28 

3 

33  1 

4 

28 

3 

33 

2 

60 

1 

75 

3 

85 

3 

33 

2 

50 

4  28  ll 

3 

33 

Occupations. 


Gold  and  silver  smiths 

Honse-painters 

Locksmiths  

Machine  fitters 

Potters : 

Roofers 

Saddlers 

Shoemakers 

Stuccoers  

Tailors   

Tinsmiths 

Turners 

Type-setters 

Wagon-makers 

Weavers 

Wool-spinners 

Workers  (male  adults),  factory 


$5  75 
5  47 
2  85 
2  85 

2  75 
4  28 

3  00 
2  61 
8  00 

2  61 

3  00 

3  33 

4  76 
3  57 

2  38 

3  00 
2  50 


Prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  consular  district  of  Annaherg,  Saxony,  May  1,  1884. 


Articles. 


Black  bread per  pound  avoirdupois. . 

Flour : 

Wheat do 

Rye do 

Butter do  ... 

Beef do... 

Fresh  pork do 

Bacon do 

Mutton do 

Peas,  dried do 

Potatoes per  100  lbs.  avoirdupois. . 


Articles. 


Coal per  100  lbs.  avoirdupois.. 

Eggs per  dozen.. 

Milk per  quart.. 

Beer  : 

Bavarian do  . . . 

Common do 

Petroleum do  . . . 

Gas per  1,000  cubic  feet.. 

Average  rent  paid  per  room  per  month 
by  laborers 


Price. 


$0  21 
15 


06J 
04 
06 
50 


AGRICULTURAL   LABOR   IN   SAXONY. 

Agricultural  laborers  in  Saxouy  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
classes.  To  the  first  class  belong  those  who  are  bound  by  contract  to 
perforin  certain  services  for  a  fixed  term  in  consideration  of  a  specified 
sum  of  money  and  full  board.  This  class  of  laborers  are  called  Gesin- 
depersonen.  (servants),  and  they  must  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to 
obey  the  orders  of  their  employer  at  any  time,  without  reference  to  any 
certain  hours  of  work,  provided  the  nature  of  the  duties  assumed  by 
the  contract  so  require.  These  servants  are  therefore  usually  employed 
in  the  performance  of  such  services  as  from  their  nature  cannot  be  fixed 
at  certain  liours  of  the  day,  and  which  should  be  performed  by  the  same 
person.  Household  servants,  dairy  hands,  hostlers,  cattle-tenders,  and 
shepherds  are  embraced  in  this  class.  Their  duties  require  that  they 
live  upon  the  premises,  since  their  services  may  be  needed  at  any  mo- 
ment. The  laborers  of  this  class  are  generally  unmarried,  and  the  pe- 
riod of  their  employment  is  usually  regarded  as  one  of  instruction. 
When  married  they  are  mostly  employed  in  such  work  as  demands  spe- 
cial knowledge  and  extra  care,  or  where  negligence  or  want  of  intelli- 
gence on  the  part  of  the  servant  might  result  in  loss  to  the  employer. 

Day  laborers  constitute  the  second  class,  and  these  are  either  bound 
by  contract  or  servants  at  will.  The  latter  are  not  bound  by  any  con- 
tract for  any  certain  time.  Either  master  or  servant  can  terminate  the 
employment  at  any  time,  without  previous  notice.  The  day  laborers 
mostly  live  in  villages,  aud  are  often  owners  of  the  houses  they  inhabit, 


454 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


and  sometimes  possess  small  pieces  of  land.  In  such  cases  they  are 
called  cottag^ers,  and  are,  with  rare  excei)tions,  thrifty  and  intelligent. 
The  wife  and  children  till  the  small  piece  of  land,  while  the  man  works 
for  some  large  i>roi)rietor  in  the  neighborhood.  The  agricultural  immi- 
grants to  the  United  States  are  mostly  of  this  class. 

The  day  laborers  who  ai  e  not  house  owners  are  called  lodgers.  Their 
sole  means  of  sustenance  are  their  wages.  In  winter  they  often  feel 
bitter  want,  and  of  all  agricultural  laborers  their  lot  is  the  hardest. 

The  day  laborers  who  are  bound  by  written  contract  must  ai)pear 
daily,  unless  prevented  by  unavoidable  causes,  and  do  such  work  as  the 
employer  directs.  There  is  usually  a  provision  in  the  contract  that  the 
laborer  must  furnish  a  second  hand  when  required,  and  upon  demand 
bring  his  wife  as  a  third  hand.  For  his  own  services  and  those  of  the 
hands  he  furnishes  he  receives  a  certain  part  of  his  wages  in  cash,  gen- 
erally about  one-third ;  the  rest  is  paid  m  provisions,  fuel,  &c.,  and  in 
some  instances  a  small  part  of  the  grain  he  himself  thrashes  out.  La- 
borers of  this  class  who  perform  their  duties  faithfully  can  remain  on 
the  same  estate  for  life  and  always  receive  necessary  sustenance.  They 
cannot  be  suddenly  dismissed,  and  when  they  become  wholly  or  partly 
incapable  of  work  they  have  a  legal  right  to  assistance  from  the  owner 
of  the  estate.  The  contract  day  laborer  is  very  dependent  upon  his 
employer,  and  in  many  instances  is  always  in  his  employer's  debt.  When 
the  financial  condition  of  the  proj)rietor  is  good  and  the  estate  is  remu- 
nerative the  lot  of  the  contract  laborer  is  seldom  hard  except  by  his 
own  fault;  but  where  these  conditions  are  reversed,  as  not  unfrequently 
happens,  his  lot  is  very  unenviable. 

There  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  ascertaining  the  value  of 
the  compensation  received  by  the  agrcultural  laborer.  Where  the  com- 
pensation is  wholly  in  money,  as  in  the  case  of  the  common  day  laborer, 
there,  is,  of  course,  no  difficulty ;  but  where,  as  is  the  general  custom 
in  Germany,  the  greater  part  of  the  compensation  is  paid  in  Mnd,  that 
is,  by  provisions,  fuel,  rent,  &c.,  the  value  of  the  compensation  can  only 
be  ascertained  approximately.  The  statements  furnished  herewith 
give  the  wages  received  by  good  adult  laborers. 

Annval  wagen  received  by  agricultural  laborers  who  are  employed  hy  the  year  in  the  consular 

district  of  Annaberg,  Saxo7iy. 


Amount 
paid  in 
money. 

Coat  of 

board,  or 

paid  in 

kind. 

Total. 

$44  26 
22  84 

$60  60 
55  60 

$104  89 
78  44 

Wages  per  day  of  agricultural  di 

ly  laborers. 

In  Ham- 
mer. 

In  win- 
ter. 

Male  adults 

$0  40 
20 

$0  2S 

Female  adalts 

12 

Annaberg,  Saxony, 

May  28,  1884. 


GEO.  E.  BULLOCK, 

Consul. 


LABOR  in'  EUROPE GERMANY.  455 

SAXON  HOUSE-INDUSTRY. 

(Snpplemont   to   Consul  Bullock's   "Labor    Report."     Republished   from   Consular 

Reports  No.  153.) 

The  consular  district  of  Anuaberg,  which  embraces  the  greater  part  of  the  Saxon 
Erzgebirge  (ore  mountains)  and  Voigtland,  is  one  of  the  most  important  industrial 
districts  of  Gernumy. 

The  district  owes  its  prosperity  and  commercial  imjtortance  mainly  to  its  well- 
organized  honse-industry.  This  form  of  industry,  as  distinguished  from  factory  in- 
dustry, is  that  in  which  the  laborers  manufacture  at  their  own  homes  or  workshops 
articles  for  the  wholesale  dealers  or  merchant  manufacturers.  It  is  diversitied  in  its 
forms  and  manifold  in  its  productions.  As  it  is  met  with  in  this  district,  the  laborers 
work  in  their  own  homes  or  workshops,  with  their  own  tools  and  appliances,  alone  or 
with  assistants,  journeymen  and  apprentices,  who  are  often  all  members  of  the  same 
family.  Those  who  employ  assistants  not  members  of  their  own  families,  and  provide 
for  them  tools,  nuiterial,  and  a  place  to  work,  are  called  masters.  They  are  tiie  skill- 
ful, industrious,  aiul  provident  of  their  class.  In  the  country,  especially  in  fertile 
agricultural  districts,  the  house- industry  is  generally  a  secondary  employment,  and 
is  only  followed  during  the  winter  months,  or  when  the  weather  does  not  admit  of 
outdoor  work. 

Generally,  a  wholesale  dealer  or  merchant  manufacturer  furnishes  the  laborer  or 
master  workman  the  raw  material,  prescribes  the  form  and  kind  of  production,  and 
pays  a  stipulated  ])rice  per  piece  for  the  articles  made  aud  delivered.  In  some 
branches,  for  example,  straw-plaiting  aud  wood-carving,  the  laborer  furnishes  the 
material.  Tools  and  machinery  are  sometimes  provided  by  the  emjdoyers,  and  are 
paid  for  by  the  laborers  in  small  installments. 

The  house-industry  has  many  advantages  for  the  laborer  over  the  factory  industry. 
The  work  is  done  at  home  and  all  the  members  of  the  family  capable  of  working  are 
more  or  less  employed.  Children  are  not  separated  from  their  parents  nor  husbands 
from  their  wives.  The  women  can  care  for  their  children  and  households  aud  the 
daughters  remain  under  the  control  and  protectiou  of  the  family.  The  hours  of  labor 
are  not  tixed,  and  the  labor  itself  is  of  a  kind  least  injurious  to  liealtli.  In  the  coun- 
try during  the  summer  months  the  labor  can  mostly  be  performed  in  the  open  air,  or 
alternated  by  more  healthful  labor  in  the  tields.  All  the  available  working  force 
of  the  family,  without  danger  to  the  person  or  detriment  to  the  morals,  can  be  brought 
into  profitable  emi)loymeiit,  and  the  concentration  ot  large  numbers  of  laborers  in  one 
place  avoided.  Such  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  house  industry.  It  lias,  how- 
ever, its  disadvanta<;es.  It  cau  easily  lead  to  great  aud  lasting  injury  of  chihlreu  by 
stunting  their  bodily  and  mental  development,  since  legal  control  and  regulations  are 
not  easily  applied  and  are  difficult  of  enforcement. 

Unfavorable  seasons,  stagnation  in  trade,  and  commercial  crises  immediately  affect 
those  engaged  in  the  house-industry,  while  they  seldom  reap  their  legitimate  share  of 
the  benelits  of  the  times  of  prosperity.  Low  earnings  in  times  of  long  business  depres- 
sion often  lead  to  injurious  overexertion,  which  in  turn  leads  to  poor  work  and  endan- 
gers the  source  of  livelihood.  But  notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  the  house-in- 
dustry is,  taken  all  in  all,  so  much  more  favorable  for  the  social  and  domestic  relations 
of  the  laborers  and  their  healthful  development  than  any  other  form  of  productive 
industry,  agriculture  alone  excepted,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  it  is  so  limited 
in  its  applicability.  Modern  inventions  have  narrowed  the  field  of  its  profitable  em- 
ployment until  few  articles  are  left  for  its  production.  It  can  only  exist  where  it  is 
technically  impossible  or  impracticable  to  employ  large  and  expensive  machinery  in 
cheap  aud  manifold  production,  or  where  a  division  of  labor  will  not  materially  re- 
duce the  cost  of  production.  These  conditions  still  exist  in  the  following  branches 
of  industry:  Straw-plaiting,  basket-making,  wood-carving,  glove-making,  fine  em- 
broidering, and  lace  and  passtmenterie  making,  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers, 
millinery  goods,  small  articles  ofrertu,  aud  inlaid  work. 

Nearly  all  of  these  branches  of  industry  are  represented  in  this  district,  and  pro- 
vide the  means  of  sustenance  for  hundreds  of  families. 

In  Annaberg  aud  its  vicinity  pillow  or  cushicm  laces  and  passemeniene (gimps,  trim- 
mings, &.C.)  are  the  principal  articles  of  production.  Their  manufacture  is  well 
ada])ted  to  the  conditions  of  a  thickly  populated  and  mountainous  region  where  agri- 
culture is  not  remunerative,  and  where  there  are  no  large  factories  to  give  employ- 
ment to  the  people.  The  requirements  for  manufacturing  pillow-lace  are  few  and 
simple.  The  necessary  implements,  material,  and  finished  goods  occupy  but  little 
room,  and  the  implements  can  be  provided  at  a  very  small  cost.  The  principal  im- 
plements for  making  this  lace  is  a  cylinder-formed  cushion  or  pillow,  over  which  a  strip 
of  paper  stimped  with  the  pattern  to  be  worked  is  laid.  The  bobbins  comi)leto  the 
outfit.  These  are  little  pieces  of  wood,  4  to()  inches  long,  turned  exactly  in  the  shape 
of  drum-sticks,  upon  which  the  threads  are  wound  and  over  which  there  are  wooden 


456  LABOR  IN  EUEOPE GERMANY. 

shells  for  keeping  the  threads  clean.  As  many  threads  as  the  pattern  requires  are 
wound  upon  as  many  bobbins,  and  their  ends  tied  together  and  fastened  to  the  cush- 
ion froui  which  the  bobbins  hang. 

The  numl)er  of  bobbins  is  according  to  the  width  of  the  lace,  and  varies  from  20 
to  100.  The  pattern  is  fastened  to  the  cushion  by  pins  which  mark  the  form  of  the 
meshes,  and  the  number  of  pins  depends  uj)on  the  width  of  the  pattern  and  fineness 
of  the  meshes.  The  meshes  are  formed  by  a  skillful  manipulation  of  the  bobbins,  and 
as  the  lace  is  finished  the  pins  are  moved  forward. 

The  dexterity  and  ninibleness  of  finger  displayed  by  the  lace-makers  are  truly  as- 
tonishing, and  can  only  be  attained  by  years  of  practice  begun  in  early  childliood. 
Ciiildren  frequently  begin  to  learn  lace-making  at  the  early  age  of  five,  and  wlien 
they  are  of  school  age  they  are  admitted  to  the  schools  for  lace-makers,  where  they 
spend  the  greater  part  of  the  time  not  required  by  their  attendance  at  the  plemeutary 
schools. 

In  order  to  provide  better  instruction  in  lace-making  and  introduce  new  and  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  laces  and  methods  of  making  them,  the  Royal  Saxon  Government  has 
encouraged  the  establishment  of  lace-schools  by  granting  them  an  annual  pecuniary 
aid.  But  the  municipalities  generally  bear  the  greater  part  of  the  expense  of  these 
schools. 

In  184;^  Herr  Schreiber,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Dresden,  conceived  the  idea  of  in- 
troducing the  manufacture  of  Brussels  lace  into  Saxony,  and  in  pursuance  thereof  he 
undertook  a  journey  to  Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  accompanied  by  a  young  man 
who  was  known  for  his  great  cleverness  and  skill  in  designing  and  making  laces. 
After  Herr  Schreiber  and  his  jyrote'ge  had  obtained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  meth- 
ods of  manufacturing  laces  in  these  countries,  they  returned  home,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing succeeded,  after  persistent  effort,  in  having  established  at  Oberwiesenthal,  on 
the  Bohemian  frontier,  a  school  of  instruction  in  lace-making,  with  the  special  object 
of  preparing  teachers  in  the  art  of  making  Brussels  lace. 

The  experiment  was  from  the  beginning  a  decided  success,  and  was  not  long  in  find- 
ing imitation  in  other  towns  and  villages.  In  these  schools,  of  which  the  one  at 
Schneeberg  is  the  most  important,  the  instruction  is  entirely  technical,  and  is  con- 
fined solely  to  lace-making. 

The  lace  made  at  the  schools  is  sold,  and  the  i)roceeds,  sometimes  no  inconsider.able 
sum,  are  apjilied  towards  payment  of  current  expenses.  The  school  at  Schneeberg  is 
for  teachers  only.  It  provides  instruction  in  designing  patterns  and  making  the  finer 
kinds  of  laces.  Its  success  has  been  very  marked,  and  the  recent  progress  in  the 
Saxon  lace  industry  towards  regaining  its  former  importance  is,  in  a  great  measure, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  this  school. 

The  lace  trade  does  not  difier  in  its  organization  from  that  of  other  products  of  the 
house-industry. 

Formerly,  lace-markets  were  held  where  the  lace-makers  oftered  their  goods  for 
sale.  The  most  important  of  these  markets  was  the  one  held  at  Annaberg;  but  now 
the  lace-makers  generally  work  for  the  wholesale  dealers,  most  of  whom  have  their 
places  of  business  in  Annaberg  or  Buchholz. 

The  wholesale  dealer  furnishes  the  material  and  prescribes  the  pattern  and  quality 
of  goods  to  he  made,  and  the  time  of  delivery  of  the  same.  Expcrii-ncc  has  shown 
this  method  to  be  the  most  advantageous  for  both  laborers  and  merchants.  Tlie  latter 
quickly  discern  what  kinds  of  patterns  and  laces  are  in  favor  with  the  fashionable 
world,  and  can  most  readily  etfect  a  timely  change  in  the  production. 

PASSEMENTERIE. 

Another  important  house-industry  which  flourishes  in  this  district,  the  products  of 
wliich  are  largely  exjiorted  to  the  United  States,  is  the  manufacture  of  possemenU'vie. 
Under  the  term  j>fl.s.s('((u»/<'»j(Mire  included  })lain  and  beaded  gimjis  and  Irinimings, 
and  dress  and  funiiturt;  oi  niiments,  &c.  This  industry  is  said  to  owe  its  introduction 
into  Saxony  to  refugees  from  the  Netherlands,  who  fled  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
Duke  of  Alva.  Simi)le  and  inexi)ensive  machines,  which  occupy  but  little  s])ace,  and 
which  almost  always  belong  to  the  laborer,  are  now  generally  used  by  the  jjasaemen- 
<me-maker.  Since  1H60  this  industry  has  greatly  incieased,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
in  this  consular  district  *J.^),(iOO  to  30,000  persons — men,  women,  and  children — gain 
their  living  1)y  making  ^}«.s.ve»icH/fj'?e. 

At  Buchholz,  near  Annaberg,  there  is  a  well-attended  passemenierie  .school,  which 
is  partly  8n])])orted  by  the  municipality  and  i)artly  by  the  Royal  Government.  This 
school  has  been  of  grejit  servict;  in  sending  out  skillful  workers  and  teachers,  and 
has  done  a  great  deal  toward  the  ])roniotion  of  the  industry  by  introducing  new  and 
improved  methods  and  kimls  of  ])ioduc1ion.  To  it  is  partly  attributable  the  ability 
of  the  Saxon  paxi-oncntcrie  industry  to  con»i)e(e  successfully  with  that,  of  France. 

The  aujinal  exjiorlations  ol'  pant<enniit(r'if  from  this  consular  district  to  the  United 
States  amount  in  declared  value  to  about  $1,500, 0(  0. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  457 

MUSICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

An  important  and  growing  industry  of  this  district  is  the  niannfacture  of  musical 
instruiuents.  The  i)riucii)al  scat  of  this  indnstiy  is  at  Markneukirchen,  called  the 
Saxon  Cremona,  a  place  of  6,000  to  7,000  inhabitants.  From  a  small  beginning  it  has 
gradually  and  against  many  obstacles  developed  into  a  nourishing  industry,  which 
gives  many  thousands  of  hands  steady  and  remunerative  employment.  It  owes  its 
foundation  to  Bohemian  exiles,  who  were  driven  from  their  homes  on  account  of  their 
religious  faith  after  the  close  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

It  wouJd  be  tedious  to  recite  all  the  phases  of  the  development  of  this  industry 
into  its  present  proportions.  It  now  includes  the  manufacture  of  stringed  and  wind 
instruments  of  every  description,  and  gives  employment  to  the  inhabitants  of  thirty 
villages,  of  which  Markneukirchen  and  Kliugenthal  are  the  most  important. 

Through  all  the  stages  of  its  progress  and  against  the  competition  of  machinery 
and  the  advantages  of  accumulated  capital,  tlie  manufacture  of  musical  instruments 
in  Saxony  has  nuiintained  its  character  as  a  house-industry.  The  workmen  finish  the 
instruments  in  their  own  workshops,  and  sell  them  to  the  wholesale  dealers.  There 
are  only  a  few  factories  in  which  any  considerable  number  of  hands  are  employed, 
and  these  are  almost  exclusively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  brass  instruments. 
Formerly  the  merchant  manufacturers  furnished  the  material,  and  deducted  its  price 
on  delivery  of  the  finished  articles ;  but  tills  practice  has  almost  entirely  ceased.  The 
material  is  now  generally  furnished  by  special  dealers,  who  demand  cash  payment. 
The  imitation  ot  the  prodr.ctions  of  the  celebrated  old  violin-makers  is  i*  special 
branch  of  the  Markneukirchen  industry,  which  has  of  late  years  attained  great  im- 
portance. The  violins  m:ide  by  the  old  masters,  Stradivari,  Guarneri,  Amati,  Mag- 
gini,  Stainer,  and  others,  are  not  only  imitated  in  form,  hut  the  marks  of  the  old 
masters  and  the  semblance  of  antiquity  are  repi'oduced  with  such  perfection  that 
even  experts  have  often  declared  the  imitations  to  be  genuine.  It  requires  great  skill 
and  experience  to  make  these  imitations,  and  comparatively  high  prices  are  paid  for 
them.  They  find  sale  at  home  and  abroad  ;  but  Russia  and  the  United  States  are  said 
to  be  the  best  markets  for  them.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  great  majority  of 
instances  the  happy  possessors  of  "old  cremonas,"  of  whom  we  frequently  read  no- 
tices in  the  American  newspapers,  own,  after  all,  only  Markneukirchen  imitations. 

Following  is  a  statement  of  the  exports  from  this  consular  district  to  the  United 
States  for  the  first  quarter  of  1883 : 

Buttons  and  button  covers $20,332 

Dress  trimmings 163,780 

Embroideries 41, 326 

Kid  gloves 61,410 

Laces 23,391 

Musical  goods ■  220, 280 

Sundries 2, 273 

Total 532,792 

GEO.  E.  BULLOCK, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Annaberg,  Saxony,  May  26,  1883. 


SILESIA. 

^  REPORT  BY  OONSVL  DITHMAR^  OF  BRESLAU. 

INTRODUCTORY   AND   EXPLANATORY. 

In  submitting  herewith  my  report  on  labor,  the  cost  of  living,  and 
kindred  matters,  as  directed  by  circular  of  February  15,  received  here 
March  24,  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  the  full  information  called  for  by 
the  circular  could  not  be  obtained,  owing,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  lack 
of  statistics  on  the  subject;  in  the  second,  to  the  positive  refusal  of  most 
of  the  persons,  official  and  otherwise,  to  whom  I  applied  to  answer  the 


458  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

inquiries  addressed  to  tbem.  Thus,  the  secretary  of  the  central  agri- 
cultural association,  to  which  the  district  associatious  are  subordinate, 
declined  to  give  any  inforuiation  regarding  the  condition  of  agricultural 
laborers  and  the  wages  they  receive.  In  an  interview  with  the  director 
of  the  statistical  bureau,  that  gentleman  promised  to  render  all  the  as- 
sistance in  his  power.  After  the  lapse  of  four  weeks,  he  sent  me,  instead 
of  the  ])romised  statistics,  a  few  i)ages  printed  four  years  ago,  and  ab- 
solutely worthless  as  materials  for  this  report.  Others  to  whom  I 
applied  gave  either  an  evasive  reply  or  a  decided  refusal,  while  the 
manager  of  one  of  the  largest  giafss  factories  in  the  district,  wished  "to 
know  if  the  consul  had  the  permission  of  the  foreign  office  for  making 
such  inquiries ;  if  not,  I  [he]  would  like  to  ask  the  minister  of  commerce 
if  it  would  be  proper  to  answer  them." 

He  has  since  written  that  the  Government  seemed  to  have  no  objec- 
tion, and  sent  a  few  lines  from  which  1  could  glean  no  useful  facts. 

1  had  in  the  meanwhile  procured  the  information  he  was  so  anxious 
to  withhold  from  another  quarter. 

A  prominent  porcelain  manufacturer  and  exporter  to  the  United  States 
replied  that  "  for  certain  reasons  "  he  declined  to  give  the  information 
asked  for. 

Others  simplj'  failed  to  respond.  There  seemed  to  be  some  adverse 
influence  at  work. 

The  inquiries  contained  in  the  first  paragraph  of  Part  II  of  the  cir- 
cular it  would  be  impossible  to  answer  without  a  thorough  canvass  of 
the  district,  which,  were  it  permitted,  could  only  be  done  at  great  ex- 
pense. All  eftbrts  to  obtain  the  returns  for  this  province  of  the  "  occu- 
pation census"  taken  two  years  ago  were  unavailing. 

Those  for  the  city  of  Breslau,  having  been  printed,  are  given  herewith* 
The  blank  forms  sent  with  the  circular  I  am  also  unable  to  fill  out  as 
desired,  for  the  reason  that  in  most  cases  the  information  could  only  be 
got  in  the  incomplete  form  here  given. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  disinclination  to  furnish  the  desired  in- 
formation, I  have  been  able  to  gather  many  interesting  facts  and  statis- 
tics from  all  parts  of  the  i>roviuce,  and  am  under  obligations  to  the  chief 
of  the  mining  bureau,  to  Mr.  Frank  Valk,  and  to  Trades  Councilor 
Frief,  who  has  a  iienchant  for  labor  statistics,  and  whose  i)ositiou  en- 
ables him  to  indulge  it  to  its  fullest  extent. 

The  board  of  magistrates'  official  list  of  mechanics'  wages,  made  up 
for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  dues  to  be  deducted  for  the  state  sick  fund, 
to  which  a  brief  allusion  is  made  in  the  report,  has  since  been  sent  to 
this  office. 

It  is  a  rather  cumbrous  document,  and  the  useful  facts  it  contains  are 
already  given  under  the  head  of  "General  trades." 

Among  some  curiosities  of  the  list,  showing  that  all  contingencies  are 
prepared  for,  are  the  wages  of  female  chimney-sweeps,  female  truck  and 
cab-drivers,  and  other  extraordinary  female  occupations. 

I  had  intended  to  make  a  better  copy  of  the  rei)ort  for  transmission 
to  the  Department,  but  as  the  preparation  of  it  has  occupied  a  longer 
time  than  was  anticipated  I  have  determined  to  forward  it  without  fur- 
ther delay,  especially  as  the  machinery  exhibition  opens  tomorrow  and 
I  have  a  report  on  agricultural  machinery  to  finish. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


459 


RATES   OF  WAGES. 


The  following  list  of  salaries  and  wages  per  year  paid  in  this  city 
was  prepared  by  the  tax  commission  as  a  basis  for  assessing  the  com- 
munal income  tax,  and  may  therefore  be  considered  official: 


Occupations. 


Apothecaries'  assistants 

Prescription  clerks 

Baters 

Barbers 

Billiard-table  makers 

Brewers 

Book-binders 

Book-keepers : 

In  larire  establishments 

In  smaller  establishments.. 

Brush-makers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Boiler-makers 

Button-makers 

Basket-makers 

Chimney-sweeps  

Coopers 

Carpenters 

Cigai-makers 

Clerks: 

In  large  establishments.  ...- 

In  smaller  establishments.. 

Confectioners 

Comb-makers 

Coppersmiths 

Cork-cutters 

Distillers 

Dyers 

Die-sinkers  and  engravers 

File-makers 

Furriers 

Foremen  in  the  building  trades 

Gardeners 

Glaziers 


Average 
wages. 


$297  50 
369  00 
178  50 
142  80 
226  10 
142  80 
196  60 

440  30 
261  80 
142  80 
196  60 
196  60 
196  60 
142  80 
142  80 
196  60 
196  60 
142  80 
142  80 

261  80 
196  60 
196  60 
142  80 
196  60 
196  60 
142  80 
196  60 
196  60 
196  60 
142  80 
226  10 
142  80 
142  80 


Occupations. 


(Goldsmiths 

Goldbeaters 

Glove-makers 

Glove-cutters 

Hairdressers 

House  porters 

Hotel  porters 

Instrument  makers 

Laborers 

Lithographers 

Masons  and  brick-layers 

Machinists  .  ^- 

Metal-turners 

Molders 

Paper-hangers 

Pump-niakers 

Pattern-makers 

Painters 

Portrait  (photograph)  painters 

Printers 

Roofers 

Sculptors  (in  stucco) 

Stuccoers 

Soap-makers 

Saddlers 

Shoemakers 

Type-founders 

Tanners  .   

Tinsmiths    

Turners  in  wood,  ivory,  &c 

Waiters 

In  hotels 

In  first-class  hotels 

Wire- workers  

Wheelwrights 


Average 

wages. 

$226  1 

196  60 

196  60 

226  10 

196  60 

99  60 

196  60 

196  60 

107  10 

196  60 

142  80 

226  10 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

226  10 

196  60 

297  50 

226  10 

142  80 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

142  80 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

196  60 

142  80 

196  60 

297  50 

142  80 

GENERAL  TRADES. 


The  following  list  is  the  resnlt  of  inquiries,  made  by  a  reliable  person 
for  the  purpose  of  this  report,  among  masters  as  well  as  workmen  : 

Wages  paid  per  iceek  of  sixty  hours  in  Breslau. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 

Brick -layers  and  masons $2  86 

Hod-carriers 2  10 

Plasterers  and  stuccoers 3  57 

Tenders 2  19 

Slaters 2  34 

Roofers 2  19 

Tenders   1  72 

Plumbers    3  S'i 

Cai  penters 2  58 

Gas-fitters 1  72 

Assistants 1  72 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers*  (with  board  and  lodging) 65 

Bakers*  (without  board  and  lodging) 2  58 

Blacksmiths 2  86 

Strikers 2  43 

Book-binders I  2  34 


$4  57 
2  50 
4  00 

2  81 
4  29 

3  72 
2  58 
6  43 
2  72 

4  00 
2  58 


2  38 

3  57 

4  29 

3  57 

4  86 


$3  60 

2  19 

3  70 
2  38 
2  81 
2  81 

2  19 
5  00 

3  00 
2  86 
2  19 


1  43 
3  09 
3  67 

2  86 
2  86 


460  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  per  weelc  of  sixty  hours  in  Breslan — Continued. 


Occupations. 


Othek  trades — Continued. 

Brick-uiakers 

Brewers ■■ 

Butcliois  (witli  board  and  lodging) 

Brassfoniiders 

Cabiiu'tinakers : 

Joiners -* 

Furniture •- 

Confectioners*  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Cigar-makers: 

Males 

Females 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers  (with  hoard  and  lodging) 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab"an#  carriage 

Street  railway  (per  month) 

Street  railway  conductors  (per  month) 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners : 

Male  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Female  (with  board  and  lodging) 

Hatters • 

Horseslioers  . .  I 

Jewelers \ 

Laborers,  porters,  &.C 

Lithographers 

Machinists 

Millwrights 

Nail-makers,  hand  (part  board  and  lodging) 

Potters  and  (tile)  stove-setters 

Printers: 

Pressmen 

Compositors 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanners 

Tailois 

Telegraph  operators per  month 

Tinsmiths 


Lowest. 


$1  19 
2  86 

1  43 

2  86 

4  29 
4  29 

1  19 

2  00 

1  30 

2  86 
2  33 


1  19 

2  19 
12  86 
14  28 

1  43 

2  86 

3  14 


86 
1  72 


Highest  I  Average. 


2  19 

2  86 

1  43 

4  29 

3  57 

3  43 

58 

1  72 

5  58 

5  34 

2  19 

2  19 

2  43 

17  85 

1  72 

$2  86 

3  72 
2  19 

6  43 

5  00 
6-43 

2  62 

4  15 

3  57 

4  86 
3  57 
2  57 

2  86 

3  57 
16  66 
19  04 

4  29 

7  14 

5  14 

2  19 

1  43 

4  00 

5  72 
11  42 

3  57 
5  92 
5  00 

5  14 

2  86 

2  58 

7  72 

6  43 

3  57 
3  57 

3  91 
35  70 

4  29 


$1  91 

3  33 
1  80 

4  76 

4  76 
4  76 

1  91 

2  86 

2  38 

3  57 
2  86 

1  43 

2  GO 
2  40 


2  86 

3  51 

3  57 

1  43 

1  08 

2  86 
2  86 
5  00 
2  38 

4  76 
4  29 

4  29 

1  91 

2  19 

5  72 
5  72 
2  86 
2  86 
2  86 

2  "86 


*  Eighty  hours. 

The  board  of  magistrates  liave  also,  since  the  1st  of  May,  prepared  a 
statement  of  the  wages  received  by  the  journeymen  mechanics  and  their 
laborers  in  this  city,  for  the  guidance  of  the  trades  guihls  in  levying  tlie 
contributions  for  the  "  sick  funds."  An  effort  was  made  to  obtain  this 
list,  but  up  to  the  ])resent  writing  without  success.  Tlie  list  of  the 
.wages  paid  in  this  administrative  district  to  day-laborers,  prepared  by 
the  district  authorities  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  sick -fund 
law,  is  as  follows  : 

City  of  Breslau  : 

Males  over  sixteen  years per  day . .  $0  .38 

Females  over  sixteen  years do •<J4 

Males  under  sixteen  years do 19 

Females  under  sixteen  years do 14J 

Breslau  suburban  district: 

Males  over  sixteen  years do 21| 

Females  over  sixteen  years  do 15J 

Males  and  tenuiles  uiuler  sixteen  years do 12 

The  lowest  i)oint  in  this  scale  is  reached  at  the  town  of  Militsch, 
where  males  over  sixteen  are  i)aid  -!0i,  females  over  sixteen  and  males 
under  sixteen  12,  and  females  under  sixteen  7  cents  per  day. 

In  confirmation  of  the  correctness  of  this  of(i(;ial  statement  of  the 
wages  of  day- laborers,  the  fact  may  be  mentioned  that  a  large  number 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


461 


of  able-bodied  men  are  at  present  preparing  additional  irrigation  fields 
for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  this  city  a  few  miles  down  the  river. 
They  are  paid  38  cents  a  day,  working  hours,  eleven.  The  contractor 
says  he  could  get  double  the  number  of  men  at  the  same  rate  at  a  few 
hours'  notice. 

AVERAGE   WAGES   IN    SILESIA. 

Basing  his  estimate  on  reports  received  from  thirty-eight  cities  and 
towns  in  the  province,  a  collector  of  labor  statistics  gives  the  following 
as  the  average  weekly  wages  and  hours  for  the  occupations  named : 


Occupatious. 


Amount. 


Masons : 

Foremen 

J  ourneymen 

Laborers 

Carpenters 

Smiths   

Tailors 

Shoemakers 

Machinists 

Power-loom  weavers 

Wool  spinners 

Other  skilled  factory  hands 

Factory  laborers 

Garden  laborers 

Field  laborers 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  and  seventy-two  hours  in  a  cotton  and  linen  weaving  mill  in 

Surau,  Lusatia. 

fSeventy-two  hours  per  week.] 


Occupations. 


Overseers 

Loom  preparers 

Weavers 

Bleachers 

Manglers 

Women  : 

Weavers 

Spoolers 

Girls  : 

Spoolers 

Packers'  assistants. 


Lowest. 


$3  57 


1  67 
1  91 


1  43 
1  29 

83i 
73i 


Highest.    Average. 


$4  76 
2  86 
2  38 
2  14 
2  86 

2  12 
1  71 

1  07 
1  00 


$4  29 


1  91 


1  67 
1  43 


Wages  in  cotton- spinning  mill  in  Middle  Silesia. 

[Eleven  hours  per  day.l 

'  Per  annum. 

15  overlookers,  assistants,  and  skilled  workmen  $214 

56  male  operatives 178 

18  female  operatives 143 

107  female  operatives 108 

93  female  operatives 89 

120  female  operatives 72 

Wages  in  cotton-weaving  mill  in  Middle  Silesia. 

15  overseers,  forwarders,  and  mechanics per  annum . .  $250  00  to  $425  00 

50  operatives*' per  week . .  2  38             2  86 

245employ6s» do....  1  67             2  02 

202employos*  do....  1  19           '1  67 

*  Per  week  of  sixty-six  hours. 


462 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Another  cotton-weaving  mill  in  Middle  Silesia. 

6  superiuteiidents  and  skilled  workmen per  annum.. 

17  overlookers,  forwarders,  and  warehousemen  do 

75  male  and  female  operatives*  ..: per  week.. 

91)  male  and  female  operatives* do 

189  male  and  female  operatives*  do 

82  male  and  female  operatives*  do 


$3-21  00  to  §476  00 
214  00         321  00 
2  38  2  86 

2  15  2  38 

1  67  2  15 

1  43  1  67 


Weekly  wages  in  spinning  and  iceaving  mill  in  Lowei'  Silesia, 


Occupations. 


Flax  hacklers 

Foreiiien  of  carders... 
Spiuuers  by  the  piece 

Reelers,  females 

Weavers,  foremen  — 

Weavers 

Weavers,  piece-work. 

Fiuishers  

Manglers 


Lowest. 


$2  19 
2  19 

2  19 
1  43 

1  09 

3  43 

2  62 

1  43 

2  86 


Highest. 


$2  38 
2  86 
2  86 

"3  81 

1  67 

2  86 

2  86 

3  09 


Occupations. 


Female  spinners 

Laborers 

Reelers 

Finishers'  assistants 

Warpers 

Dyers 

Dyers'  assistants 

Firemen 

Machine-cleaners 


Lowest. 


$1  43 
1  67 
1  43 

1  67 

2  14 
2  38 

1  91 

2  38 
2  14 


Highest. 


$1  67 
2  19 
2  19 

1  91 

2  38 


2  14 
2  62 
2  38 


Linen  spinning  and  weaving  mill  in  Lower  Silesia. 

[Per  day  of  eleven  hours.] 

20  persons $0  96 

50  persons 57 

100  persons 48 

100  persons 36 

150  persons 30 

250  i)erson8  (women) 24 

250  persons  (women  and  minors) 19 

270  persons  (minors) 14 

Wages  in   bleaching,  finishing,  and  mangling  works  in  Middle  Silesia. 

[Per  day  of  eleven  hours.] 

14  male  employds per  week . .   $2  86  to  $3  57 

64  female  enipioy<5s do 2  10  2  86 

34  female  employ6s do 1  43  2  10 

45  female  employ ds,  per  week,  at  less  than 1  43 


Wages  in  woolen  cloth  mill  in  Lower  Silesia. 

[Per  day  of  eleven  hours.] 

20  operatives per  annum . 

54  operatives do . . . 


43  00 
86  00 


Wages  in  wool-s}n7tning  mill  t7^  Middle  Silesia. 
[Per  week  of  sixty-six  hours.] 

60  male  and  female  operatives $1  43 

280  male  and  female  operatives $1  43  to     1  92 

80  male  and  female  operatives 1  91          2  38 

30  male  and  female  operatives 2  38          3  57 

H  overseers  and  head  overseers 7  14 

50  mechanics  and  overseers 3  57          7  14 


Per  week  of  sixty-six  hours. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  463 

Weekly  wages  in  shoddy  mill  in  Middle  Silesia. 

[Per  day  of  eleven  hours.] 

50  persons $0  96 

100  persons $0  96  to     1  30 

57  persons 1  30          2  38 

lu  persons 2  38          3  34 

Daily  xvages  in  sugar  factory  in  Upper  Silesia. 

[Per  (lay  of  twelve  hours.  1 

Engineer  and  coppersmith $1  19 

Weigher 60 

2  smiths,  4  head  workmen $0  36  to        48 

26  men 36 

20  women 24 

Daily  wagers  in  sugar  factory  in  j}rovince  of  Posen. 

[Twelve  hours  per  day.] 

In  beet-root  house  and  yard : 

Men $0  26 

Male  minors $0  19  to       21 

Women 17 

In  bone-charring  house 26            32 

Boiler-house,  hremen 31            36 

Diffusion  and  separating  pan  men 29            34 

Pulp  pressers 29 

Filterers 36            38 

Evaporators 31 

Machine-tenders 26            29 

Lime-burners 36 

Lime-burners'  assistants 29 

Sugar  loft,  grinding  mills,  packing  and  forwarding  : 

Foremen 33 

Other  workmen 29 

Girls 19 

The  work  requiring  technical  knowledge  is  paid  by  the  piece,  the  men  earning 
from  $2.86  to  ^3.58  per  week  of  seventy-two  hours.  Most  of  the  hands  in  this  factory 
get  free  lodging,  and  provisions  and  clothing  at  wholesale  prices. 

Monthly  wages  in  brush  factory  in  Middle  Silesia. 

5  workmen $13to|17  00 

53  workmen 11  00 

25  workmen 6  50 

Ninety-three  (mostly  minors  under  sixteen),  at  7  cents  per  day. 

Yearly  wages  in  chemical  works  in  Middle  Silesia. 

6  persons $2.38 

2  persons 214 

13persons $178to  202 

38  persons 143  167 

6  persons 108  143 

16  i)ersons 72  96 

9  persons 60  72 

Daily  wages  in  chemical  fertilizer  factory. 

[Ten  hours  per  day.] 

1  fat-boiler $0  84 

6  workmen 48 

22  workmen 42 

19  women 19 


464  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

Daily  watjes  in  giiat-mill. 

6  millers $0  72 

4  uiillers 48 

3  laborers 24 

Daih/  ivngts  in  distiUery  in  Upper  Silesia. 

[Eleven  hours  per  day.  J 

1  cooper $0  72 

2  distillers 72 

2  distillers - 48 

3  lirenien 36 

15  laborers 36 

Daily  wages  in  snnff factory  in  Upper  Silesia. 

[Eleven  hoars  per  day.] 

2  foremen  §0  96 

20  men 48 

12  womeu   24 

Weekly  xcages  in  chromo-lithographic  establishment  t?i  Middle  Silesia. 

'i  workmen $7  00 

11  workmen $4  76  to  7  00 

2  workmen 2  86         4  76 

14  workmen 1  67        2  86 

30  workmen,  less  than 1  67 

Daily  wages  in  Portland  cement  works  in  Upper  Silesia. 

3  workmen $0  36 

66  worknien 24 

70  workmen  and  women 24 

Weekly  wages  in  cigar  factory  in  Lotvei'  Silesia. 

Foremen $4  29  to  $7  14 

Ci^ar-makers 2  80  fi  24 

Assistants 1  43  2  14 

Womeu : 

In  winter 48  3  09 

In  summer 48  3  41 

Boys  and  girls  under  sixteen 48  1  43 

Weekly  wages  in  cigar  factory  in  Upper  Silesia. 

Cigar-makers $2  62  to  $2  86 

Womeu  : 

In  winter 72          2  19 

In  summer 2  38 

Boys  uuder  sixteen 1  19 

Girls  under  sixteen 96 

Weekly  wages  in  chocolate  factory. 

Workmen $3  57  to  $4  29 

Day  laborers 1  08  2  14 

Workwomen 1  19  1  91 

Boys  under  sixteen 60  1  19 

Girls  under  sixteen 60  143 

FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Weekly  wages  in  iron  foundry  in  Upper  Silesia. 

2  forenusn $7  20  to  $9  60 

4  workmen 3  57         4  76 

10  workmen 2  68         3  57 

10  workmen 2  15         2  88 

33  workmen 1  43         2  15 

aO  workmen 1  42 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GiJRMANY.  465 

Daihj  wages  in  irou  norks  in  Upper  Sileaia. 

f  Workinf!;  time  twelve  hours.) 

56  forgeiiiiMi  and  first  piuldlcrs $0  84  to  $0  96 

16  welders,  7  hiinimer-drivers 72             79 

145  puddlers,  shean^rs,  eii<riiie-teuder8,  «fcc 60             66 

110  shearsinen,  sinitlis,  firemen,  &c 48             54 

275  unskilled  workmen  and  minora 37             44 

10  day  lal)orers 16f 

Daily  wages  in  tube-rolling  mill  in  Upper  Silesia. 

20  workmen $0  60  to  $0  70 

70  workmen 36             60 

117  workmen 28             36 

Average  daily  wages  of  coppersmitlis  and  boiler-makers  i7i  establishment  in  Middle  Silesia. 

20  married  workmen ■. $0  96 

15  unmarried  workmen 72 

25  married  workn)eu 48 

15  unmarried  workmen 36 

GLASS   AND   PORCELAIN   WORKS. 

JVages  in  glass  factory  in  Lower  Silesia. 

Plate-glasH  makers per  week..  $9  52 

Hollow-glass  makers do 7  19 

Common  workers do $  2  38  to        3  09 

Plate-glass  makers per  year . .  357  00 

Hollow-glass  makers do 286  00 

Bottle  and  mediciue-glass  makers  do 286  00 

Glass-grinders do 357  00 

Melters , do 191  00        357  00 

Glass-makers'  assistants do 167  00 

Learners do 52  00 

Pattern-makers do 155  00 

Pot-makers do 219  00 

Pot-tenders do 108  00 

Clay-workers  and  packers do 96  00 

Other  assistants do 86  00 

Women  and  girls do 48  00 

Weekly  wages  in  porcelain  factory . 

[Per  week  of  sixty-six  hours.] 

Head  painter,  head  turner,  and  foremen $6  43 

Porcelain  painters  and  turners $3  57  to    4  76 

Saggar  turners  and  decorators 2  86          3  57 

Kiln-house  workers 2  19         2  38 

Glazers  (females)... L 1  19          1  43 

Women : 

In  winter 72          1  49 

I n  summer 72          2  29 

Boys  and  girls  under  sixteen 1  05 

MINES   AND   MINING. 

Average  wages  per  week  in  coal  mines. 

Overlookers,  engineers,  mine  carpenters,  and  others  not  on  scale $3  06 

Miners 3  32 

Mine  laborers %l  98  to    2  16 

Outside  laborers. 2  10 

Women 1  \Q 

Minors 93 

y2  A— LAB 30 


466 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Average  wages  per  week  in  iron  mines. 

Miners ?2  0:5  to  $2  96 

Engneers  and  smiths 2  19         3  57 

Mine  masons  and  carpenters 2  19  3  57 

Mine  laborers 1  31        2  36 

Women  and  minors 70        1  24 

Average  wages  per  week  in  zinc  andlcad  mines. 

Overlookers  and  others  not  on  scale $2  79 

Miners 2  40 

Laborers  in  mines 1  98 

Laborers'  assistants 1  (J2 

Outside  laborers 1  92 

Women , 1  05 

Minors 97 

RAILWAY   EMPLOYIES. 

JVages  paid  to  railway  employes  in  Breslau. 

Engineers:  $285  to  $425  per  year,  and  $47.60  bonus  for  rent,  with  slight  additions 
for  night  trains  and  mileage,  and  deduction  of  $1.50  a  month  for  clothing  and  various 
benefit  funds 

Conductors  :  $249  to  $285.60,  with  rent  and  deductions  sam6  as  engineers. 

Brakemen  who  also  act  as  couductors :  $185.64  to  $235.62;  reut,  $42.84  ;  extras  and 
deductions  same  as  above. 

Brakemen,  second  class:  $188.20,  with  slight  extra  allowance  for  night  service. 

Brakemen,  third  class  (without  permanent  engagement)  :  33  to  36  cents  per  day,. 
with  slight  extra  allowance  as  above. 

Oilers:  38,  40,  and 43  cents  per  day,  with  slight  extra  allowance  for  vigilance  and 
economy,  and  a  fine  of  48  cents  for  every  "  hot  box." 

Freight  and  baggage  masters  :  $235.62  to  $249.90  per  year,  with  $48  rent  bonus,  and 
deductions  same  as  eugiueers. 

Firemen :  $214.20  to  $285  per  year,  bonus  for  rent,  and  deductions  same  as  brake- 
men,  first  class. 

Switch-tenders:  $185.64  to  $235.62,  and  bonus  of  $14.28  for  rent;  extra  allowance 
for  night  service. 

Sigual-men  and  line  watchmen :  $185.64  to  $235.62,  and  free  rent,  or  bonus  of  $14.28 ; 
extra  allowance  same  as  brakemen  of  second  class. 

Car-shunters  and  other  workmen  about  stations:  36  to  48  cents  per  day. 

Track-repairers  and  other  laborers:  37  to  48  cents  per  day. 

Wages  paid  in  ship-yards  and  to  seamen. 

Under  this  head  little  can  be  said  here.  Of  the  small  boats  that  ply  on  the  Oder,  a 
few  only  are  built  here,  and  the  wages  of  the  builders  are  from  48  to  83  cents  a  day.  The 
boat's  crew  is  giiuerally  composed  of  two  men  and  a  boy ;  wages,  from  20  to  40  cents  a 
day.  The  small  steamboats  that  run  on  excursion  trijjs  to  and  from  the  city  during 
the  summer  and  serve  as  tugs  in  the  winter,  are  manned  by  a  captain,  who  is  usually 
part  owner,  an  engineer,  who  is  also  fireman,  and  a  deck  hand,  who  is  also  steersman- 
Wages  of  these  two  latter,  37  to  60,  and  30  to  48  cents  per  day. 

STORE   AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  sixty  hours  in  stores  iti  Breslau. 


Occupations. 


"Wholesale: 

Cotiutiiig-liouHe  clerks,  book-keepers,  &c 

Salesmen,  warobousemen,  ifec 

Ketail : 

Clerks  and  book-keepers 

Salesmen 

Saleswomen 

Porters 


Lowest. 


$4  76 
4  76 

3  57 
3  57 
1  91 
1  43 


Higkest. 


$10  72 
7  19 

7  14 
7  14 
7  14 
2  66 


Average 


$8  50 
6  00 

5  00 
5  20 
4  76 
1  78 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY 

Wages  in  first-cIass  milUnery  and  drcss-maldng  establishments. 

Clerks,  book-keepers,  and  salesiDen perraontli..  $S  57 

Directress do 17  Ho 

Salcsw  omen do 4  7f) 

Apjirentiees do 3  H7 

Macliine-sewers per  week..  2  38 

Seamstresses per  day..  l(i^ 

Portei  s  and  messengers per  week . .  2  38 

For  making  an  ordinary  dress 1  67 

For  making  a  stylish  dress 2  86 


4.67 


to  S107 

00 

71 

40 

32 

57 

7 

19 

3 

57 

t 

24 

3  57 

2  38 

5 

96 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

jraijes  paid  jnr  quarter  to  household  servants  in  Silesia. 

In  cities  and  on  large  estates: 

General  servants .|6  43  to  $11  00 

Cooks 10  72        13  28 

Nurse  girls 3  57  6  43 

In  small  towns  and  villages 4  29  6  43 

The  cnstom  is  almost  universal  of  giving  house  servants,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
year,  gifts  in  money  or  goods  equal  at  least  to  one  quartei's  wages.  The  same  cus- 
tom is  observed  in  regard  to  the  saleswomen  in  many  of  the  retail  stores. 

AGRICULTTRAL   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  to  agricultural  laborers  in  Silesia. 


Men  ... 
"Womeii . 


Highest. 


$2  14 
1  79 


Lowest.     Average. 


$1  45 
1  07 


CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 

Salaries  and  unges  per  annum  paid  to  the  corporation  officers  and  employes  in  the  city  of 

Breslau. 

[With  bonus  for  rent.] 


Occupations. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


City  government :  I 

First  and  second  hui<:omaster $4,  641  00  i$2,  856  00 

Chief  of  fire  bi-igaiie  and  building  inspectors I  1,713  00  1,428  00 

City  clerk,  pawn-othce  keeper,  tirst  accountant  and  auditors  of  city  j  1,086  00  785  43 
tieasurv  and  savings  institution.                                                            | 

Chief  clerks I  990  60  571  20 

Clerks  I  571  20  428  40 

Tax-office  clerks 851  80  499  80 

Special  accountants 963  90  642  60 

Book-keepers 571  20  428  40 

Various  bureau  assistants 428  40  285  60 

Tax  office  and  treasury  assistants 428  40  285  60 

Tax  collectors 428  40  285  60 

Inspectors  and  fire  engineers 667  59  428  40 

Officers  of  city  warehouse  and  yard,  markets  and  octroi 642  60  214  20 

Surveyors,  overseers  of  public  buildings  and  river  improvements..  720  00  430  00 

Officers  of  gas  and  water  works 861  08  392  70 

City  lil>rarian |  900  00  1,060  10 

Custodiansof  city  library !  509  32  390  32 

Messengers 355  80  279  88 

Executors 214  00  j  178  00 

Night  watchmen:                                                                                                      i  I 

Masters  of  the  watch 271  32  |  27132 

Sergeants I  103  54  103  54 

Watchmen 99  96  i  99  96 


Average. 


fl,627  92 
1,  053  15 

830  90 
549  78 
642  66 
851  80 
549  78 
422  21 
412  69 
438  87 
851  80 
440  00 
586  96 
758  88 

535  50 
362  24 
240  62 

278  46 
103  54 
99  96 


468 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Salaries  and  wages  per  annum  paid  to  the  corporation  officers  and  employes  in  the  city  of 

Breslau — Contiuued. 


Occupations. 


Fire  brigade : 

Foremen — -. 

Firemen   

Haud-eu^rino  men  

Street  cleaners : 

Overseers 

Stable-keeper 

Cartmen — 

Sweepers  

Sewer  and  culveit  cleaners  per  day. 

Gas  and  water  pipe  and  sewer  men do... 

Pavers do. .. 

Schools — salaries  per  annum,  with  bonus  for  rent  :* 

Directors  of  the  Gymnasia 

Teachers  of  the  Gymnasia 

Rectors  (liisher  male  and  female  schools) 

Teachers  (highi-r  male  and  female  schools) 

Elementary  teachers  in  hii^her  schools , 

Directors  of  elementary  schools 

Teachers  of  elementary  schools    

Rector  girls  middle  school  

Teachers 

Teachers  of  gymnastics  (turning) 


Highest.    Lowest. 


Average. 


$349  15 
252  76 
154  25 

260  32 

257  04 

165  00 

186  24 

72 

60 

72 

1,713  60 
1.213  80 
1,  213  80 
996  60 
797  30 
678  30 
571  20 
8.56  00 
761  60 
860  80 


$349  15 
252  76 
154  25 

252  76 

257  04 

152  32 

105  00 

48 

43 

50 

1,428  00 
499  80 

1, 142  40 
380  80 
378  40 
535  50 
286  60 
856  00 
309  40 
571  20 


$354  57 
257  04 
154  25 

257  04 

2.")7  04 

150  13 

135  72 

50 

48 

60 

1,627  92 
886  54 

1,  313  76 
675  44 
577  82 
727  04 
295  32 
998  80 
569  80 
714  00 


*"With  a  dwelling  in  school  building. 
TRADES  AND   LABOR    IN    GOVERNMENT   EMPLOY. 

Besides  officials  and  clerks,  the  persons  in  the  employ  of  the  Govern- 
ment here  are  the  railway  hands  (all  the  Silesian  railways  except  one 
short  line  beiu^  now  the  property  of  the  state)  the  day  police,  telegraphers, 
and  letter-carriers.  The  pay  of  the  latter  is,  in  the  cities  and  larger 
towns,  $193.80  to  $321.30  per  year,  bonus  of  $14.28  for  rent,  and  pen- 
sion, when  retired,  of  $5.71,  $10.71,  and  $19.28  per  month,  according  to 
years  of  service.     In  country  districts,  36  to  48  cents  per  day. 

PRINTERS  AND  PRINTING  OFFICES. 

The  wages  of  compositors  and  pressmen  are  given  under  the  head  of 
general  trades.  It  only  remains  to  be  said  that  a  few  fast  compositors, 
■working  by  the  piece,  and  some  experienced  pressmen  on  illustrated 
work,  earn  a  little  more  than  the  maximum  w^ages  there  given.  In 
piece-work  the  matter  is  measured  by  the  number  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  beginning  with  «,  which  go  in  the  line.  Thus  if  the  line 
takes  in  all  tlie  letters  (lower  case)  of  the  alphabet,  the  measure  is  26 
ens.  By  this  method  of  counting  all  controversy  regarding  lean,  or  con- 
densed type,  or  the  use  of  a  small  face  on  a  large  body,  is  avoided,  and 
the  size  of  the  body  is  always  the  standard  of  measure.  The  iirice  per 
thousand  varies  greatly  throughout  the  district,  being  highest  in  this 
city,  where  the  i)riuters'  union  is  a  strong  body,  and  lowest  in  the 
towns  where  no  union  exists,  or  the  emjiloyers  are  able,  in  spite  of  the 
union,  to  get  workmen  at  the  low  wages  offered.  The  price  paid  by  the 
union  offices  in  this  city  is  8  cents  ])er  thousand  ens ;  the  lowest  i^rice 
paid  in  the  district  is  6  cents.  Professional  proof-readers,  whose  duties 
are  confined  to  their  calling,  are  not  known  here.  The  principal  offices 
here  are  supjilied  with  the  most  modern  machineiy,  stereotype  their 
forms,  and  print  their  newspapers  on  the  "endless  sheet." 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

The  collector  of  labor  statistics  who  prepared  the  table  giving  the 
average  w^ages  and  hours  of  labor  in  this  district,  also  estimates  the 


LA150K    IN    EUROPE GERMANY 


469 


provisions  ooiisunied  by  a  workinginan's  family  of  four  to  five  i^ersons, 
and  the  cost  of  the  same,  to  be  as  follows : 


Provisions  per  montb. 


78  poiimls  of  rye  fl'.iur  .. 
52  poiiniKs  of  wlioiit  flour 

2f  pounds  of  beef 

2g  ]iouncIs  of  pork 

7J  pounds  of  bacon 

3  pounds  of  butter 

3^  bushels  potatoes 

10  quarts  of  milk 

Total 


T„  oii„„:«      In  German 
In  Silesia.       Empire. 


$2  17 
2  08 

$2  60 
2  32 

2  71 

2  62 

71 
26 
36 

75 
34 
42 

9  05 


WAGES  AND    COST   OF  LIVING  IN  SILESIA. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  wages  of  a  number  of  occupa- 
tions and  the  average  cost  of  provisions,  rent,  light,  and  fuel  at  nine 
diflerent  points  in  the  district : 

WAGES  PER  WEEK,  TEN  AND  A  HALF  HOUKS  PER  DAY. 


"3 
a 

o 

s 

.a 

s 

a 

s 

'3 
O 

"5 

6 

3 

-2 

1 

1 

.   2 

Masons :                   1 

Foremen $4  64 

Journeymen }  3  29 

Laborers 1  1  98 

Carpenters 2  38 

Smiths 2  86 

$5  00 
3  10 

2  14 

3  10 

$2  86 
2  14 
1  19 

$3  35 
2  80 
1  63 

$2  86 
2  14 
1  19 

$3  57 
1  91 
1  19 

$6  40  $2  86 
3  29  2  14 
1  79  i  1  72 

3  29  i 

3  29  

$4  28 

3  27 

1  72 

2  17  to  $2  86 

2  38     5  00 

2  61 

Tailors 2  14 

2  61 

2  14 
1  91 

1  67     3  21 

2  14 

2  50 

'2"  62 


2  86 

2  14 
1  72 
1  72 

1  67     3  57 

1  19 
(2  86> 
<  to  } 
(6  43) 

2  14 
2  38 
2  14 

2  14 

3  57 

2  14 
1  57 

2  42     3  57 

Other  skilled  factory  hands 

Laborers : 

In  factories 

In  gardens  

In  the  fields 

3  57 

2  16 
1  94 
1  94 

2  38 

1  88 
1  72 
1  57 

1  71 
1  55 
1  43 

2  38 

1  88 
1  72 
1  57 

1  71 
96 
96 

3  25     4  28 

2  50 
1  90 
1  90 

RETAIL  PRICES  OF  PROVISIONS. 


Rye  bread per  pound.. 

Rye  flonr do. 

Wheat  flour do. 

Butter do 

Milk per  quart.. 

EfTgs per  dozen.. 

Potatoes per  cwt.. 

Steer  beef 

Cow  beef , 

Pork 

Matton 

Bacon 


2i 

6 

2i 

2i 

2i 

2J 

2i 

2, 

~i 

^if 

21 

3 

2J 

3 

3* 

3 

4 

^ 

3? 

4 

4 

4* 

4 

4 

24 

25 

22^ 

25 

22* 

22 

27* 

25* 

H 

■^ 

3 

3* 

2 

2 

3^ 

3* 

14 

14 

12 

13a 

12 

12 

13* 

13 

64 

93 

46i 

70 

46* 

40* 

53 

57 

11 

13 

11 

11 

11 

llif 

11*1 

10 

11 

9 

11 

9i 

10* 

lOJ 

11* 

13 

13 

13J 

13i 

13| 

13 

13J 

14 

13 

11 

11* 

114 

IH 

8 

m 

11* 

21i 

22 

18 

23 

18i 

21 

23i 

23S 

3 

4i 

29 
3* 
llj 
00 
15 
14 
14 
16* 
23* 


LODGINGS,  LIGHT,  AJID  FUEL. 


Sleeping  berth,  per  month,  half  bed 
Sleeping  berth,  per  month,  whole 

bed 

Tenement,  per  month,  consisting 

of— 

1  room,  with  stovo  

2  rooms,  with  stove 

1  room,  with  stove,  kitchen, 
chamVter,  cellar,  and  wood- 
shod  

2  room. s,  with  as  above 

Coal,  per  1200  pounds 

Petroleum 


96 
1  79 


84 


1  78        90 
3  57  I  2  14 


72 


1  19 

2  09 


2  14  2  38     2  14  1  79 

3  10  !  3  57     2  86  2 
45  38  I      40  !  29 
C4i'  05  I      05*  05f 


96 
2  14 


36 


60     1 
1  08     1 


2  14 

2  86 
40  !      38 
05*       04* 


1  91 

2  38 


2  86 

3  81 
29 
06 


83i  to  1  08 


2  38 

3  57 


36  to  46 
05 


470 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


The  followiiifj  working'iiieu's  budget  was  prepared  by  a  trades  coun- 
cilor ((rewerbe-Ratli)  from  replies  to  circulars  seut  by  hiiu  to  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  diiitereut  points  in  the  province,  asking  for  full  in- 
formation regarding  wages  and  the  cost  of  living.  The  table  gives  the 
average  wages  of  the  various  occupations  throughout  the  district : 


Branch  of  industry. 


Mines  and  quarries 

Smelteries,  &c 

Glass- woiks  and  potteries 

Textile  liictories 

Cl.einical  works,  all  kinds 

Breweries,    distilleries,    sugar    and 

starcli  factoiies,  &c 

Grist  and  other  mills  

Paper  mills  and  paper  factories 

Cigar  factories 

Other  industries 

Average  of  all 


Number  in  family. 


Earnings. 


c  ^ 


i-IHi^M 


1 .. 

1 
1 
1 .. 

l!.. 


li  3 
1  3 
3 
3 


w 


5  $177  79   $3  57 

6  183  26  8  33 
1!)G  591  2  3S 
13a  09^  22  13 
133  28]  19  99 


114  24  8  80 

113  or.  42  30 

101  30  20  00 

119  24  34  75 

103  03'  6  06 

154  93;  14  70 


$7  38 
27  61 

10  71 
24  04 

11  19 

36  18 

27  85 


10  00 
24 
21  42 


...  «I88  73 
24  219  44 

...i  209  68 

48  178  74 

3  81  168  27 


159  22 
1^3  26 
181  36 
163  9> 
194  44 
191  5» 


Branch  of  industry. 


Mines  and  quarries 

Smelteries,  &c 

Glass  works  and  potteries 

Textile  factories 

Chemical  works,  all  kinds. .. 

Breweries, di.stilli-ii(<s,  sugar 
and  starch  factories,  &.c... 

Grist  and  other  mills 

Paper  mills  and  paper  facto- 
ries   

Cigar  factories 

Other  industri(;a 

Average  of  all 


Expenses 


$125  19 
132  33 

115  43 
109  48 
101  15 

94  72 
111  38 

109  96 
101  86 
125  19 

116  62, 


$28  56  $15  47  $1 1  42  $4  52 
34  03  15  23  10  00  5  00 
25  70  18  33  17  14 


fO  72  $3  23  $4  05'$7  38  $200  54 
1  43  4  28  5  7lllO  23  218  24  $1  2(1 


22  37 
20  71 


25  70 
31  05 


13  80  16  18 
9  77  12  38 


10  95 

11  19 


21  18  17  14 

16  66  14  76 

20  47I  18  33 

25  94 1  14  52 


10  00 
13  33 

13  33 

14  28 

11  66 
13  56 


2  61 

6  19 

5  47 

2  99 

1  43 

2  61 

4  52 

2  86 

2  14 

3  81 

1  19 

1  91 

2  99 

1  67 

1  19 

3  57 

3  57 

6  19 

2  99 

72 

2  86 

4  52 

96 

6  90 

3  81 

1  67 

3  57 

3  33  10  71 1  204  91 

2  86  5  24  170  96 

72  8  33  162  58 


2  99 

72 

1  43 

2  99 
1  67 

3  57 


7  38 
5  71 


158  65 
179  83 


4 
1  78 
5  69 


57 
3  39 


7  38  183  75  . . 

8  33'  105  45 

9  .52  199  221 

7  851  191  111   48 


$11  81 


2  3» 

1  40 

4  7S 


The. "deficit,"  says  the  gentleman  M'ho  prei)ared  the  foregoing  table, 
is  in  most  cases  covered  by  the  sale  of  flowers,  berries,  mushrooms,  &c., 
gathered  by  the  younger  children  ;  "  personal  wants  "include,  and  in  fact 
mainly  consist  of,  tobacco,  beer,  and  whisky. 


FOOD   PRICES. 


The  retail  i)rices  of  i)rovisions — the  better  as  well  as  the  cheaper 
kinds — are  given  below.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  sale  of  borse- 
ineat,  an  article  of  food  to  which  the  rural  laborer  has  not  yet  become 
accustomed,  has  largely  decreased  witliin  the  last  three  years.  It  is 
eaten  mainly  in  the  form  of  sau.sages,  and  its  sale  under  any  other 
than  its  proper  designation  is  strictly  prohibited. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


471 


Articles. 


Value. 


Rye  flour per  pound 

"Wheat -r do 

Hye  bread five  jiounds 

Potatoes per  quart . .  I 

Rice per  pomi(l..j 

Barley do 1 

Lentils do 1 

Dried  peas do [ 

Dried  beans do     .  i 

Onions quart.,  j 

Dried  apples do. .  ..I 

Sugar pound . .  | 

Milk quart.. 


Cents. 

3 

4   to  4J 

12 

1 

H 

■ih 

9 

4 

6- 

■A 

10 

2i 

6 

U 

ii* 

5 

7 

23 

7 

11 

3i 

4 

Articles. 


Value. 


Butter pound . . 

Cofifee do 

Tea do 

Salt do 

Lard do 

Medium  cuts  of  beef do 

Medium  cuts  of  pork do 

Medium  cuts  of  mutton do 

Medium  cuts  of  veal do 

Bacon do . . . 

Calves'  liver do 

Sheep  livers |     7 

Horse-flesh pound . . 


Ccntn. 

24  to 

36 

9 

76 

30 

119 

24 

10 

19 

14i 

14i 

14i 

13 

14i 

19 

24 

14 

19 

7 

9^ 

4 

10 

PAST   AND   PRESENT   WAGE-RATES. 

There  has  been  no  changje  in  the  rate  of  wages  since  1878,  except  a 
slight  and  not  always  perinanent  increase  in  some  of  the  mining  and 
furnace  districts  ;  the  wages  there  range  from  $10  to  $20  per  year  higher 
now  than  in  1878.  The  liouse  weavers  in  Silesia  have  also  succeeded  in 
getting  a  slight  increase  in  the  pay  for  their  work,  a  few  pfennigs  per  day. 
The  increase  is,  however,  not  uniform  and  not  general,  and  the  condi- 
tion of  this  class  of  work-people  is  still  most  deplorable.  On  the  other 
hand  the  slight  increase  in  the  price  of  meat  since  1878  is  scarcely  felt 
in  most  workingmen's  families,  where  meat  is  a  luxury,  and  is  in  gen- 
eral offset  by  a  nearly  corresponding  decrease  in  the  prices  of  their  ab- 
solute necessities.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  feeling  may  be  said  to 
be  a  more  hopeful  one  now  than  it  was  six  years  ago;  the  return  of  the 
flush  times  that  followed  the  wars  with  Austria  and  France  being  no 
longer  looked  for,  while  the  needs  and  desires  of  all  have  in  a  measure 
adjusted  themselves  to  their  present  condition. 

HABITS   OP   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

The  laborer  and  meohanic  in  the  United  States,  whether  born  abroad 
or  a  native,  accomplishes  more  in  eight  to  ten  hours  than  does  the  aver- 
age workman  in  this  country  in  ten  to  twelv^e  hours.  The  workman 
here  is  often  accused  of  indulging  in  alcoholic  stimulants,  of  being  an 
eye  servant,  and  generally  ungrateful  for  all  ameliorations  of  his  con- 
dition. These  charges  are,  perhaps,  too  sweeping,  but  the  fact  that 
wherever  the  organization  exists  he  is  usually  found  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Socialist  party  proves,  at  least,  that  he  is  dissatisfied  with  his  con- 
dition. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYE  AND  EMPLOYER. 

That  all  employers  are  not  indifferent  to  the  moral  and  physical  well- 
being  of  their  employes  is  shown  in  the  answer  to  No.  11  of  the  inter- 
rogatories. Too  many,  however,  are  content  with  getting  the  greatest 
amount  of  work  at  the  lowest  cost,  regardless  of  the  condition  of  their 
employes,  how  they  or  their  families  are  fed,  housed,  and  clothed.  That 
the  best  feeling  cannot  exist  between  employer  and  employe  in  such 
•cases  goes  without  saying,  and  much  of  the  discontent  which  now  pre- 
vails is  no  doubt  owing  to  this  indifference. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

Labor  unions  of  the  magnitude  of  those  in  England  and  the  United 
States  are  not  to  be  found  in  this  district.     The  printers  in  this  city,  it 


472  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

is  true,  have  a  typographical  union,  but  its  authority  does  not  extend 
beyond  the  city  limits,  and  it  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  a  mu- 
tual benefit  society  than  of  a  labor  union.  The  scale  of  prices,  arranged 
by  an  Hgreement  between  the  union  and  the  employers,  is  generally  ad- 
hered to  in  Breslau,  but  in  the  remainder  of  the  district  prices  are  gen- 
erally regulated  by  demand  and  supply,  notwithstanding  the  local 
unions.  Other  trades  have  also  their  associations,  but  these  seldom 
deal  actively  with  the  wages  question.  The  "Local  League  of  the 
Local  Labor  Association"  has  for  its  object  "to  induce  the  mechanics 
and  factory  employes  to  found  societies  for  the  purjiose  of  a  rational 
use  of  the  right  of  coalition,  and  to  join  such  benefit  societies  as  are 
based  on  the  idea  of  self-help  and  can  give  a  guarantee  of  solvency .'' 
At  present  nine  associations  belong  to  this  league,  namely,  the  workers 
in  wood,  the  machinists  and  metal  workers,  the  painters  and  varnishers, 
the  factory  and  manual  laborers,  the  potters,  the  "sculptors,"  the  cabi- 
net makers,  the  tailors,  and  shoemakers.  Emidoyers'  guilds,  recognized 
by  law,  are  more  efi'ective  in  prescribing  the  trade  rules  than  the  coun- 
ter associations  are  at  present. 

STRIKES   AND   THEIR   EFFECT. 

For  some  years  strikes  have  been  very  infrequent  here,  occurring  only 
at  rare  intervals  in  the  mining  and  furnace  regions.  Within  the  last 
three  months,  however,  several  have  taken  place,  the  most  notable  one, 
that  of  the  cabinet-makers,  at  (joerlitz,  followed  by  the  same  class  of 
mechanics  in  Breslau.  The  strikers  at  Goerlitz  mostly  returned  to  work 
on  the  old  terms;  .those  in  Breslau,  where  the  strike  was  not  general^ 
left  for  other  parts.  The  masons  and  laborers  at  the  new  government 
building  in  this  city,  also  struck  this  spring  for  a  slight  advance  in 
wages,  but  were  induced  to  return  at  the  old  wages  and  a  reduction  in 
the  hours  of  labor.  With  the  excei)tion  of  the  strike  of  a  few  woolen- 
mill  operatives  in  Liegnitz,  of  short  duration  and  no  gain  to  the  em- 
I)loy6s,  no  other  strikes  have  occurred. 

The  disagreements  between  employers  and  work-peoi)le  are  commonly 
settled  by  what  are  known  as  trades-tribunals,  composed  of  members 
of  the  board  of  magistrates.     Their  decisions  are  usually  final. 

On  the  18th  of  March,  1880,  an  arbitration  court,  for  the  adjustment  of 
money  differences  between  employers  and  employes,  was  created  by  an 
ordinanceof  theBreslau  authorities,  and  approved  by  the  provincial  coun- 
cil of  Silesia.  The  ordinance  went  into  effect  on  the  1st  of  May,  1881^ 
and  has  since,  with  some  mo<lifications,  been  ad()j>ted  by  some  other 
communities  in  the  i)rovince.  The  number  of  complaints  which  came 
before  the  court  last  yt^ar  was  1,080.  In  15  cases  complaint  was  nuide 
by  employers,  in  1,0'J5  l)y  journeymen  mechanics  and  a(iult  factory  oper- 
atives, and  in  40  by  apprentices.  The  decision  of  the  arbitrators  is  in 
most  insrances  submitted  to,  only  a  few  cases  lnving  been  c^arried  to  a 
state  court.  The  court  takes  (cognizance  of  cases  involving  sums  as  low 
as  24  cents,  and  in  but  few  is  the  amount  in  disi)ute  over  $12.  The  ses- 
sions usually  occupy  I'rom  tlirec;  to  five  hours,  and  in  each  session  an  aver- 
age of  25  complaints  are  heard  and  decisions  rendered.  The  entire  court 
of  arbitration  consists  of  50  employers  and  50  employes,  2  of  each  class 
being  in  attendnnce  at  every  session,  one  of  each  only  sitting  in  each 
case,  with  a  member  of  the  board  of  magistrates  as  umpire.  Although 
the  office  is  an  honorary  one,  and  the  workmen  members  of  the  court 
lose  their  time  while  attending  the  session,  not  one  of  them  has  so  far 


LABOR  IN  EUKOPK  —  GERMANY.  473 

failed  to  appear  when  required.     The  time  lost  by  each  member  is,  who- 
ever, only  two  days  in  ea(!h  year. 

A  law  of  the  German  Empire  for  the  reorganization  of  the  trades 
guilds,  makes  it  obligatory  upon  all  guilds  already  in  existence  to  re- 
construct themselves  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  be- 
fore the  close  of  tlie  year  188,3  ;  any  gaild  failing  to  c  )mply  therewith 
to  be  dissolved  by  the  authorities.  At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this 
law  there  were  in  existence  in  this  city  fifty-one  guilds,  with  a  total 
membership  of  2,540  employers.  Nearly  all  the  trades  were  represented ; 
the  butchers,  carpenters,  and  masons  having  three,  four,  and  five  guilds 
each.  Only  a  small  number  of  these  guilds  have,  up  to  the  present 
time,  taken  any  steps  to  comply  with  the  law. 

FOOD   PURCHASES. 

With  the  exception  of  farm  hands  and  agricultural  laborers  generally^ 
who  receive  a  great  portion  of  their  pay  in  kind,  all  workmen  are  paid 
in  the  lawful  currency  of  the  Empire,  and  purchase  their  supplies  where 
they  chouse.  With  a  few  exceptions,  where  fortnightly  and  monthly 
payments  are  made,  the  rule  is  weekly  payments. 

CO-OPERATIVE    SOCIETIES. 

The  Breslau  Oonsuin  Verein,  or  cooperative  store  association,  organ- 
ized less  than  a  score  of  years  ago  by  a  number  of  business  men,  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  workingmen  and  persons  having  small  salaries 
to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  cheaper  than  the  retail  store  prices^ 
and  at  the  same  time  to  have  a  share  in  the  profits,  has  been  fully  as 
successful  and  beneficial  as  its  projectors  had  reason  to  expect.  It  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  tbirty-nine  directors,  and  the  entrance  fee  for 
uew  members  is  30  cents.  It  has  now  thirty-five  grocery  and  provision 
stores,  one  steam  bakery  and  one  coal-yard  in  Breslau,  and  three  stores 
in  neighboring  towns.  The  number  of  members  is  20,000.  Checks 
bearing  a  number  equal  to  the  amount  of  each  purchase  are  given  to 
the  members,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  profits  are  divided,  the 
members  being  paid  dividends  on  the  aggregate  amounts  of  their  checks. 
The  dividends  varied  in  the  last  five  years  from  9.80  to  10.90  per  cent. 
The  establishment  of  these  stores  has  also  tended  to  keep  the  prices  ,of 
the  necessaries  of  life  within  proper  limits,  large  i)rotits  not  being^ 
aimed  at.  Similar  establishments  exist  in  a  number  of  other  towns  and 
cities  in  the  province,  notablj'  among  the  miners  and  iron  workers. 

The  "Breslau  People's  Kitchen"  has  the  same  object  as  the  co  oper- 
ative association — that  of  furnishing  the  working  classes  with  provis- 
ions at  low  prices.  The  Silesian  Co  operative  League,  comprising  fifteen 
associations  in  various  parts  of  the  province,  has  also  its  headquarters 
in  Breslau,  as  has  also  the  "  League  of  Seventy-seven  Silesian  Associa- 
tions for  Self- Help,"  organized  on  the  plan  of  the  Schultze-Delitsch 
associations  for  mutual  improvement. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   1  HE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

The  Breslau  workingmen's  families  generally  occupy  one  or  at  most 
two  rooms  in  the  cellar  or  on  the  top  floor  of  a  dwelling-house,  often  a 
rear  building.  Of  the  00,015  tenements  in  the  city  21,479  are  in  rear 
buildings,  and  have  an  average  of  3.94  inmates  and  1.44  rooms  each;. 
10,000  ijersons  inhabit  2,492  cellar  dwellings — an  average  of  4.02  per-, 


474  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

sons  to  each  ;  G.O)!)  of  tlie  city  tenements  are  rei)orte(l  by  the  police  as 
overcio\vde«l.  The  average  yeaily  rent  of  rear  tenements  is  *;37.GO,  or 
^26.42  j>er  room;  of  celhir  dwellings,  $37.13,  or  825.70  per  room.  The 
number  of  households  exceeds  the  number  of  tenements  by  <).~)3 ;  in 
639  cases  2  families  occupy  tenements  intended  for  one;  and  in  7  cases 
rooms  intended  for  one  family  are  made  to  accommodate  3;  14,404 
families  take  one  or  more  lodgers  or  sublet  part  of  their  premises. 

The  iood  of  the  average  workman  consists  mainly  of  a  soup  or  por- 
ridge, black  bread,  ])()tatoes,  a  vety  little  meat,  cheap  coffee,  and  per- 
haps some  vegetables.  Of  a  (considerable  number  of  them,  however, 
the  remark  may  hold  good  that  both  their  lodging  and  their  table  would 
be  more  attractive  if  the  great  number  of  groggeries  resorted  to  only 
by  the  working  classes  could  be  swept  out  of  existence.  Their  cloth- 
ing is,  of  course,  the  cheapest;  one  man  informed  me  that  he  expends 
•only  about  $3  a  year  for  clothes,  but  that  his  shoes  cost  him  at  least 
$5  a  year.  "  Of  course  my  family  go  barefoot  most  of  the  time."  Lay- 
ing up  something  for  old  age  and  sickness  is  a  luxury  only  the  better- 
paid  workman  can  think  of.  The  "sick  funds,"  the  accident  insurance 
hitherto  effected  by  the  employer,  and  the  many  charitable  institutions 
and  homes  are,  in  the  opinion  alike  of  the  improvident  and  theunderp;iid, 
■ample  provision  for  the  future.  That  their  surroundings  and  manner 
of  living  do  not  intiueuce  them  for  their  own  or  the  community's  good 
need  scarcely  be  said.  That  all  workmen,  however,  do  not  belong  to 
this  category  iiampl^-  proved  by  the  savings-bank  deposits  mentioned 
-elsewhere. 

SAFETY  AND   WELFARE    OF   EMPLOYES   IN  FACTORIES. 

The  "  Haftptiicht-Gesetz,"  or  law  making  the  employer  resi)onsible 
for  injury  to  life  and  limb  when  it  is  not  indisputably  tlie  direct  result 
of  the  employe's  carelessness,  has  had  the  effect  of  calling  into  being  a 
number  of  accident  insurance  companies  for  the  ])uri)ose  of  insuring, 
at  the  employer's  expense,  workingmen  in  furnaces,  workshops,  and 
factories.  Few  employers  have  hesitated  to  secure  themselves  iii  this 
manner  against  lawsuits  and  penalties.  Benefit  funds  have  existed  in  all 
large  establishments — combined,  in  the  mining  regions,  with  accident 
insurance — to  which  the  employers  have  also  been  contributors.  These 
will  hereafter  be  compulsory  institutions,  regulated  by  a  state  law  for 
all  work-[)eople  except  farm  hands  and  field  laborers.  Besides  being 
compelled  to  contribute  themselves,  the  em[)loyers  become  resjtonsible 
if  a  workman  fails  to  pay  his  dues.  In  case  of  sickness  the  workman 
is  to  receive  under  this  act  at  least  one-half  of  the  standard  local 
wages  and  free  medical  attendance — in  the  absence  of  the  latter,  three- 
quarter  wages.  In  case  of  death  the  fund  must  pay  twenty  times  the 
amount  of  the  daily  wages.  A  bill  making  accident  insurance  for  work- 
ing men  and  women  compulsory  is  also  pending  in  tlie  Reichstag. 

A  society  for  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  laboring  classes,  es- 
tablished in  the  district  of  Waldenburg,  Middle  Silesia,  has,  aiiu)ng 
other  means  of  securing  its  object,  i)laced  at  the  disposal  of  working- 
men's  families  various  plots  of  ground  suitable  for  vegetable  gardens; 
315  families  availed  themselves  of  this  privilege  last  year  against  217 
in  1882.  Xearly  all  raised  an  ample  supply  of  vegetables  for  their  ta- 
bles, while  a  few  managed  to  increase  their  cash  income  by  selling  their 
suri)lus.  The  families  (uiltivating  these  plots  resided  in  28  different 
villages.  One  hundred  and  six  heads  of  these  families  were  miners,  92 
factory  workmen,  40  mechanics,  the  remainder  of  various  manual  oc- 
cupations. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  475 

Workingmen  are  most  favorably  situated  in  regard  to  lodgings  in 
Upper  Silesia,  and  there  especially  the  iron-workers.  Not  counting 
those  living  in  their  own  homes,  the  average  number  of  persons  in  one 
dwelling  in  that  district  is  five;  while  thirty-three  of  the  same  class  of 
work-people  occupy  one  dwelling  in  Middle  Silesia,  and  twelve  in  Lower 
Silesia.  The  glass-workers  follow  the  iron-men,  while  the  weavers  are 
lowest  in  the  social  scale,  the  average  number  per  tenement  throughout 
the  ])rovince  being  thirty-two,  while  in  certain  districts  they  average 
fifty-two"  per  tenement  designed  for  one  family.  In  the  weaving  dis- 
tricts are  to  be  found  great  numbers  of ''  sleeping  halls  "  and  "  sleeping 
berths." 

Nearly  all  the  larger  fbictories,  iron  mills,  &c ,  have  connected  with 
them  institutions  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  work-peo- 
ple ;  among  these  are  sick  and  savings  funds,  hospitals,  Sunday  schools, 
libraries,  cheap  and  comfortable  dwellings,  co-operative  stores,  loan  as- 
sociations, co-operative  kitchens,  free  medical  attendance,  &c. 

People's  kitchens,  atibrding  wholesome  meals  at  low  prices,  have  been 
•established  at  various  times  by  mill -owners,  but  have  never  become  very 
popular  with  the  work-peoi)le.  Of  fifteen  hundred  operatives  in  one 
weaving-mill  only  two  hundred  and  thirty  were  willing  to  pay  2|  cents 
for  the  dinner  the  kitchen  furnished.  A  paper  mill  in  one  of  the  moun- 
tain districts  gives  breakfast  for  1  cent,  dinner  for  2,  supper  for  1  cent. 
Of  three  hundred  and  eleven  emj)loyes  about  one  hundred  and  eighty 
are  willing  to  take  tha,se  meals.  It  must  be  observed  here,  however, 
that  the  German  workman  is  not  content  with  three  meals  a  day ;  he 
must  have  in  addition  a  forenoon  and  an  afternoon  luncheon.  Besides, 
he  probably  does  not  consider  the  meals  at  the  above  prices  filling.  A 
glove  factory  in  Lower  Silesia  has  leased  a  suitable  portion  of  its  build- 
ings, with  certain  privileges,  to  a  restaurant-keeper,  who  is  pledged  to 
give  all  the  factory  hands  a  generous  dinner  for  10  cents.  A  i)ottery 
furnishes  all  its  employes  a  good  dinner  for  4  to  6  cents.  In  another 
factory  the  breakfast  costs  2f,  the  dinner  7  cents.  A  spinnery  gives 
each  unmarried  female  employe,  daily,  a  plate  of  nutritious  souj)  gratis. 
A  kitchen  connected  with  an  iron-mill  gives  every  workman  who  desires 
it  a  cup  of  coffee  and  a  roll  for  2|  cents,  and  dinner  and  supper  at  5 
<5ents  for  whole  portions,  and  3  cents  for  half  portions.  Another  factory 
giv^es  all  its  employes  a  free  dinner  daily,  considering  this  a  greater 
benefit  to  its  peoi)le  than  a  small  advance  in  wages  would  be. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  numerous  examples  of  the  kind. 

Of  the  paternal  care  taken  by  many  em[)loyers  of  their  work-people, 
looking  to  their  moral  as  well  as  material  welfare,  I  will  give  here  but 
one  example,  that  of  a  factory  at  Wiistegiersdorf,  the  center  of  the  Si- 
lesiau  weaving  district.  The  proprietors  describe  the  "  ameliorations  " 
in  substance  as  tollows : 

Although  the  workman's  wages  may  be  sufficient  for  the  ordinary 
necessaries  of  life,  yet  in  case  of  Kickness  he  is  generally  unable  to  as- 
sist himself.  We  therefore  started  with  the  erection  of  a  hospital,  con- 
taining four  large  sickrooms,  with  sixty  beds,  two  bath-rooms,  lodgings  • 
for  the  attendants,  and  other  necessary  house-keeping  room.  In  this  our 
employes  are  quartered,  nursed,  and  furnished  with  medical  attendance 
and  medicine  during  their  illness,  without  charge  beyond  their  contri- 
bution to  the  sick-fund.  A  ])hysician  and  an  attendant  are  always  present. 
We  keep  the  entire  place  in  good  condition,  and  pay  for  warming  and 
lighting.  A  sick-fund  was  established  by  us  many  years  ago,  into  which 
we  })ay  annually  $35.70.  Each  employe  pays  weekly,  according  to  the 
wages  received,  2  to  3i  cents,  which  entitles  him  or  her  to  all  the  privi- 


476  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

leges  of  tlie  hospital  in  case  of  illuess.  In  addition,  the  invalid's  family- 
gets  from  the  fund  36,  CO,  to  72  cents  per  week.  If  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  send  a  patient  to  one  of  tlie  springs  this  expense  is  also  paid  out 
of  the  fund  ;  and,  if  finally  incapacitated  for  work,  the  employe  is  eu- 
titled  to  a  i)ension  of  $lM4  to  $2.8G  monthly  ;  in  case  of  death  810  is 
paid  for  funeral  expenses.  A  family  aid  fund  is  supported  by  25  per 
cent,  of  the  contribution  of  the  work-people  to  the  sick  fund ;  every 
woman  is  entitled  to  $2.80  in  her  confinement,  and  free  medical  attend- 
ance; every  bride  receives  a  wc^lding  gifr  of  82. 8().  Our  orphan  home 
contains  thirty  children  of  employes,  who  receive  instruction,  clothing, 
and  all  the  necessaries  of  life  free  ;  the  house  contains  two  school-rooms, 
one  eating-room,  one  sitting-room,  two  large  sleeping  rooms,  besides 
washing,  bathing,  and  all  necessary  house-keeping  rooms  and  lodgings 
for  the  teachers.  Boys  on  leaving  the  home  are  taught  a  trade,  the 
girls  are  placed  at  service  with  families.  The  house  is  surrounded  by 
a  handsome  garden,  a  play-ground,  and  a  i>lace  for  gymnastic  exercises. 
A  bakery  is  connected  with  the  factory,  which  supplies  the  operatives 
with  bread  at  cost  price,  but  no  one  is  comi)elled  to  purchase  our  bakery 
bread.  To  vary  the  diet  of  our  employes,  which  is  usually  only  bread, 
coffee,  and  potatoes,  we  have  also  established  an  eating  house.  It  con- 
tains a  large  saloon,  in  which  four  hundred  persons  can  comfortably 
dine  at  once  (the  married  workmen  carry  the  meals  to  their  homes),  a 
kitchen  with  facilities  for  cooking  for  eight  hundred  persons,  and  other 
accomnu:)dations.  Our  people  get  here  a  well-cooked  portion  of  vegeta- 
bles and  a  piece  of  meat  for  2-^  cents.  In  place  of  potatoes  we  give 
sometimes  rice,  at  others  millet,  barley,  peas,  turnips,  cabbage,  fresh 
and  dried  fruit,  sauces  and  salads.  We  have  built  a  number  of  dwell- 
ings for  our  employes,  and  have  bought  some  others  already  built  near 
thefactory ;  the  rent  varies.  If  the  tenant  occupies  only  one  room  he  pays 
$1.08;  if  a  room  and  bed  room  $1.49  per  month;  each  family  has  inclosed 
space  in  the  cellar,  room  on  the  drying  floor,  and  a  wood  and  coal  shed 
and  a  washing  numgle  is  at  the  disposal  of  the  occupants  of  the  house. 
The  houses  are  calculated  for  twelve  families  each,  and  are  now  occu- 
pied by  one  hundred  and  eighty  families,  numbering  nearly  eight  hun- 
dred persons.  As  a  not  inconsiderable  number  of  our  emi)loyes  are 
unmarried  women,  some  of  whom  took  lodgings  with  their  fellow- 
workers,  some  with  families  in  the  vicinity,  an  arrangement  which  for 
obvious  reasons  was  undesirable,  a  lodging-house  for  girls  was  con- 
structed. We  now  accommodate  forty-eight  girls,  giving  each  a  sepa- 
rate bed,  a  clothes  closet,  a  wash-stand,  with  bowl,  pitcher,  and  soap- 
dish.  The  bed  linen  is  changed  weekly,  and  the  house  is  warmed  and 
lighted  at  our  expense,  and  on  winter  evenings  the  girls  are  given  in- 
struction in  needle-work  and  taught  to  repair  their  clothes.  They  pay 
for  these  accommodations  12  cents  each  per  week.  Simultaneously  with 
our  eating-house  we  established  a  kindergarten,  where  the  children  of 
our  work  i)eople,  from  four  to  six  years  old,  have  insti  action  given 
them  according  to  Froebel's  system,  by  two  teachers.  This  arrange- 
jnent  has  met  with  the  hearty  approval  of  our  em])loy6s,  the  children 
being  now  well  cared  for  while  the  father  an<l  mother  are  both  at  work. 
In  the  autumn  a  festival  is  got  up  for  the  little  ones,  and  at  Christmas 
they  all  receive  a  gift.  All  chihlren  of  our  emjtloyes,  however,  of  what- 
ever age,  are  renuMnf)ered  by  us  at  Christmas  time,  although  useful  gifts 
are  the  rule,  such  as  frocks,  shirts,  shoes,  stockings,  jackets,  trousers, 
&c..  and  some  fruit  and  cake.  Our  Sunday  school  for  the  instruction 
of"  the  operatives  and  apprentices  is  fairly  well  attended,  and  the  free 
library  is  not  neglected. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  477 

To  their  credit  be  it  said  that  many  corporations  and  individuals 
owning  establishments  iu  Silesia  have  made  provision  for  the  benefit  of 
their  employes  more  or  less  similar  to  those  described  above. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

Every  Prussian  twenty-five  years  of  age  is  a  voter.  That  the  work- 
ingmen  avail  themselves  of  this  privilege  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
two  delegates  from  this  city  in  the  Reichstag  are  socialists,  and  this,  in 
spite  of  the  restrictive  measures  which  prohibit  all  meetings  and  pub- 
lications of  tliis  party.  In  the  rural  districts  where  the  opportunities 
for  intercourse  are  few,  the  party  has  but  little  available  strength.  For 
the  Reichstag,  or  Imperial  Parliament  the  elections  are  by  popular  suf- 
frage, direct,  and  by  secret  ballot ;  for  the  Laudtag  or  Prussian  .Diet, 
on  the  contrary,  indirect,  restricted,  and  viva  voce.  The  voters  are  di- 
vided into  three  classes,  those  having  the  highest  income  being  in  the 
first  class,  the  next  class  being  composed  of  those  enjoying  a  more  mod- 
erate income,  while  the  ihivd  class  is  composed  of  men  of  more  limited 
means  and  the  poor.  The  electors  having  a  majority  of  the  classes  are 
declared  elected,  and  they  choose  the  members  of  the  Diet.  The  work- 
ingmen  can  therefore  exert  no  influence  on  the  choice  of  the  electors. 

The  communal  income  tax  is  levied  upon  all  whose  incomes  are  not 
less  than  $71.40  per  annum.  With  an  income  of  $128.52  per  annum  the 
state  income  tax  is  also  levied.  The  communal  tax  is  $1.09  per  year  ou 
$71.40;  ou  $100,  $2.19  ;  on  more  than  $157,  $3.57  ;  on  more  than  $219, 
$5.24;  on  more  than  $250,  $6.91;  on  more  than  $286,  $8.33 ;  on  $321, 
$9.28;  on  $357,  $10.71,  and  so  on  until  the  highest  income  in  the  city, 
$314,160  is  reached,  which  pays  a  communal  income  tax  of  $9,425.  The 
class  or  state  income  lax  is  72  cents  on  $107  ;  $1.43  on  $185.61 ;  $2.14 
on  $232.06;  $2.86  on  $2.58.76;  $4.29  on  $293-.46;  $5.72  on  $339.15; 
$7.38  on  $364.85  ;  $8.58  on  $410.55,  and  so  on.  Of  the  adult  population 
of  this  city,  numbering  139,797,  75,874  pay  the  communal  income  tax 
and  59,923  pay  no  taxes  whutever,  either  because  their  incomes  are 
really  less  than  $71.40  per  annum  or  because  i^roof  of  the  income  being 
taxable  is  lacking.  Many  of  the  non-taxpayers  are  poor  widows  a 
single  women. 

The  sick-fund  law  and  the  accident-insurance  bill  are  the  i^rinci 
measures  so  far  brought  forward  by  the  Government  for  the  re 
of  the  working  classes.     But  in  a  speech  delivered  in  the  lieichs 
on  the  9th  of  May  Prince  Bismarck  declared  it  to  be  the  duty  of 
Cxoverninent  to  see  to  it  that  persons  who  were  able  and  willing 
work  were  given  emx)loyment. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

The  controlling  cause  is,  no  doubt,  the  desire  of  the  emigrants  to  bet- 
ter their  own  and  their  children's  condition,  and  this  desire  is  stimulated 
by  the  glowing  reports  of  relatives  and  friends  w^ho  have  already  settled 
iu  the  United  States. 

The  desire  to  esca])e  military  duty.  It  is  asserted  that  of  those  who 
emigrate  from  Prussia  at  least  12  per  cent,  escape  military  duty  thereby, 
and  according  to  the  report  of  the  war  minister  to  the  Federal  council 
not  less  than  14,702  persons  owing  military  duty  to  the  Emi)ire  left 
Germany  without  permission  last  year.  The  number  of  those  leaving 
on  short-time  passes  and  who  fail  to  return  is  not  given. 

The  desire  to  acquire  land  and  a  home  of  their  own  in  a  country  where, 


478 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


as  they  hear  and  read,  freedom  is  enjoyed  by  all  and  prosperity  by  the 
many. 

The  inducements  held  out  by  ticket  agents — this  is  the  i)rincipal  cause 
given  by  some  of  the  newsi)apers  here. 

The  majority  of  the  emigrants  fiom  this  district  are  mechanics  and 
agriculturists,  workmen,  and  small  farmers. 

Part  II. — Female  Labor. 

An  "occupations  census"  was  taken  by  the  state  authorities  in  1882,. 
but  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  the  figures  for  this  province,  as  they 
have  not  yet  been  made  public.  The  following  table  gives  the  number 
of  persons,  male  and  female,  at  diflerent  ages,  engaged  in  various  in- 
dustrial  pursuits  in  this  city : 


Occupations. 


Agriculture,  gardening,  and 
lisliiiig : 

Mi.lt'.s 

Females 


Total. 


Mines,  manufactures, and  me- 
chanical trades: 

Mal.'S 1,0591  6,424 

remales 386!  3,870 


n  n 


5  « 


149 

112 


p 


228 
156 


38;      261 


Total. 


Trade  and  transportation : 

Males    

Females 


Total. 


Domestic  service  and  work  of 
various  kinds: 

Mules 

Females 

Total 


Civil  and  ecclesiastical  serv- 
ice. 80  called,  free  profes- 
sions, and  military: 

Males 

Feiualea  


Total 


"Without   callinj, 
given : 

Mules    ..   .. 
Females 


Total. 


In  general : 
Males  ... 
Females. 

Total.. 


1,445  10,294 

230 
27 

2,323 
480 

257 

2,803 

39 

50 

409 
363 

384 


10,  695 
5,927 


16,  622 


829 


2,708 


163 
70 


172 
64 


136 
58 


236       194 


9,830    .5,870   3.262 
2,650    2,100    1,433 


12,480   7.970   4,69." 


6,142,  4,347   2,312 
777i      831       768 


6.919   5,178   3,080 


2,435 

769 


1,400 
9l'3 


691 
917 


3,204   2,323    1,608 


1,382 
636 


494 
470 


4731 
43 


96r 
513- 


5l6i      1, 480' 


239  18,210  20,542     38,761' 
14516,016    1,140     17,156 


880 
438 


384  34,235  21,682     55, 9ir 


143   8.  913  12,  828     21, 741 
110    3,724       887       1,605. 


364 
449 


253112,6371.3.715     22,346 


62   2,310   4,909 
76   3,955       421 


7,279 
4,376 


138 


405 
1081 


5,565   1,7321  1,238 


630       458 


57       513'  6, 195   2, 190 


290 


1,  52-< 


904 

19li 


425 

76 


6,265   5,390     11,655 


6,644    3,776     10, 420- 
1,663       105       1,768 


1, 095       501 


149 

198 


895'  1,475 

588       674 


517i       623       826   1,149 

669    1,028|  1,404   1,936 


347    l,483i  2,149    1,1861  1,651!  2,230   3,085 


1,55910,605  25,206  20,819:1.3,6501  8,131]  4,278 
671    5,  .52li  9,390    5,398    5,  245|  4,7711  3,570 


2,  230  16, 126,34,  596  26,  212,18,  895112,  902,  7,  848 


109   8,307   .3,881      12,  188 


851 


4,175'  2,306       6,485 


1,596   7,649       444;      8,093 


2,44711,824    2.750      14,578 


I  I 

1,405  40,7.59  44,894     85,653 

1,050  33,477;  3, 0,-)4l     36,511 


3,  355  74,  236,47,  928    122, 164 


Of  female  Government  clerks,  boarding-honse  keepers,  in  the  Ameri- 
can and  English  sense,  inventors, bankers,  book-keepers,  brokers,  lectur- 


♦  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  479' 

era,  public  speakers,  there  are  none,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  in  this  dis- 
trict, nor  are  any  women  employed  in  railway,  post,  or  telegraph  offices. 
One  profession,  if  it  maybe  so  called,  is,  however,  entirely  monopolized 
by  women,  that  of  midwife;  no  male  physician  ever  acts  as  accoucheur 
unless  in  a  case  of  emergency'. 

Paragraph  1-9  under  the  head  of  female  labor  has  already  been  par- 
tially answered,  and  will  receive  further  attention  in  the  following: 

LOW   WAGES   THE   RULE   IN   SILESIA. 

Labor  is  generally  more  poorly  paid  in  Silesia  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  German  Empire.  The  average  wages  of  unskilled  workmen  and 
day-laborers  are  $1.4:8  in  ^ilesia,  $2.19  in  Prussia,  and  $2.40  in  the  Em- 
pire. It  must  be  admitted  that  the  cost  of  living  is  less  here  than  else- 
where, or,  at  least,  that  the  Silesian's  wants  can  be  satisfied  cheaper 
than  can  those  of  his  fellow  laborer  in  most  other  parts  of  Germany. 
The  Silesian's  black  bread  is  made  of  a  coarse  rye  flour,  while  in  many 
parts  of  South  Germany  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  wheat  flour  is  mixed 
with  the  rye.  The  Silesiau  laborer,  whose  stimulsints  are  not  purely 
alcoholic,  drinks  beer  at  2.^  cents  per  quart;  the  Bavarian  workman's 
beer  costs  5i  cents  per  quart;  but  the  Bavarian,  says  a  competent  au- 
thority, would  not  tolerate  the  Silesian's  beer  in  his  boots,  far  less  in  his- 
stomach.  The  lack  of  remunerative  labor  in  the  province  is  shown  by 
the  large  migration  hence,  every  spring,  of  workmen  and  workwomen- 
From  Upper  Silesia,  especially,  masons  and  carpenters,  and  others  con- 
nected with  the  bnilding  trades,  depart  to  seek  employment  in  East  Prus- 
sia, in  Poland,  and  in  Hungary  and  Bulgaria. 

FEMALE   FARM  LABORERS. 

Every  spring,  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  beginning  of  May,  large 
numbers  of  women  and  girls,  recognized  by  their  costumes  as  field  la- 
borers, daily  pass  through  the  streets  of  Breslau  on  their  way  to  the 
Province  of  Saxony,  where  they  obtain  emplo>iuent  in  the  sugar-beet 
fields.  At  the  end  of  six  or  seven  mouths,  when  the  last  beet  has  been 
dug  and  housed,  cleaned  and  trimmed,  they  return  to  their  homes  with 
their  earnings,  most  of  which  they  have  saved,  their  fo)d,  where  it  is 
not  all  furnished  by  the  employers,  costing  but  little.  These  people  earn 
during  the  six  or  seven  months  from  24  to  48  cents  ])er  day ;  36  cents 
is,  I  am  told,  a  fair  average,  and  they  are  housed  and  mostly  supplied 
with  food;  they  get,  in  addition  to  their  pay,  free  passage  in  fourth  class 
cars,  their  tramp  through  the  streets  of  this  city  being  only  from  one 
tatiou  to  another.  From  the  neighborhood  of  Polnisch-VVartenberg, 
in  Middle  Silesia,  1,200  female  field-workers  have  this  year  gone  to  the 
Province  of  Saxony.  An  Upper  Silesiau  newspaper,  in  view  of  the 
yearly  increasing  migration,  urges  the  Silesiau  land  owners  to  give  their 
work-people  better  pay,  and  to  see  that  they  are  !)etter  fed  with  nutritous 
food,  instead  of  the  present  meager  fare,  "  which  in  most  cases  is  sup- 
plemented with  diluted  alcohol.  The  10  to  12  cents  per  day  that  our 
field-women  get,"  continues  the  editor,  ''  is  all  that  their  work  is  worthy 
and  a  change  for  the  better  cannot  be  expected  until  the  employer  offers 
better  wages  and  better  treatment." 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  centurj^  small  farmers,  owning  5 
to  30  acres,  were  unknown  in  this  province.  The  inherited  estates  of 
the  nobles  and  other  land-owners  remained  intact,  and  the  size  of  the 
farm  was  not  regulated  by  the  needs  or  desires  of  the  owner,  but  by  the 


480  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

usage  of  previous  generations.  Since  1807,  when  the  first  steps  were 
taken  by  the  Prussian  legishiture  to  abolish  tlie  old  land  laws,  the  Siles- 
ian  peasants  have  been  slowly  emerging  from  a  condition  akin  to  vas- 
salage. They  are  still,  however,  mere  dependents  of  the  estates  upon 
which  their  lives  are  passed.  Tliey  mostly  get  not  more  than  820  to 
$30  in  money  i)er  year.  Even  those  who  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
inherit  the  few  acres  secured  to  their  ancestors  by  the  edict  of  ISll  are 
seldom  able  to  snp})ort  their  families  on  the  proiluct  of  their  land,  and 
are  obliged  to  hire  out  as  tield  laborers  during  the  summer,  leaving  the 
cultivation  of  the  small  farm  to  the  wife  and  (children.  The  sum  the 
head  of  the  family  earns  by  his  summer  work,  together  with  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  sale  of  a  few  jiigs  and  ])erliai)s  a  calf,  enables  him  to  pur- 
chase the  few  necessaries  his  land  will  not  produce  and  to])ay  his  rates. 

As  regards  the  money  value  of  the  wages  of  the  agricultural  labor- 
ers as  a  class,  it  is  as  variable  iu  the  diflerent  districts  of  the  province 
as  are  the  wages  of  mechanics  and  the  2)rices  of  provisions,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures  giving  the  wages  at  a  number  of  different 
places.  In  addition  to  the  sums  here  set  down,  the  laborer  receives 
"  natural  emoluments"  of  the  value  of  $18  to  $25  per  year. 

First  district :  Men,  average  for  summer  and  winter,  IS  cents  per  day; 
women,  average  for  summer  and  winter,  12  cents  ])er  day. 

Second  district:  Men,  iu  sununer,  24  cents;  iu  winter,  16|  cents; 
women,  in  summer,  12  cents;  in  winter,  9J  cents. 

Third  district :  Men,  in  summei,  18  cents ;  in  winter,  15  cents  ;  women, 
in  summer,  12  cents  ;  in  winter,  12  cents.  (In  the  harvest  season  an 
average  of  4  cents  per  day  more  is  paid.) 

Fourth  district:  Men,  summer,  20  to  2C  cents;  winter,  18  cents; 
women,  summer,  11  to  io  cents.  (Those  working  by  the  day  and  not 
liired  by  the,  year,  get  20  to  25  percent,  more.) 

Fifth  district :  Laborers  by  the  day,  men,  summer,  36  cents  ;  winter, 
22  to  24  cents ;  women,  average  per  year,  17  to  24  cents  per  day  ;  regu- 
lar farm  hands,  men,  17  to  19  cents  per  day  the  year  round  ;  women,  7i 
to  10  cents. 

Sixth  district:  Men,  summer,  15  cents;  winter,  12  cents;  women, 
summer,  12  cents  ;   winter,  10  cents. 

The  provisions  and  other  "  natural  emoluments"  received  by  the 
laborer  are  Avorth  9  to  10  cents  ])er  day. 

While  the  wages  of  field  laborers  are  nearly  50  per  cent,  higher  than 
they  were  thirty  or  thirty  five  years  ago,  they  have  remained  nearly 
stationary  for  the  last  ten  years.  The  farm  laborers  may  be  divided 
into  several  distinct  classes  :  (1)  The  "  serving"  men  and  women  who 
bind  themselves  from  year  to  year,  and  whose  condition,  save  in  name 
and  in  the  privilege  of  binding  themselves  to  a  new  master  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  is  no  better  than  tliat  of  their  fore  fathers,  the  farm  hands 
of  the  first  decade  of  this  century  ;  (2)  the  "  free  laborers,"  who  engage 
by  the  day  oi- Job  ;  (3)  the  "  colonists,"  who  are  assigned  a  small  parcel 
of  land  with  a  house  on  the  estate,  and  who,  with  their  families,  pass 
their  lives  in  the  service  of  the  land  owner ;  (4)  the  "  Ilausler"  and  "  Stel- 
lenbesitzer,"  or  house  and  ])lace-owiuus,  who  live  in  the  village,  the 
first  owning  a  house  and  perhaps  a  small  garden  i)atch,  the  second  from 
1  to  8  acres  of  ground  in  a«ldition  to  his  house.  The  "  Hiinsler"  and  his 
"  charworker,"  be  the  latter  man  or  boy,  girl  or  woman,  form  a  part  of 
the  farm  hand  contingent  either  the  year  round  or  during  the  busy 
season.  When  not  engaged  on  the  farm,  they  find  employment  at  road 
or  dike  making,  or  as  laborers  in  factories  and  workshops. 

Regarding  the  physical  and  moral  effects  of  agricultural  labor  upon 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  481 

women,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  work  is  more  severe  than  that  of  a 
foctory  hand  or  a  house  servant;  it  has,  however,  its  compensations  in 
the  jireat  variety  of  the  labor  required  both  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
weather  and  the  needs  of  the  farmer.  While  many  of  the  women  grow 
prematurely  old,  at  least  in  ai)[)earauce,  they  are  probably  as  free  from 
the  ills  of  life  as  are  the  women  in  other  branches  of  industry.  Mor- 
ally they  cannot  be  said  to  stand  very  high,  but  in  tliat  they  are  no  ex- 
ception to  the  rule  among  the  female  laboiing  class.  Of  the  11,027 
births  in  this  city  in  one  year,  1,780  were  illegitimate,  the  mothers 
being  nearly  all  servant  girls,  whose  ranks  are  recruited  from  the  rural 
districts.  The  proportion  of  illegitimate  births  in  the  country  is  nearly 
the  same.  Says  a  Prussian  writer  on  this  subject:  "  It  is  a  deplorable 
fact  that  few  of  the  female  charworkers  remain  pure  until  tliey  are  mar- 
ried, and  what  is  still  worse,  this  state  of  things  is  looked  upon  as  nat- 
ural. The  young  women  do  not  regard  with  regret  the  loss  of  their 
honor.  Many  of  the  chaiwomen  when  they  marry  have  already  had 
one  or  more  children — when  more,  not  always  by  the  same  father." 

.  THE   WEAVING  POPULATION. 

Concerning  the  weaving  population  no  authentic  statistics  could  beob- 
tained.  In  the  circles  of  Schweidnitz,  Eeichenbach,  and  Waldenburg 
the  weaving  population  is  estimated  at  15,000;  of  these  7,700  are  em- 
ployers, or  weavers  working  on  their  own  account,  the  remainder  male 
and  female  workers  for  wages,  and  their  families.  The  number  of  hand- 
looms  in  the  three  districts  is  13,000,  3,353  being  employed  on  linen 
goods,  8,099  on  cotton,  129  on  woolen,  and  822  on  mixed  goods.  In  ad- 
dition there  are  about  2,000  mechanical  looms.  The  number  of  weavers 
in  the  circle  of  Lauban  is  about  9,000,  and  in  the  circles  of  Laudeshut 
and  Hirschberg  their  number  is  not  not  far  from  20,000.  In  Upper  Si- 
lesia the  number  may  be  given  as  5,000;  it  is  true  that  one  large  mill 
alone  employs  over  0,000  hands,  but  only  about  one-half  of  these  are  in 
the  weaving  and  spinning  departments,  the  remainder  being  employed 
by  the  dye  works,  bleacheries,  machine,  carpenters,  and  blacksmiths, 
shops,  and  the  paper  mill. 

The  house  weav(  r  who  works  steadily  at  least  eleven  hours  out  of  the 
twenty-four,  and  is  assisted  by  one  of  his  children  as  spooler,  earns  about 
$1.43  a  week.  There  are  many  households,  however,  where  the  money 
earnings  do  not  average  more  than  95  cents  a  week  the  year.  '•  I  was 
able  once  to  earn  about  8  marivs  per  week,"  said  an  elderly  man  in  the 
heart  of  the  house-weaving  district  a  few  days  ago,  "but  now  my  earn- 
ings never  exceed  3  marks  (72  cents)  a  week.  You  see  nearly  all  the 
weavers  about  here  own  their  bit  of  land — but  for  that  many  of  us  would 
starve."  The  weaver  and  his  family  usually  inhabit  one  room — a  com- 
bination of  kitchen,  sleei)ing,  living  and  work  room.  The  food  is 
mostly  ])otatoes  cooked  in  some  cheap  fat,  coarse  bread,  and  at  rare  in- 
tervals a  bit  of  meat — bacon  preferred.  Except  for  cooking  i)urposes, 
fuel  costs  but  little,  the  younger  children  gathering  fallen  branches  and 
twigs  in  the  woods.  In  some  districts,  several  employers  have  assured 
me,  the  house- weaver  never  completes  a  piece  of  goods  without  retain- 
ing some  of  the  yarn  as  ''  cabbage,"  which,  when  enough  has  been  accu- 
mulated, he  disi)Oses  of  in  the  shape  of  table-cloths,  napkins,  handker- 
chiefs, or  some  other  woven  fabric.  This  custom  has  become  so  firmly 
established  that  the  weavers'  demand  for  more  yarn  than  is  requisite  to 
make  the  goods  ordered  is  usually  complied  with.  Many  of  the  able- 
92  A — LAB 31 


482  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

bodiod  weavers  also  work  in  the  fields  during-  the  harvest  season,  while 
with  others  weaving:  is  only  a  winter  oecu])ation,  in  summer  they  find 
emi)loyment  as  masons,  carpenters,  and  field  laborers. 

MINE,   FURNACE,    AND   FACTORY   LABORERS. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  mines,  factories,  and  mills  of  all 
kiiuls  in  Silesia — exclusive  of  coal  mines,  but  including  iron  mines,  stone 
quarries,  iron,  zinc,  co])i)e)',  and  lead  works,  brick  and  tile  factories,  glass 
works  and  ])()tteiies,  mauufacturies  of  combustibles  and  explosives,  but- 
ton, yarn,  and  thread  factoiies,  weaving  mills,  bleaching  and  finishing 
establishments,  wadding  and  shoddy  mills,  tulle,  lace,  knit-goods  and 
fringe  factories,  pa])er  and  pa])er-goods  tactories,  tobacco,  snufi",  and 
cigar  factories,  and  sugar  lactones — was  estimated,  previous  to  the  tak- 
ing" of  the  census  of  occupation,  the  results  of  which  have  not  yet  been 
made  public,  to  be  about  110,500,  as  follows: 

Males : 

Under  \^  vears 579 

Under  16  years 3,900 

Over  Ui  years 70,000 

74, 479 

Females: 

Under  15  yeara 386 

Under  16  years '2, 609 

Bet\veen  16  and  25,  single 7,  592 

Bet^veen  16  and  25.  married 34 

Between  18  ami  25,  single 9,800 

Between  18  and  25,  married 1,  600 

Over  25  years  of  age,  single 6,841 

Over  25  years  of  age,  married 7,  (562 

36, 024 

The  average  working  hours  in  these  establishments  were:  in  summer 
eleven,  in  winter  ten.  Of  the  work  people  in  these  principal  factories, 
«&c.,  the  males  com])rised  about  05.77  per  cent.;  their  proi)ortion  was 
greatest  in  the  iron  and  zinc  works,  least  among  the  lace  and  fringe 
makers.  The  greater  number  of  boys  were  employed  in  cigar  factories 
and  glass-works.  Of  the  females  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  were  mar 
ried,  whiles  the  girls  under  sixteen  scarcely  numbered  one  tenth,  and 
nearly  two-thirds  were  single  women  over  sixteen.  By  far  the  greater 
number  of  girls  were  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  textiles  and  cigars. 

KNAPPSCHAFTS-KASSEN. 

The  "Knappschafts-Kassen"  or  mutiuU  benefit  fumls,  which  have  ex- 
isted in  the  mining  regions  for  a  nund)er  of  yeais,  are  an  accident  insur- 
ance and  sick  fund  combined.  Every  miner  and  mine  laborer  is  obliged 
to  contriV)ute,  the  amount  ])ayable  by  members  of  the  class  to  which  he 
belongs  being  deducted  from  his  wages.  In  Upi)er  Silesia  the  contribu- 
tions are:  ^Members  of  Class  A,  4|  cents  per  day;  members  of  Class  B, 
2^  cents  ])er  day;  members  of  Class  C,  I'g  cents  per  day;  and  bj^  those 
not  in  any  class,  1.^  cents  i)er  day. 

In  Middle  and  Lower  Silesia  tlie  dues  are:  From  members  of  Class  A, 
3  cents  ])er  day  ;  from  members  of  Class  B,  2  cents  per  day ;  and  from 
those  not  in  any  class,  ^  cent  per  day;  ami  the  mine  owners  contribute 
1<]  cents  i)er  day  for  every  ])erson  in  their  employ. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  483 

(J^LASS   AND    PORCELAIN    MAKEKS. 

Ill  the  thirty  jrlass  factories  in  Sik'sia,  the  g-lass  rneltinjj^  pot  is  used 
exclu.sivelv.  The  heatinji-power  is  gas.  Melting  time,  for  hoi  low  ware, 
sixteen  hours ;  for  ]»late-,i>lass,  t  wel ve  to  fourteen  hours.  Working  hours, 
including  dinner  and  luneheon  time,  twelve  to  fourteen.  In  some  fac- 
tories the  size  of  the  melting-pots  is  gauged  so  that  the  melting  takes 
place  at  mglu,  and  work  begins  at  7  a.  m.,  ending  at  7  ]).  m.  Sunday 
work  is  abolislied.  When  the  glass  works  are  situated  at  some  distance 
from  any  town  or  village:  it  is  the  custom  to  furnish  the  work-people 
with  free  lodgings  in  a  building  erected  for  that  purj)Ose.  As  water- 
drinking,  according  to  the  glass-workers,  provokes  excessive  perspira- 
tion, a  light  beer  is  ])ermitted  to  be  drank  in  the  factories;  of  this,  five 
to  ten  (piarts  ])er  head  are  consumed  each  day. 

In  the  circles  of  Waldenburg  and  Schweidnitz,  about  5,000  persons 
are  employed  in  i)orcelain  factories. 

SCHOOL   TEACHERS. 

For  teachers  and  superintendents  in  the  higher  schools,  the  salaries 
in  all  towns  of  more  than  .50,000  inhabitants  are  tixed  at  $1,214  to  $1,248 
per  annum  ;  in  towns  of  less  population,  at  $964  to  $1,235;  in  all  other 
schools  except  the  elttinentary,  the  ordinary  teachers  get  an  average 
salary  of  $740.70,  the  highest  being  $1,071,  the  lowest  $428.40;  besides, 
a  bonus  e(]ual  to  tlie  rent  of  a  small  tenement.  The  normal  school  su- 
perintendents get  $S5G.80  to  $1,142.40;  the  higher  teachers,  $(542.(50  to 
$850.80;  the  ordinary  teachers,  $4G4  to  $642.(50;  assistant  teachers,  $238 
to  $404,  with  rent  free.  For  the  elementary  school-teachers  the  salaries 
vary  greatly,  being  in  some  of  the  rural  districts  insufficient  for  their 
maintenance.  lu  places  the  teacher  is  compelled  to  eke  out  his  sub- 
sistence by  acting  as  secretary  for  the  district  authorities,  by  leading 
the  singing  in  church,  and  by  other  occupations  for  wdiich  he  is  fitted. 
In  Breslan,  the  male  teachers  at  elementary  schools  are  divided  into 
three  categories,  receiving,  respectively,  $449.80,  $535.50,  and  $571.12. 
The  female  teachers  get  $285  to  $404.10.  The  principal  teachers  get  in 
addition  a  rent  bonus  of  $72  to  $107.  In  towns  of  over  10,000  popula- 
lation,  the  elementary  school-teachers  get  $214.20  to  $428.40  per  annum  j 
in  all  other  towns,  $178.50  to  $357.  Most  of  the  towns  allow  a  bonus 
for  rent  equal  to  15  i)er  cent,  of  the  salary.  All  teachers  are  by  law  enti- 
tled to  a  ])ension,  amounting  after  forty  years  of  service,  to  three-fourths 
of  the  salary.  After  ten  years'  service  a  teacher  can  lay  claim  to  a.  pen- 
sion if  he  can  show  that  he  has  incurred  his  disability  in  the  performance 
of  his  duties.  He  then  gets  one  fourth  of  his  salary.  The  i»ercentage 
increases  yearly  until  the  forty-year  limit  is  reached.  The  teacher  can 
then,  if  he  is  sixty-iive  years  of  age,  ask  to  be  retired,  even  though  no 
disability  exists;  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  be  ])lace<l  on  the  retired 
list  at  any  age,'  and  a  protest  will  be  of  little  avail.  The  average  of 
rural  district  pensions  is  one  third  of  the  salary. 

Salaries  of  teachers  in  private  schools  range  from  $142.80  to  $285.(50. 
Governesses  get  from  $50  to  $200,  with,  of  course,  board  and  lodging. 
The  average  cash  i^emuneration  is  ])robably  not  over  $80  ])er  year. 

INDUCEMENT    TO   WORKING-PEOPLE   TO   LA  \^   UP   MONEY. 

The  Breslan  City  Savings  Institution,  which  is  under  the  control  of 
the  board  of  magistrates  and  the  city  councils,  receives  deposits  of 
not  less  than  24  cents  nor  more  than  $286  from  any  one  pci\son.     From 


484  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

• 

this  limit  are  excepted  corjxiration  iumls,  charitable  bequests,  anil  the 
funds  of  associations  for  benevolent  purposes.  Interest  at  the  rate  of 
3i  ]>er  cent,  is  paid  on  every  amount  from  24 cents  up  to  8286.  A  "sav- 
ings association"  is  connected  witli  thisin-stitution  for  the  es])ecial  bene- 
fit of  the  poorer  classes.  Beginning  on  the  1st  of  April  and  continuing 
for  thirty  weeks,  that  i)ortion  of  the  ])0])ulation  Avhose  earnings  are  very 
slender  during  the  winter  and  improve  somewhat  in  the  sjiring  are 
visited  every  JMonday  by  persons  a])point<  (1  by  tin-  authorities,  and 
who  serve  gratuitously,  ibr  the  pur])ose  of  collecting  Avhat  they  can 
spare  from  their  wages  and  depositing  the  amount  in  the  "savings 
association."  The  lowest  sum  accepted  is  10  pfennigs  {'2'^  cents),  the 
highest  1  mark  (23.8  cents).  Each  C(/ntributor  receives,  witliout  charge 
a  pass  book,  in  which  the  collector  enters  the  amount  collected,  and  in 
which  the  rules  of  the  association  are  ]ninted.  At  the  end  of  the  col- 
lection period  the  deposits,  with  1  percent,  interest  added,  are  returned 
to  the  contributors.  Including  interest,  upward  of  $43,000  was  re- 
turned to  8,050  depositors  last  fall — a  consitlerable  winter  emergency 
fund  for  these  poor  i)eople. 

The  savings  institution  has  50,500  depositors  and  $4,040,000  on  de- 
posit ;  15,053  persons  have  amounts  below  $50  on  dei)0sit ;  1,795  have 
upward  of  $215;  the  average  ot  all  deposits  is  $77. 

A  savings  institution  and^association  similar  to  the  above  also  exists 
in  the  Breslau  suburban  district,  and  has  24,000  depositors.  The 
population  of  the  suburban  district  is  78,982. 

COST   OF   A  DWELLING-HOUSE   IN   BRESLAU. 

As  more  or  less  connected  with  the  wages  question,  1  append  the  cost 
of  building  a  house  in  this  city — a  three-story  and  basement  (parterre) 
flatintended  lor  eight  families.  Thehouse  is49feet  front  by  701eetdeep, 
is  built  of  brick  throughout,  front  and  rear  stuccoed,  partitions  all  of 
brick,  with  510  feet  of  railroad  iron  i)ut  in  for  strengthening  the  walls. 
There  are  seven  windows  in  front  on  each  lloor  and  four  in  the  rear. 
Each  floor  has  four  frt  nt  rooms,  two  back  rooms,  two  dark  bed-rooms 
for  servants,  two  cabinets,  and  two  inner  halls.  (\'ilings  are  all  deco- 
rated, walls  papered,  except  the  kitchen  walis,'which  are  painted  in  oiL 
The  house  has  thirty-two  tile  stoves,  including  those  in  the  kitchens, 
bath-room,  and  closet  ibr  each  family,  and  the  ceilar  and  drying-loft  are 
partitioned  off  for  the  tenants.  The  following  is  a  recapitulation  of  the 
contractor's  bill : 

Masons'  work $2,^G7  74 

Masons'  niateiials  (briclis,  lime,  ciniicnt,  sand,  &c.) I'/XV.i  05 

Carjientcrs'  work,  incliidinj'  all  material 'ijGf'S  28 

Stone-setters'  work  and  material 25  05 

Blacksmiths  and  material - fiiU  (59 

Tinsmith  an<l  looCers  and  nniterial 29">  55 

Joiners,  locksmiths,  glaziers,  and  kitchen  painters  (inclnding  material)..  .  2,94:5  (i2 

Stoves  and  stove-sett  ers 725  34 

Stnccoers  and  materials 299  H2 

Painters  and  material :i77  05 

Paper-hangers  and  material IHO  53 

Sundries 317  73 

Total 13,640  05 

HBNIIY  DITHMAK, 

Consul. 
UNiTBt)  States  Consulate, 

Breslau,  June  7,  1884. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  485 


STETTIN. 

HE  PORT  BT  OONSUL  KIEFER,  OF  STETTIN. 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

In  rei)ly  to  the  labor  circular,  issued  by  the  Dejiartment  of  State, 
February  15,  1884,  I  liave  the  honor  to  make  the  following  report;  but 
in  doinji^  so  I  met  with  a  jii^reat  many  hindrances,  which  rendered 
rather  difficult  the  accom])lishiMg'  of  the  task. 

First,  the  magnitude  and  imj^ortanceof  the  subject  is  so  great  and  its 
field  so  extensive  that  it  would  well  be  worth  the  pen  of  the  most  re- 
nowned national  economist,  and  a  John  Stuart  Mill,  Herbert  Spencer, 
Casalle,  Marx,  or  Henry  George  ought  not  to  have  been  ashamed  to  try 
their  genins  on  it  after  a  life-long  study  of  the  questions  involved. 

Second,  sis  the  Department  wants  "  these  reports  completed  as  speed- 
ily as  possible,"  no  time  is  given  to  collect  facts  as  it  ought  to  be  done; 
besides,  the  people  here  who  only  could  give  the  needed  information  are 
in  many  cases  not  willing  to  do  so,  and  either  refuse  it  at  once,  or,  what 
is  even  worse,  promise  it,  delay  it  from  one  week  to  another,  and  at  last 
excuse  themselves  with  want  of  time,  or  hand  in  two  to  three  meager 
items  at  most.  Government  employes,  wiio  could  give  all  information 
wanteil,  are  forbidden  to  do  so.  If  in  addition  the  fact  will  be  taken 
into  consideration  that  only  the  expenses  actually  necessary  are  allowed, 
that  at  least  here  in  Stettin,  notwithstanding  a  very  small  salary,  nei- 
ther a  clerk  is  allowed  nor  comi)ensation  for  transhitions  given  ;  that 
German  statistical  works  as  far  as  such  have  appeared  have  to  be  paid 
out  of  the  consul's  private  means,  and,  after  having  been  carefully  read, 
abstracts  have  to  be  made  and  translated  from  the  German,  and  that  for 
the  greatest  ])artof  the  work  no  statistics  are  even  existing  at  present — 
the  Department  will  tind  it  excusable  if  this  report  does  not  come  up  to 
the  standard  it  ought  to  expect  from  its  consuls.  Many  of  the  most  im- 
portant questions  asked  are  just  now  under  discussion  in  the  German 
Diet;  also  statistics  are  being  i)rei)ared  about  wages,  cost  of  living,  rent, 
&c.,  by  the  Imperial  statistical  bureau;  but  as  the  Germans  are  doing 
all  that  they  do  completely  and  thorouglily,  they  cannot  do  it  as  quickly 
and  si)ee(lily  as  we  Americans  are  used  to.  Within  a  few  years  it  will 
be  a  very  easy  matter  to  make  up  such  a  re])ort,  as  everything  needed 
then  will  be  fouud  in  the  works  edited  by  the  German  autiiorities,  and 
will  only  have  to  be  translated.  All  this  1  only  mention  tor  a  better 
understanding  and  to  avoid  unnecessary  recapitulations  in  the  course 
of  this  report. 

Part  1. — Male  Labor. 

RATES   of   wages. 

The  rates  of  wages  are  given  in  the  accompanying  tabular  forms  as  far 
as  it  was  possible  to  ascertain  them.  No  official  sources  being  at  hand,  it 
was  necessary  to  rely  entirely  upon  i)iivate  information,  which  differs 
very  widely,  and,  which  to  secure,  took  a  j-reat  deal  of  time,  besides  in- 
volving many  annoyances,  inconveniences,  and  expenditure  of  money  for 
which  no  regular  vouchers  can  be  presented.  The  directors  of  the  large 
machine  shops  and  ship-building  yards  ''Vulcan"  were  kind  enough   o 


486  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 

prepare  for  the  use  of  the  De[)iirtnient  detailed  lists  of  wajxes  and  of 
the  prices  of  necessaries  of  life,  which  I  add  in  translation  to  the  tabu- 
lar form  ;  the  Vulcan  being  one  of  the  leading'  establislunents  of  the 
country,  giving  cnii)lo\nient  to  3,500  men,  the  wages  ])aid  may  be  con- 
sidered as  standard  wages.  Besides,  they  furnished  information  to  all 
the  different  questions  asked  by  the  Government,  and  ])articular  thanks 
are  due  to  them  for  their  kindness  and  liberality.  The  wages  of  Govern- 
ment, including  railroad,  employe's  I  could  not  get  at,  as  the  authorities 
here  refused  the  information  and  advised  me  to  ask  for  it  in  Berlin. 
Upon  inquiry  Consul  General  Brewer  told  me  that  the  whole  matter  Avas 
put  at  his  disi)osal,  and  I  abstained  i'rom  further  investigations  into  it. 
Knowing  that  the  wages  of  Government  emi)loyes  were  substantially  the 
same  throughout  the  Prussian  monarchy  and  all  the  railroads  in  Pom- 
crania  being  in  i)ossession  of  the  state  since  the  last  few  years,  it  was 
unnecessary  to  take  particular  notice  of  them.  PYom  private  informa- 
tion still  1  found  out  that  the  wages  paid  by  the  Government  were  lower 
now  than  they  had  been,  when  the  roads  were  in  ])rivate  hands,  and  that 
besides  the  number  of  emi)]oyes  has  been  reduced  about  one-half. 

But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  actual  income  of  very  many 
employes  is  higher  than  the  tixed  salary  shows.  For  instai'ce,  it  is  cus- 
tomary here  to  give  from  5  to  20  cents,  and  even  more,  to  a  con- 
ductor (Schaft'ner)  of  the  cars  for  securing  good  seats  in  a  coupe  and 
not  getting  crowded  ;  to  pay  a  laborer  at  the  depots  a  bonus  to  be  at- 
tended to  more  speedily  and  attentively  ;  the  merchants  are  used  to  do 
the  same  to  have  their  goods  properly  and  better  cared  for ;  all  waiters  in 
hotels,  saloons,  public  gardens,  &c.,  depend  mostly  upon  this  so  called 
*'Trinkgeld,"  and  the  "portiers"  (not  to  be  mixed  n\)  with  our  porters) 
even  pay  to  the  landloid  quite  handsome  sums  for  getting  the  situation. 
The  incomes  of  house  servants  in  cities  and  in  the  residences  of  the  large 
land  holders  are  increased  considerably  by  the  presents  which  they  re- 
ceive from  the  invited  guests  at  each  dinner,  sui)per,  ball,  &c.,  given  by 
the  owner,  amounting  from  23.8  to  71.4  cents  from  each  one.  As  these 
classes  are  very  social,  and  such  festivals  hap])en  from  October  to  April, 
often  two  to  three  times  a  week,  the  aggregate  u)akes  an  item  worthy  to 
be  mentione<l.  Besides,  they  expect  a  Christmas  present  of  $2  to  $10 
a  year. 

Also  the  income  of  nuiny  workingmen  is  increased  by  additional  earn- 
ings of  their  wives,  making  from  14.2  to  17.8  cents  i)er  day,  as  seam- 
stresses, charwonuMi,  washwomen,  &c. ;  regular  laundresses  even  getting 
47.0  cents;  small  home  industries,  carried  on  by  the  children  in  their 
hours  of  leisure,  as  the  making  of  paper  bags,  »Jtc.,  also  helj)  to  swell 
the  little  income,  but  this  is  not  a  sure  thing  every  day  but  only  acci- 
dental, (ienerally  280  working  days  per  year  are  counted,  and  taking 
as  an  average  00{|  cents  per  day,  the  i-egnlar  income  of  a  workingman 
amounts  to  .S18().(»7  and  ])erhaps  )?17  to  §25  extras  by  himself  and  wife, 
being  a  grand  total  of  $203.07  to  >=211.07.  Wages  are  about  equal  in 
all  trades,  except  brick-layers  (masons)  and  caipenters,  who, -in  conse- 
quence of  a  strike  last  year,  succeede(l  in  raising  their  wages  to  71.4 
cents.  The  laborers  on  farms  receive  the  most  part  of  their  wages  in 
natural  i>roducts,  so  for  instance  they  pay  no  rent,  rec^eive  fuel,  a  small 
piece  of  land  for  cultivating  potatoes,  food  for  one  cow  and  three  to  four 
Kheep,  besides  11.0  to  17.8  cents  for  male  and  7.14  to  11.0  for  female 
laborers  per  day  in  cash;  in  case  of  sickness  medical  attendance  and 
medicines  are  furnished  by  the  land-holder;  and  I  am  told  that  sober 
peojile  with  regular  habits  get  along  very  comfortably  with  it.  Other 
male  agricultural  laborers,  without  board  and  lodging,  make  35.7  to  59.5 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


487 


cents;  females,  17.8  to  23.8  cents,  depentlin^  on  the  season;  tliey  work 
in  snnnner  time  from  5  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  in  winter  from  7  a.  m.  to  5  p.  m., 
with  one  lionr's  rest  for  dinner. 

A  remunerative  labor  is  the  plantin*i-  anil  cnltivatin^  of  beet-roots 
from  :\Iay  to  August,  which  is  done  by  contract.  Groups  of  twenty  to 
thirty  women  are  then  to  be  seen  on  the  fields,  like  soldiers  standing, 
stooping  down,  marching,  and  advancing  in  regular  straight  lines,  under 
the  command  of  a  male  overseer,  who  has  always  a  dog-  as  assistance, 
and  carries  a  big  stick  in  his  haml.  Now  I  have  not  seen  that  he  made 
nse  of  either  of  them  against  his  subordinates,  but  who  will  not  be  re- 
n)inded  by  such  a  i)icture  of  times  by  goiu',  when  slavery  was  imagined 
to  be  the  corner-stone  of  our  glorious  Union  !  The  [)icture  is  so  strikingly 
similar.  These  women  work  sixteen  to  eighteen  hours  per  day,  making 
71.4  to  Oo.li  cents,  and  getting  lodging  besides;  no  board.  The  Avages 
here  in  Stettin,  compared  with  those  in  Dantzic  and  Konigsberg  as 
given  by  Consular  Agents  (Jollas  and  Gadeke,  show  such  large  differ- 
ences, particularly  in  the  first  place,  that  I  thought  it  best  to  forward 
the  reports  in  severalty;  they  appear  in  some  instances  to  be  about  30 
to  40  per  cent,  higher  in  Dantzic  than  in  Stettin,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions in  favor  of  the  latter  place  if  the  rei)orts  are  correct.  In  the  of- 
ficial communications  for  1882,  according  to  the  annual  reports  made 
by  the  commissioners  of  trades,  intrusteil  with  the  iusi)ectiou  of  factories 
by  the  Government,  I  find  the  following  official  statements  for  East  and 
West  Prussia,  the  only  one  I  could  detect  relating  to  wages  in  my  dis- 
trict, and  upon  which  may  be  based  a  correct  idea.  "The  wages  in  the 
larger  cities  of  these  provinces  as  in  Konigberg,  Dantzic,  Elbing,  Til- 
sit, &c.,  are  as  follows  for  ten  and  one-half  hours'  work : 


Occupatious. 


Locksmiths 

Cabiuet-niakcrs 

Turners  

Drillers  and  planers 
Hands 


Lowest. 


Cents. 
4i».  40 
42.84 
47.6 
38.  28 
35.7 


Highest. 


59.5 
59.5 
59.5 
47.  C 
45.22 


Gents. 

to  66.67 

71.4 

70.16 

59.5 

52.36 


Piece-work. 


Cents. 
71.4    to  88.  06 
71.  4         89.  25 
71.  4         88  06 
54.74        76.10 


The  accompanying  tables  show  the  average  prices  by  the  mean  of  the 
maximum  and  minimum,  the  only  way  possible  to  do,  as  the  informants 
in  no  case  gave  the  diflerent  rates  of  wages  ai)plying  to  a  certain  num- 
ber of  laborers,  but  only  maximum  and  minimum  prices  paid  in  the  re- 
spective factories  to  men  in  the  different  branches  of  the  establishment, 
often  not  mentioning  the  number  of  workiugmen  at  all;  when  known, 
the  wages  paid  to  the  great  majority  were  taken  as  an  approximate 
average. 

1  inclose  a  table  giving  the  average  wag«_  -  mi  tlie  province  of  Pomer- 
ania,  district  of  Stettin  ;  another  one  showing  those  in  the  cities  of 
Pomerania,  mostly  in  the  district  of  Stettin.  Further,  a  table  of  col- 
lated statistics  of  fourteen  individual  employes  of  different  branches 
of  trade,  showing  the  number  of  the  families,  the  single  income  of 
each  member,  and  the  total  amount;  the  necessary  exjienditures  cal- 
culated in  percentage.  The  taxes  mentioned  therein  only  include  the 
state  and  communal  taxes  (Klassensteucr) ;  the  low  percentage  of  some 
finds  its  explanation  in  the  fact,  that  those  persons  are  not  living  in 
the  city,  and  so  save  the  city  t;ixes;  other  taxes,  as  income  tax,  trade 
tax  (for  carrying  on  a  trade  for  himself),  real-estate  tax,  &c.,  don't  reach 
the  workingman,  as  he  has  neither  property  nor  income  except  his 


488  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

wafjcs.  But  be  has  to  reiuler  Ids  services  during  nine  years  as  a  soldier 
to  the  state,  lor  twelve  days  every  two  years  (alter  having  served 
three  years  in  tlie  regular  army).  The  expenses  for  traveling  to  the  i)lace 
of  his  regiment  and  back  and  supporting  his  family  during  the  time 
amount  to  at  least  $10.71,  and  the  ])oor  fellow  has  to  work  day  and 
Dight  before  starting  to  gain  this  money.  During  the  time  of  service 
he  receives  5.23  cents  per  day.  So  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  nothing 
remains  for  luxuries,  savings,  &c ,  and  that  it  is  only  a  wonder  how  he 
succeeds  in  making  both  ends  meet.  The  way  it  is  done  will  be  ex- 
plain etl  afterwards.  « 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

Cost  of  living  to  the  laboring  classes,  viz,  the  prices  for  the  neces- 
saries of  life,  clothing,  rent,  «S:c.,  are  substantiality  answered ;  besides 
inclosure  No.  4  gives  retail  i)rices  of  all  the  necessaries  of  life.  In  addi- 
tion 1  may  say  that  a  single  jierson  i)ays  for  a  sleeping  place  from  $1  to 
$1.50  per  month,  and  for  board  about  $1.41  to  $1.75  per  week;  for 
farther  explanation  a  few  remarks  may  suffice. 

The  difference  which  appears  by  comparing  the  reports  of  Messrs. 
Collas,  Giideke,  and  myself  has  also  been  found  in  the  several  answers 
I  received,  as  well  upon  written  inquiries  as  in  the  many  conversations 
I  liad  with  a  number  of  employers  and  laborers  about  pri(;es  in  Stttin 
itself.  So,  for  instance,  one  employer  stated  that  clothing  of  a  laborer 
costs  about  $20 ;  another  about  $18.50  ;  one  put  rent  at  $85.00,  another 
at  $08.50  per  annum  ;  but  laboreis  with  an  average  income  of  about 
$205  a  year  told  me  that  clothing  for  themselves,  wife,  and  children 
does  not  exceed  $7.50  to  $1),  and  rent  not  $45  per  year.  Tlie  same  dif- 
ference Avill  be  observed  in  inclosure  No.  3  between  the  fourteen  individ- 
ual laborers  asked,  and  as  it  is  with  clothing,  food,  and  rent,  so  also 
with  fuel  and  light.  Of  the  latter  heating  varies  very  much,  amounting 
in  many  cases  to  a  considerable  sum,  up  to  11,  12,  13,  and  even  15  i)er 
cent,  of  the  income;  lighting  does  not  conje  into  much  consideration,  as 
I)etroleum  is  clieap  and  used  all  over.  As  coals  are  not  high  this  ex- 
pense must  arise  from  the  inferior  heating  and  cooking  stoves,  no 
extravagance  taking  i)lace  in  this  respect;  even  better  situated  families 
scarcely  kindling  a  liie  without  a  temperature  below  54°  i  .,  or  wanting 
more  heat  than  04°.  All  these  (liscrei)ancies  may  be  exi)lained  by  diifer- 
ent  notions,  customs,  habits,  and  tastes  of  diffci'ent  persons.  One  cares 
more  for  good  eating  and  <irinking.  lives  with  wife  and  (children  in  a 
miserable  den,  and  clotlies  in  dihipidated  rags;  another  lives  on  i)ota- 
toes  wi;h  a  little  lard,  but  liUes  to  show  himself  and  iamily  all  the  time 
well  dressed  in  i)ublic;  the  thii'd  one  thiidcs  more  of  a  comfortable 
home  and  spends  a  considerable  ])ortion  of  his  income  for  this  i)ur- 
pose,  and  so  on.  With  all  the  differences  the  following  facts  are  in- 
disputable:  (1)  The  incomes  are  so  small,  that  considered  from  an 
American  stand-])oint  they  will  be  looked  upon  as  starving  \\ages; 
(2)  in  cousequenceof  this  sinallness  the  laborer  has  to  save  on  clothing, 
rent,  &c.,  when  he  has  used  a  considerable  ])ercentage  for  food  or  any- 
thing else,  and  rice  versa,  and  this  is  tiie  way  he  has  to  make  both  ends 
meet.  An  Ameiican  laborer  spends  nearly  as  much  money  for  food 
alone  although  the  pii(*es  are  lower,  than  iiis(Jerman  lellow-workingman 
earns  during  tlu^  wliole  year. 

The  American  stand-i)<)int  of  living  itannof  (;ome  into  consideratiou 
here  in  Oerinan^-,  it  is  oat  of  sight  an(l  tliouglit,  and  not  to  be  si)oken  of 
as  fai'  as  laborers  are  concerned.  That  they  <'((n  live  with  such  a  trilling 
sum  dejtends  on  the  minor  waste  of  tissue  and  vital  forces,  first  in  conse- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  489 

qiienco.  ofclimato  and  then  becanse  of  work  heiug;  <]ono  more  slowly  and 
tbinj^s  generally  taken  easier.  Out  of  all  Americans  only  American 
consuls  are  paid  in  tbe  same  ratio. 

PAST    AND    PRESENT   WAGE   RATES. 

A  comparison  between  the  present  rates  of  wages  and  those  which 
prevailed  in  1878,  &c.,  shows,  according  to  Mr.  Collas's  report,  a  falling 
oflof  15  per  cent.,  and  to  Mr.  Gadeke\s  of  5  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  "offi- 
cial communications  for  1882"  mentioned  above  ;  a  small  increase  for  the 
province  of  Pomerania  is  claimed  for  the  last  few  years,  and  the  people 
herein  Stettin  give  them  as  about  the  same  since  1878. 

The  following  statement  made  out  by  the  "Vulcan  "  gives  average 
prices  paid  by  this  establishment  since  1878  to  1884,  inclusive  (sixty 
hours  work  per  week). 

1678 • $3  52. 9 

1879 3  40.3 

18»0 3  33.4 

1881 3  32.2 

18S2 3  32.7 

1883 3  42.5 

1884 3  44.6 

Regarding  the  conditions  prevailing  then  and  now,  a  decided  im- 
provement, greater  activity  and  ])rosperity  is  apparent,  as  well  for  East- 
ern and  Western  Prussia  as  for  Pomerania.  New  establishments  have 
been  erected,  others  have  ado])ted  steam-i)Ower  ibr  manual  labor;  par- 
ticularly mentioned  are  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  among  the 
latter  those  manufacturing  agricultural  machinery  are  said  to  be  very 
prospering.  Saw-mills  in  Memel,  Konigsberg,  Tilsit,  Dautzic,  Elbing, 
and  neighborhood  worked  with  full  force  and  time,  mostly  for  ex- 
port; tlour-uiills  have  imi)roved  very  much.  There  are  running  alone 
in  Pomerania  053  (wiudn)i]lsexce])ted),of  which  02  are  driven  by  steam, 
591  with  water-power,  giving  em])loyment  to  2,528  men.  The  same  ad- 
vance is  claimed  in  distilleries,  breweries,  sugar  factories,  starch,  and 
chemical  works  ;  the  latt«  r  produce,  besides  soda  and  suli)huric  acid, 
mostly  artificial  fertilizers,  matejials  for  aniline  colors,  and  pharnuiceu- 
tical  prei)aratious.  Brick-yards  and  cement  factories  have  been  less 
thriving;  still  the  <lirector  of  the  Portland  cement  factory,  "Stern,"  in 
Fiukenwalde,  near  Stettin,  one  of  the  largest  establishments  of  the 
kind  existing,  told  me  only  a  few  days  ago  that  he  cannot  execute  mo- 
mentarily all  the  orders  he  has  on  the  books.  The  construction  of 
iron  steamships  has  increased  to  great  ])roportions,  a  matter  to  which  I 
called  the  attention  of  the  Dejiartment  as  early  as  January  20,  1884,  in 
my  dispatch  No.  13. 

There  are  at  work  in  locomotive  shops  and  ship-yards  for  iron  ships 
8,200  men,  or  25  i)er  cent,  of  the  whole  population  of  the  province  en- 
gaged in  industrial  })ursuits.  Inclosure  No.  5  shows  the  number  of 
persons  in  the  difterent  industries. 

HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

We  must  remember  that  the  population,  i.  e.,  the  nationality  of  the 
inhabitants  of  this  consular  dlstri(;t,  is  not  a  homogeneous  but  a  mixed 
one.  With  the  exception  of  Pomeiauia,  whose  jjcople  are  of  true  Sax- 
onian  race,  but  also  intermingled  with  other  elements,  it  lies  out- 
side of  the  original  boundaries  of  Germany.     During  the  great  migra- 


490  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tion,  takiiifi'  ])Iace  from  tlie  fourth  to  the  eijjhth  centnr.y,  Slaves  took 
possession  of  tlie  lands  deserted  by  the  aborigines,  the  Teutonic  tribes 
once  residing;  here,  and  oidy  by  the  efforts  of  the  valiant  knights  of  the 
religious  and  at  the  same  time  martial  order  of  "  J)eutsch  b'itter,"  estab- 
lished 1191,  the  territory  was  coiuiuered  back  to  German  inlluence  and 
German  culture.  But  manifold  were  the  vicissitudes  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  from  1410  to  1772  the  lands  were  subject  to  the  Kings  of  Po- 
land; the  city  of  Dantzic  (Pol.  (-Ihausk)  only  returning  under  German 
control  as  late  as  171)3.  The  ]H^culiar  cliaracteristicsof  the  Slaves  have 
influenced,  more  or  less,  the  Germans,  and  there  are  to-day  living  m 
Western  Prussia,  with  a  total  poi)ulation  of  54L*,0()()  inhabitants,  14(),;3()0 
Polanders,  and  in  Eastern  Prussia,  among  1,102,000  inhabitants,  217,500 
Slaves  of  different  denominations  (as  Poles,  Litiiuanians,  .Masurcs,  &c.) 
I  leave  it  to  JNlessrs.  Collas  and  Giideke  to  judge  about  the  habits  of  the 
people  of  those  i)arts  of  the  district,  and  shall  restrict  myself  toPomcra- 
nia.  A(;cordin^  to  information  obtained  and  my  own  experience,  the 
laborers  here  are  steady,  trustworthy,  and  faithful,  attached  to  their  em- 
ployers; changes  therefore  aie  not  frequent,  a  ])e(ailiar  and  even  patriar- 
chal relationshi])  existing.  A  i)eculiar  trait  of  their  character  is  a  certain 
dullness  and  one-sided ness,  but  they  attain  considerable  skill  and  dex- 
terity in  their  resix'ctive  trades,  if  suited  to  their  individual  capaci- 
ties. Still,  their  judgment  not  being  developed  very  n)uch,  they  are 
influenced  easily  for  good  or  evil  by  their  surroundings,  and  have  there- 
fore to  be  taken  care  of  and  closely  watched  and  never  to  be  left  to 
themselves.  They  live  froni  hand  to  mouth,  and  don't  care  for  the 
future;  a  very  natural  conse(pience  of  the  poor  conditions  they  are  in 
and  the  sn)all  earnings  at  their  disposal.  The  directors  of  the  "  Vulcan," 
who  maybe  considered  good  authority,  say  in  this  respect:  they  are 
as  a  whole  peaceful  and  industrious,  the  majority  are  trustworthy  and 
steady  ;  sense  for  saving,  existing,  but  [)rovisions  for  developing  it  are 
lacking,  and,  above  all,  too  many  saloons  all  overinfluence  tliem  in 
a  bad  way.  I  found  a  kiiul  of  stoicism,  their  own,  perhaps  the  result  of 
their  religious  feelings  and  con\  ictions  ;  they  take  things  as  they  are,  as 
ordered  by  God,  the  Almighty,  and  think  them  therefore  good,  if  not 
the  best.  That  they  cannot  save  much,  if  anything  at  all,  is  self-evi- 
dent by  the  small  wages  they  receive  and  the  i)rices  of  all  the  necessa- 
ries of  life.  In  some  cases,  if  married,  aiid  the  wife  also  contributes  to 
the  general  fund  by  her  labor,  they  get  along  ami  put  a  trifle  aside  for 
rainy  days,  but  mostly  the  girl  of  the  lower  classes  looks  at  mar- 
riage as  a  deliverance  of  servitude,  considers  her  husband  as  her  natural 
sui)porter,  refuses  to  take  part  in  the  struggle  of  life,  and  only  cares 
for  housekeeping.  Then,  as  a  usual  thing,  she  has  from  five  to  fif- 
teen (;hildre]i  in  the  course  of  time.  an<l  all  ideas  of  assisting  in  sup- 
porting the  family,  if  ever  existing  before,  have  to  l)e  given  uj) ;  but 
when  sickness  strd>:es  her  husband,  or  when  he  turns  to  inebriety  and 
is  becondng  a  druidcard,  a  ease,  1  am  sorry  to  say,  only  rather  too  fre- 
quent, she  rallies  U}),an(l  with  renewed  vigor  she  comuiencesto  sustain 
the  family  and  even  to  give  a  few  farthings  to  the  poor  (;reature  calling" 
himself  her  husband  and  nnister,  so  that  he  may  indulge  in  his  favorite 
beverage — "Schnaps."     Such  is  the  life  of  a  laborer  and  of  his  wife. 

FEELINGS    15ETW10EN    EMI'LOYE    AND   EMPLOYER. 

This  (piestion,  ac(;ording  to  unanimous  expressions  of  all  interested, 
1  can  answer  in  a  way  which  is  not  only  jdeasant  to  the  human  mind, 
but  also  encouraging  for  the  stability  of  law  and  order  of  society. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  491 

Mr.  Giideke,  of  Konigsberg  says:  "The  feeling:  which  prevails  be- 
tween eni])loye«l  and  employers  is  almost  satisfactory." 

Mr.  CoUas!,  of  Dantzic,  expresses  himself:  "The  feeling  between  em- 
ploy(5  and  enii)loyer  is  satisfactory,  especially  with  those  who  are  per- 
manently kept  in  work,  their  welfare  depending  uyou  a  regular  income.'* 

The  director  of  the  Stettiner  Portland  cement  works  makes  use  of 
the  following  words:  "  (Jur  relations  with  our  emplo^'ed  men  are  good 
ones;  they  have  confidence  in  their  enii)loyers  and  the  consequences  are 
that  changes  among  them  happen  very  seldonj. 

The  directors  of  the  Vulcan  only  admit  that  "  the  feeling  is  quite  pass- 
able." 

Similar  expressions  1  heard  from  all  the  employers  I  asked,  also  from 
other  persons  acquainted  with  the  situation.  The  laborers  themselvea 
agree  that  generally  they  are  treated  well  by  their  employers,  and  if  not 
satisfied  with  the  small  wages  they  receive,  they  still  silently  and  quietly 
resign  themselves  to  dire  necessity,  seeing  no  way  for  the  better.  So 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  "satisfaction  "  isonly  on  one  side,  while  the  other 
is  calmly  suffering  what  it  cannot  change. 

The  etfect  of  this  state  of  things  on  the  general  and  ])articular  pros- 
perity of  the  community  is  so  far  a  beneficial  one,  when  a  feeling  of  secur- 
ity exists,  everything  going  on  smooth!}',  and  no  outbreaks  and  social 
disturbances  occur.  But  the  careful  observer  cannot  fail  to  notice  that 
the  idea  of  common  interests  of  employer  and  em})loye  is  losing  strength 
every  day  and  fading  away  in  the  same  proportion  as  when  the  works 
of  private  persons  are  turned  over  to  associations  of  capitalists,  i.  e., 
Ktock  companies  taking  the  i)lace  of  private  enterprise. 

This  change  of  sentiment  is  aided  besides  by  the  trade  regulations 
(Gewerbe-ordnung)  and  social  legislation,  which  define  and  settle  all 
the  relations  between  both  parties  and  cause  an  alienation  of  the  em- 
ployed from  the  employer,  because  the  former  does  not  feel  himself  any 
more  either  obliged  to  or  dependent  upon  the  latter,  since  the  rights 
and  duties  of  both  have  been  determined  by  law.  So,  in  spite  of  the 
many  true  and  noble  principles  embodied  in  these  regulations,  they 
seem  to  have  in  many  instances  the  contrary  effect  of  what  the  framers 
and  authors  exjiected  ;  instead  of  binding  together  and  uniting  in  one 
body  both  i)arties,  they  are  loosening  the  ties  of  friendshii*  and  love 
hitherto  existing,  the  patriarchal  relations  of  former  times  are  growing 
weaker  and  weaker,  the  remembrances  of  the  past  are  sinking  inta 
oblivion  and  blindfolded  justice  in  its  su[)remacy  thrones  on  the  de- 
serted chair  (if  mutual  esteem  and  friendshii).  Jf  this  is  a  gain — who 
can  say  ? 

ORGANIZED    CONDITION    OF    LAI50U. 

About  organization  of  labor,  in  the  American  sense  of  the  word,  little 
or  nothing  is  known.  Here  in  Stettin  a  union  of  waiters  and  one  of 
printers  exist,  a  kind  of  workingmen's  aid  associations,  aiming  mostly 
to  snpport  and  relieve  their  members  in  cases  of  need  and  sickness. 

"Social  Democracy"  has  not  yet  taken  a  foothold  in  Pomerania  worthy 
to  be  earnestly  considered  and  reckoned  with,  although  in  the  last  elec- 
tion for  the  Keichstag  (three  years  ago)  1,100  to  1,200  votes  out  of  8,000 
to  9,000  were  cast  for  the  socialistic  nominee.  V.ery  little  attention  is 
paid  to  it.  Most  of  its  followers  are  to  be  found  among  the  iron  workers. 
According  to  the  "Vulcan  "  a  considerable  number  of  its  laborers  belong 
to  trade  associations  (free  associations),  securing  themselves  in  this  way 
a  sufficient  pecuniary  assistance  in  cases  of  sickness,  and  if  becoming 
invalids  a  small  pension  ;  also  these  associations  arrange  social  enter- 


492  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

taiiiments.  Counter  organizations  of  capital  do  not  exist.  The  masters, 
i.  e.,  those  who  carry  on  a  trade  for  themselves,  on  their  own  account 
and  name,  try  to  reorjianize  the  old  iiuilds  accordinfj^  to  the  demands  of 
the  present  time.  As  everythiiij;  here  in  Germany  is  cominj^:  Irom  the 
authorities,  so  also  the  laws  regarding  labor  and  its  organization.  The 
Statute  ])articularly  here  in  question,  after  having  Ix'cn  i)assed  by  the 
Keichstag,  dates  from  July  18,  1881.  It  is  since  this  time  the  i)rinci- 
pal  object  of  the  chancellor  of  the  (icrman  Em])ire  to  further  de- 
velop this  kind  of  legislation.  He  intends  that  the  state  shall  take 
care  of  its  citizens;  that  it  ])rovides  work  for  them  if  necessary,  and 
supports  them  if  old,  cripi)led,  or  unable  to  work.  He  ])ron()unced 
the  memorable  words  May  t),  1884,  in  open  session  of  the  Keichstag: 
^'  I  want  to  give  by  social  reforms  to^the  laboring  classes  wdiat  belongs 
to  them — work  for  the  laborer  as  long  as  he  can  work,  ffnd  I  want  to 
provide  for  him  if  he  cannot  work  any  more."  Certaiidy  a  grand  and 
noble  iilea !  But  this  state  help,  or  by  its  modern  name  called  "state 
socialism,"  as  different  from  "  social  democracy,"  is  o])posed  equally 
by  the  Liberals,  who  say  that  the  chancellor  has  sunk  up  to  his  shoul- 
ders into  "  socialism,"  and  wants  to  dei)rive  the  individual  of  his  per- 
sonal liberty,  and  by  the  Socialists,  who  are  not  satislied  because  he  is 
not  going  far  enough,  and  only  the  conservative  elements  agree  with 
him.  It  is  a  queer  condition  of  things,  but  it  shows  clearly  that  some- 
thing must  be  done  to  solve  the  labor  problem,  disturbing  at  present 
the  whole  civilized  world,  and  if  Germany  should  succeed  in  settling 
this  question  in  a  peaceable  way  she  would  have  achieved  the  highest 
triumph  in  modern  times. 

Besides  the  statute  called  "  trade  regulations"  a  law  has  been  passed, 
June  13,  1883,  about  insurance  of  all  workingmen  in  cases  of  sickness, 
to  take  effect  December  1,  1884;  another  one  about  insurance  in  case 
of  accidents  has  just  been  passed;  others  about  i)ensiGns  for  invalids, 
old  persons,  &c..  are  to  follow.  To  enable  the  Department  to  get  an 
inside  view  of  all  these  efforts  and  exjieriments,  and  to  judge  about  the 
sjiirit  ijcrvading  them,  1  endeavored  to  translate  the  essential  ])arts 
of  "  the  trade  regulations,"  in  form  of  an  abstract,  showing  better  than 
I  could  do  the  organization  of  labor  and  the  i)robal)le  etfect  of  this 
organization  on  the  welfare  and  advancement  of  the  laborers,  and  com- 
plying at  the  same  time  with  the  wish  of  the  Dej)artment  to  refer  in 
this  conne(;tion  to  the  local  or  jjeneral  laws  beai'ing  on  such  organiza- 
tions.    I  allow  myself  to  forward  this  translation  as  inclosure  2s'o.  C. 

STRIKES. 

Strikes  have  not  taken  place  since  1878,  so  all  my  inform.inls  say. 
Mr.  Giideke  replies  to  the  question  with  the  definite  answer,  "Strikes 
are  not  known  here."  Mr.  Col  las  expresses  himself,  "  Strikes  are  not 
known  here.  They  have,  it  is  true,  taken  place  several  times,  but  they 
did  not  last  long  and  eiuhil  in  the  diseomtituie  ot  the  laborer."  The 
superiiiten(h'nt  of  the  Stettin  Tortland  cement  works  says,  "•  Strikes 
don't  hapi)en  at  all.  If  the  workingman  thinks  himself  entitled  to 
higher  wages  he  nnikes  known  his  re(piest  to  his  enqdoyer  and  the 
directors  (lecide  according  to  cii'cumstances.  Every  other  way  to  gain 
an  increase  of  wages  woidtl  be  follo^Ncd  by  the  instantaneous  dismissal 
of  the  man.  The  laborers  know  it,  and  the  consequence  is  the  non-ex- 
istence of  strikes.  Warsaw  is  quiet;  order  reigns  in  Warsaw."  The 
directors  of  the  "  Vulcan"  rejmrt,  '•  Strikes  have  not  ha]>pened  with  us 
since  ten  years  and  more."     The  Portland  cement  factory,  "  Stern,"  de- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  493 

clarcs  emphatically,  "  We  bad  no  strike  since  the  be^nnning  of  1870." 
It  is  to  be  remarked  that  this  establishment  is  a  model  one,  and  takes 
great  pains  in  the  improvement  and  welfare  of  its  laborers,  as  will 
appear  afterwards. 

But  seems  to  me  that  all  these  gentlemen,  notwithstanding  the  facts 
are  tiue,  look  rather  with  distrust  to  the  state  of  things  existing  and 
consider  it  as  the  calm  before  a  storm,  which,  when  coming,  will  sweep 
with  terrible  fnry  over  the  whole  country.  No  doubt  the  laborers  are 
quiet  and  the  fei-'ling  between  employer  and  emidoye  is  a])parently  a 
''  satisfactory  "  one  ;  but  there  are  some  symptoms  which  evince  that  a 
deep-seated  ^^entiment  of  discontent  has  taken  t*aken  hold  of  the  heart 
of  the  poor  toiling  masses,  that  an  undercurrent  exists,  not  visible  to 
the  superficial  observer.  Only  last  year  a  strike  broke  out  among  the 
building  trades  and  succeeded  in  raising  the  wages  of  masons  and  house- 
carpenters  50  pfennige,  equal  to  11.9  cents  per  day  Three  weeks  ago 
the  cabinet-makers  here  demanded  higher  wages,  a  strike  was  threaten- 
ing, many  hands  had  already  quitted  work,  when  mostly' all  the  employers 
yielded  totlie  j)ropositions  made,  and  I'J  marks  per  week,  equal  to  $2.86, 
were  tixed  as  lowest  wages,  and  one-half  hour  more  time  for  rest  ])er  day 
allowed.  To  day  only  seven  men  are  out  of  work.  The  potters  followed 
the  movement,  I  don't  know  with  what  result  as  yet.  Last  JNIonday 
(June  23)  a  public  meeting  of  the  tailors  of  the  city  and  surroundings 
was  held,  aboutsix  hundred  i)ersons  being  present.  They  staj:ed  wages 
were  so  low  (about  42  cents  a  day  for  ten  hours'  work)  that  their  wives 
had  to  help  day  and  night  to  sustain  the  families;  sewing  girls  earn- 
ing, according  to  the  statements  made,  per  week,  $1.30;  if  working  on 
machines,  $1.1)0  ;  seidom  more.  They  elected  a  committee  to  draw  up 
a  i)rice-list,  advocating  a  very  moderate  advancement  of  prices  only,  and 
fix  the  number  of  hours  for  a  normal  day's  work  ;  also,  they  resolved  to 
organize  a  tailors'  union  for  the  im])rovement  of  the  material  and  intel- 
lectual interests  of  the  members  of  the  trade.  It  will  be  seen  ill  these 
demands  have  been  very  modest  and  moderate ;  the  Gernmn  laborer 
rather  works  even  for  small  wages  than  to  waste  his  time  in  idleness  ; 
he  is  poor,  and  content  if  he  only  can  supply  the  barest  necessities  of 
life.  All  the  strikes  so  far  have  been  settled  by  mutual  compromises  in 
a  friendly  way,  and  it  is  pio])osed  that  boards  of  arbitration  sball  be 
established  in  1885  to  decide  about  all  disagreements  between  employers 
and  employes.  As  strikes,  a«  cording  to  the  foregoing,  have  been  few 
and  of  not  much  importance,  also  agreements  having  taken  i)lace  within 
a  short  time,  the  interests  of  the  laborers  were  somewhat  advanced  by 
them  and  the  industrial  interests  not  generally  affected.  I  am  told  all 
the  employers  try  to  be  on  good  terms  with  their  laborers,  and  as  these 
efibrts  don't  fail  to  get  duly  acknowledged  by  the  latter,  the  result  is 
the  satisfactory  feeling  between  both  parties. 

POOD  PURCHASES. 

The  laborer,  whose  claim  has  been  settled  by  crediting  him  with  food, 
rent,  medicines,  fuel,  &c.,  can  ask,  nevertheless,  at  any  moment,  his 
cash  money  due  him,  and  the  articles  furnished  are  not  considered  as 
an  equivalent  to  refuse  payment.  Cash  has  to  be  jjaid,  and  the  articles 
furnished,  and  at  hand  yet  go  to  the  aid  association  of  which  the  la- 
borer is  a  member,  or  if  he  does  not  belong  to  any  one,  to  the  poor 
fund  of  the  town.  All  agreements  and  contracts  between  employer  and 
employe,  imposing  certain  conditions  about  the  place  where  the  nec- 
essaries of  life  ought  to  be  bought  or  contrary  in  any  other  respect  to 


494  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

the  law,  are  mill  and  void.  oSfeitlier  can  the  employer  sue  the  employe 
for  sToods,  which,  contrary  to  law,  have  been  credited  to  the  hitter,  nor 
can  he  charge  them  in  settling  his  account.  But  the  law  allows  that 
the  wages  are  jniid  over  to  creditors  of  the  laborer,  ])rovided  the  lat- 
ter agrees  to  it.  Payment  is  made  weekly  ;  in  larger  e.stal)lshments  two- 
weekly  jieriods  are  luefcrred.  More  and  moie  the  day  of  i)ayment  is 
transiVried  from  Saturday  to  Friday  in  order  to  enable  the  laborer  to 
buy  his  necessaries  at  the  lesser  rates  on  tlie  Saturday's  markets.  The 
money  is  given  to  each  individual  laborer  in  a  tin  box,  numbered  and 
containing  an  account  of  the  wages  earned.  This  is  a  great  change  for 
the  better,  comi)ared  with  tlie  manner  it  was  done  before,  when  whole 
sets  of  laborers  were  jiaid  in  one  luni]),  and  the  division  of  the  money 
among  them  usually  took  place  in  the  next  saloon  ;  the  saloon-keeper 
pocketing  by  this  occasion  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  small  and 
liard-earued  wages  of  the  pooi'  fellows ;  wives  and  children  waiting  with 
anxiety  for  the  return  of  iiusbands  and  fathers,  some  of  whom  in  con- 
sequence of  indulging  in  liquor,  began  to  quarrel  with  each  other,  got 
embroiled  into  fights,  were  finally  arrested  by  the  ])olice,  and  had  to 
stay  in  prison  over  Sunday.  The  fine  imj)osed  then  swallowed  u])  what 
was  left  by  the  saloou  keei)er.  All  ])ayments  are  to  be  made  in  tho 
currency  of  the  (xerman  Emi)ire — gold  and  silver. 

(30- OPERATIVE    S0(3IETIES. 

a 

A  very  im])ortant  theme  indeed  ;  the  system  embracing  such  a  multi- 
tude of  associations  of  the  most  different  kind,  handling  mostly  every- 
thing necessaiy  to  modern  life;  raw  materials,  trades,  industries,  agri- 
culture, banking,  necessaries  of  life,  housebuilding,  «S:c.,  that  a  volume 
easily  might  be  written  about  the  questions  asked.  The  late  Cousul- 
General  Lee,  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  has  i)ublished  in  his  commercial 
report  for  1877  the  leading  i)rinciples  of  the  co-operative  societies  in 
Germany,  according  to  the  "system  Schulze-Delitzsch" ;  these  being 
generally  known  in  the  civilized  world,  and  (existing  now  as  then,  it  is 
needless  to  repeat  them  here  over  again.  One  new  feature  has  been 
added  since  1881  by  the  associations  themselves,  viz,  revisions  and  ex- 
aminations into  their  conditions  at  regular  intervals  by  comj)etent,  im- 
l)artial  persons.  This  was  the  answer  given  by  the  unions  to  a  resolu- 
tion of  Mr.  Ackermann,  member  of  the  German  Keiciistag,  that  the  free, 
self-helping  co-()])erative  societies  should  be  placed  under  control  of 
the  Government.  The  reixut  for  1882,  written  by  Dr.  F.  Schneider, 
Anwalt  pro  tempore  (Schulze Delitzsch  having  died  last  year),  says  :  "  It 
cannot  sur))rise  that  the  cooperative  societies  have  liard  work  in  facing 
the  state  socialistic  tendencies  of  our  time,  tendencies  which  rather  aid 
and  i)romote  social  democracy.  It  gives  so  much  the  more  satisfaction 
that  tiie  assaults  made  have  done  no  harm,  but  only  sjnirred  the  asso- 
ciations to  make  their  institutions  more  i)erfect.  Tiiese  efforts  have  not 
been  without  suc<-ess;  no  bankruptcy  has  taken  place,  and  the  co-op- 
erative societies  can  boast  now,  as  lielbre,  of  less  failures  than  any  otlier 
class  of  c(mimercial  business."  The  iei)ort  gives  the  number  of  coopera- 
tive  societies  for  ISSli  as  ,'3,480  against  3,481  in  J881,  viz: 

lioaii  and  cicdit  a.ssdciatioiiH   in 1,875 

Productive  associations  ol"  didert'nt  tradi's  an«l  induHtiicH  954 

Coimniue  associationM ". 62 

IJuildinj;  associations 3& 

The  grand  total  of  all  the  associations  in  the  German  Empire  is  esti- 
mated at  3,550  ^niany  new  established  ones  having  not  yet  reported) ; 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  495 

they  contain  1,100,000  to  1,200.000  nienibors  ;  the  business  done  amounts 
to  more  than  2,000,000,000  marks  a  year,  the  working?  capital  (»20,000,0u0 
marks,  of  which  200,000,000  are  their  own,  420,000,000  borrowed, 

Besides  there  are  i)i  existence  in  the  rural  districts  about  700  loan  as- 
sociations connected  with  consuming  societies  according  to  the  ''.system 
Kaiti'eisen,"  which  not  long  ago  formed  a  "  union  of  Gernum  agricultural 
co-operative  societies,"  and  in  the  future  also  will  collect  statistics  and 
make  re])orts. 

In  Eastern  and  Western  I'russia  are  130  loan  and  credit  associations 
and  10  consume  societies;  in  Poinerania  04  of  the  former  and  8  of  the 
latter  are  in  operation;  the  number  of  i»roductive  ami  building  asso- 
ciations for  these  provinces  1  could  not  nuike  out,  they  being  included 
in  the  general  rejjort  for  the  German  Emi)ire.  Inclosure  No.  7  gives 
in  tabular  form  a  ('oniijarison  of  the  results  of  the  cooi)erative  credit 
societies  in  Germany  from  187G  to  ]>S82,  inclusive.  To  show  the  pros- 
pering condition  of  these  associations  a  few  items  will  suffice : 

Assets  iti   state,  coiniti/,  and  citij  bonds,  ,^c. 

Marks. 

1879  19,739,546 

1880  27,168,018 

1881 -^g,  161,129 

1882 33,  422, 927 

Deposits  with  bankx  and  associations. 

1879 15,651,429 

1880 18, 508, 300 

1881 20,  303,  064 

1882 , 18,739,050 

The  increase  within  three  years  is  from  35,000,000  to  52,000,000  ;  the 
loans  on  mortgages  increased  from  17,330,556  marks  in  1880  to  23,090,082 
marks  in  1882.  Theproductive  societies  were  enabled  to  pay  a  dividend 
of  13.5  per  cent,  in  1882 ;  and  the  results  show  that  mechanics  can 
really  get  independent  by  forming  productive  unions  if  they  are  only 
willing  to  save  part  of  their  wages  ami  profits,  and  to  give  up  their 
claims  for  the  i)leasures  of  life  at  present  in  order  to  secure  a  brighter 
future. 

Keferring  to  the  consume  societies  jtroper,  I  find  six  hundred  and 
twenty-one  in  operation  at  the  end  of  the  year  1882.  The  principles  by 
which  they  are  governed  are  the  following : 

(1.)  Those  who  are  willing  to  buy  their  goods  froui  the  society  are 
members  sharing  in  equal  proportions  i)rofits  and  risks;  the  selling  of 
goods  to  persons  who  are  not  members  is  done  by  some  associations  in 
order  to  induce  such  i)ersons  to  become  members. 

(2.)  Shares  of  a  certain  fixed  amount  are  formed  by  continued  small 
payments  in  cash  and  principally  by  addition  of  the  dividends. 

(3.)  A  reserve  cai)ital  is  accumulated  by  i)rotits,  and  in  some  instances 
by  admission  fees,  to  serve  in  repairing  great  losses. 

(4.)  The  members  are  responsible,jointIy  and  separately,for  the  capital 
borrowed  and  needed  in  ]>urchasing  goods,  or  goods  are  bought  on  credit, 
the  members  also  being  resi>onsible,  jointly  and  sepaiately. 

(5.)  The  goods  are  sold  mostly  for  cash  at  the  same  price  as  the  prin- 
cipal dealers  do;  the  lu'ofits,  after  deducting  expenses  and  interest  to 
be  i)aid,  go  in  part  to  the  reserve  fund;  ])artly'they  are  divided  in  the 
form  of  dividends  among  the  members. 

(6.)  The  directors,  employes,  and  storekeepers  are  paid  according  to  the 
work  they  do  and  the  results  they  can  show. 


496  LABOR    IN    ?:UROPE GERMANY. 

(7.)  The  iiuinber  of  members  is  unlimited  ;  admission  open  to  every- 
body who  complies  with  the  articles  of  the  association;  also  each  one 
may  leave  after  <ifiviii,i:j  notice  a  certain  time  before. 

Inclosnre  No.  8  is  a  comparative  statement  of  the  results  of  the  con- 
sunif  societies  from  1870  to  1882,  inclusive. 

It  appears  that  the  capital  owned  by  the  societies  has  increased 
380,00;)  mari^'s  in  1882,  the  cajjital  borrowed  decreased  104,000  in  the 
same  time.  Debts  on  j^oods  amounted  at  the  end  of  1882  to  11.3  per 
cent,  aj^ainst  18.2  per  cent,  at  the  end  of  1879  ;  debts  of  the  total  capital 
borrowed  13.0  per  cent.,  ajjainst  21.5  of  the  same  time.  Cash  payment, 
as  well  in  buying'  as  in  selling,  is  getting  more  and  more  the  rule.  Out 
of  182  so(-ieties  only  47  are  buying  and  selling  on  credit,  and  a  very  im- 
portant fact  coming  into  consideration  in  this  connection  is  the  state- 
ment of  the  workingmen  of  those  associations  which  forced  their  mem- 
bers to  buy  for  cash: 

That  a  perinaueiit  im))roveiucnt  of  the  financial  conditions  of  the  worliiug  classes 
cannot  take  place  before  they  become  accustomed  to  buy  the  necessaries  of  daily  life 
for  cash  and  to  live  therefore  within  their  income,  while  buyinj^  on  credit  perpetu- 
ates torever  financial  disorder  and  mismauaijemeut  in  housekeeping 

The  building  associations  are  less  important,  their  numbers  be- 
ing comj.aratively  small,  and  their  results  not  very  encouraging;  it 
seems  that  the  principles  to  be  followed  nj)  by  this  branch  of  the  co- 
operative societies  have  not  yet  been  settled  or  agreed  upon.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  decline  in  real  estate  many  of  them  have  suffered 
losses,  or  cannot  rent  the  houses  built  at  prices  corresponding  to  orig- 
inal costs.  I  only  shall  now  call  the  attention  of  the  Department  to 
the  conditions  and  working  of  the  Stettiner  Consume  and  Spar  Verein 
(Consume  and  Savings  Association)  in  ])articular,  and  then  give  a  few 
statistics  in  general  uj)  to  the  year  1882,  the  report  for  1883  not  yet 
having  ap])eared  in  j)rint. 

The  Stettin  (yonsume  and  Savings  Association  exists  since  1803;  it  con- 
tains at  i)resent  4,700  members,  is  incorporated,  and  works  within  the 
system  "  Schulze-Delitzsch,  furnishes  wholesale  pure,  unadulterated 
articles,  sells  at  the  usual  city  prices,  and  since  1874,  by  resolution  of 
the  general  meeting,  not  only  to  members  but  also  at  the  same  prices 
to  others,  but  the  members  alone  jjarticipate  in  the  profits  in  equal 
proi)orti6ns  to  the  purchases  made  by  them;  the  dividends  aver- 
aged 8  per  cent,  on  the  goods  bought  and  are  declared  half  yearly; 
a  workingman's  family  using  about  150  marks  i)er  annum  saves  accord- 
ingly 12  marks;  within  last  year  40,908.00  marks  came  to  <listril)utiou 
as  dividends.  Each  member  is  entitled  to  one  share  of  50  marks  ;  has 
to  i)ay  1  nmrk  when  admitted,  and  may  pay  in  the  balance  either  in 
cash  at  once  or  by  successive  payments,  or  have  it  ac('umulate<l  by  ad- 
ditional dividends  ;  if  30  marks  have  been  paid  in,  interest  at  5  percent, 
is  allowed  for  every  mark  more  for  each  calendar  month;  if  50  marks 
are  paid  in  full  the  dividends  can  be  drawn  in  (;ash  every  half  .year;  if 
not  drawn  they  go  to  the  saving  fund,  and  5  per  cent,  interest  is  al- 
lowed. Five  i)er  cent,  of  the  net  i)r()lits  are  added  to  the  reserve  fund 
every  half  year,  also  interest  on  savings  and  shares  paid,  aiid  10  per 
cent,  of  the  \  alue  of  tiie  furniture,  «&(;.,  charged  lor  wear  and  tear,  bo- 
fore  dividends  are  declared.  Besides,  the  association  assists  its  mem- 
bers in  cases  of  sickness,  death,  or  in  other  unfoieseen  expenses,  by  ad- 
vancing money,  which  comes  back  by  the  dividends,  if  in  no  other  way, 
and  does  an  immense  good  also  in  this  manner. 

The  society  runs  at  present  nine  ditlercnt  stores  in  the  city;  is  pros- 
pering very  much ;  owns  valuable  real  estate,  and  pays  State  taxes. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  497 

but  no  city  taxes.  The  inenibers  are  jointly  and  separately  responsible 
for  all  debts  contracted  by  the  association.  Jiy  the  re[)ort  for  188^3,  which 
I  add  in  duplicate  (inclosure  No.  9),  will  be  seen  that  the  sales  amounted 
to  477,418  marks,  witii  a  net  protit of  53,839  marks;  that  the  members 
increased,  since  180G,  from  719  to  4,533  in  1883  (at  present  4,700) ;  the  re- 
serve on  capital  from  811  to  20,059  marks  ;  the  reserve  on  j)rotits  from 
720  to  4,407  marks,  and  the  money  due  to  members  from  12,236  to  166,015 
marks.  Kegarding  the  further  questions  of  the  Department  in  relation 
to  CO  operative  societies,  nobody  will  doubt,  according  to  the  statements 
given, thatthese  societies  as  a  whole  are  prosperous,  and  that  they  have 
fully  fuliilled  the  promises  held  out  at  their  formation  of  enabling  the 
work-people  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  at  less  cost  than  through 
the  regular  and  usual  business  channels.  About  the  effect  or  general 
trade,  I  am  assured  that  good  and  reliable  dealers  are  not  sufi'ering,  but 
only  those  who  try  to  make  a  living  by  selling  poor  goods  for  high  prices ; 
that  it  is  true  a  number  of  dealers  were  driven  out  of  the  business  by  the 
association, but  while  the  profit  by  which  these  "  drones  "of  human  society 
sustained  their  lives  goes  now  directly  to  the  consumer,  no  harm  was 
donetothecomnuinity.  To  corroborate  furthermore  and  in  general  the 
above-given  statements  I  add  five  more  inclosures,  viz  :  Inclosure  No. 
10,  showing  balance-sheets  of  the  loan  and  credit  co-operative  associa- 
tions of  this  consular  district. 

Inclosure  No.  11,  showing  members'  increase  and  decrease,  and  pres- 
ent numbeis  of  the  co  operative  loan  and  credit  associations,  as  also  the 
standing  in  society  of  the  members  in  this  consular  district. 

Inclosure  No.  12,  showing  balance-sheets  of  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  CO  operative  consutne  associations  in  the  German  Empire. 

Inclosure  No.  13,  showing  members  and  their  standing  in  society  of 
one  huiulred  and  sixty-six  cooperative  consume,  thirteen  productive, 
and  one  building  association,  in  the  German  Empire  {in  toto). 

Inclosure  No.  14,  showing  expenses  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six 
co-operative  consume  nssociations  in  the  German  Empire. 

All  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1882. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING-PEOPLE. 

It  is  taken  for  granted  by  the  well-doing  people  here  that  the  better 
class  of  workingmen  have  ''decent  homes,"  which  means  that  they  en- 
joy two  rooms,  one  usually  small,  dark,  without  extra  entrance  and 
ventilatfon,  a  tire-place  oflen  in  common  with  others,  used  also  for  wash- 
ing, and  a  small  apartment  in  the  cellar,  for  piling  wood  and  storing 
coals,  &c.  The  prices  range  from  $25  to  $45  a  year,  according  to  loca- 
tion, being  somewhat  lower  now  than  ten  years  ago,  and  about  the  same 
as  stated  by  Messrs.  Collas  and  Gsedeke,  in  consequence'  of  a  great  many 
new  buildings  erected  since  1872,  when  the  ramparts  surrounding  the 
city  were  leveled  and  many  houses  in  the  old  part  of  the  city,  especially 
ill  narrow,  crooked  streets,  became  vacated. 

The  work-people  either  live  in  cellars  or  parterre  (the  next  cheapest 
to  cellars),  or  in  upper  stories,  often  in  yards,  mostly  in  old  buildings 
without  water,  sewerage,  and  ventilation  ;  new  buildings — tenement- 
houses — are  better  provided  for  in  this  regard,  but  there  are  only  a  lim- 
ited number.  The  best  situated  workingmen  are  those  who  live  in 
houses  built  and  owned  by  the  factories  they  are  engaged  in,  little  cot- 
tage houses  for  single  iamilies ;  but  they  are  very  few,  not  sufficient  at 
all,  and  particularly  during  the  summer  months  totally  inadequate  to 
the  numbers  pouring  into  the  seats  of  industry,. being  obliged  to  walk 
92  A— LAB 32 


498  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

distances  of  5  to  8  English  miles  every  morning  and  evening.  Single 
persons  get  along  comparatively  easier;  they  find  a  bed  with  a  family, 
often  together  witli  another  fellow-laborer;  often  they  can  get  board  in 
the  same  place.  Widows  of  laborers,  or  families  with  a  large  nnmber 
of  children,  usnally  rent  one  room  of  the  two  they  have  to  others,  in 
order  to  get  a  little  extra  income  to  make  both  ends  meet.  I  saw  a  case 
where  mother  and  fonr  children  slept  in  the  little  kitchen  on  the  floor 
after  si)reading  their  "beddings"  every  evening,  and  two  boys  had  to 
climb  by  a  hulder  into  a  kind  of  closet  above  the  privy. 

Boardinghonses  in  the  Ameri(;an  style,  where  twelve  to  forty  and 
more  boarders  eat  and  And  commodions,  well  lighted  and  ventilated 
rooms,  do  not  exist.  That  the  system  of  renting  snch  a  sleeping-place  to 
young,  unmarried  persons,  men,  women,  children  of  both  sexes,  all  be- 
ing crowded  together,  is  followed  only  too  often  by  very  serious  and  sad 
consequences,  may  easily  be  imagined  ;  the  peace  of  the  family  getting 
disturbed,  bastardy,  adultery,  divorces  promoted,  premature  marriages 
entered,  and  morality  severely  injured.  To  show  the  kind  of  "  their 
homes,"  I  add  with  inclosure  No.  15  a  list  of  sixteen  parties,  taken  from 
the  "  oflflcial  communications." 

Regarding  food  of  workingmen,  or  "  how  they  live,"  the  same  report 
says:  "The  fare  of  workingmen  is  on  the  whole  a  sufficient  one,  the 
prices  of  provisions  being  in  accordance  with  wages  paid,  although  the 
former  differ  about  20  per  cent,  in  various  ]daces  of  the  province."  Kow 
let  us  hear  the  parties  interested  themselves  •  Breakfast:  coffee  (mostly 
a  decoction  of  chicory  or  roasted  barley)  and  1.19  cent's  worth  of  white 
bread  ;  at  9  o'clock  :  a  piece  of  rye  bread  with  lard  or  goose-grease,  sel- 
dom a  i)iece  of  cheap  sausage,  and  1.19  cent's  worth  of  schnaps  (a  kind 
of  whisky  distilled  from  potatoes).  Dinner :  soup,  made  of  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables,  as  beans,  peas,  turnips,  onions,  &c.,  and  a  little 
lard  added  ;  once,  or  in  better  situated  fiimilies  twice,  a  week,  a  pound 
of  cheap  meat  boiled  together  with  it  and  afterwards  eaten  as  a  deli 
cacy ;  one  i)ound  of  meat  must  do  for  four  to  five  persons,  the  husband 
mostly  alone  enjoying  the  taste  of  it,  the  rest  of  the  family  only  the 
smell.  At  times  fishes  of  a  certain  kind  are  cheaj)  and  form  part  of  the 
meal.  At  4  o'clock :  coffee  (same  kind  as  in  the  morning)  and  a  i)iece 
of  rye  bread.  Supper:  i)otatoes  and  a  herring,  or  potatoes  fried  in  lard 
and  sour  milk  after  being  skimmed ;  sometimes  a  little  bit  of  cheese. 
That  those  who  are  living  at  a  distance  of  5  to  7  miles  are  even  worse 
off",  is  self-evident.  Certainly  this  is  in  accordance  with  prices  of  wages, 
but  I  doubt  if  any  American  will  call  it  sufficient.  Butter,  sirui),  meat,- 
tea,  &c.,  the  daily  fare  of  our  American  laborer,  are  considered  luxuries. 
There  seems  to  be  a  vast  difference  of  opinion  in  this  regard  between 
people  hero  and  across  the  water.  But  how  can  you  get  along  with 
such  food  and  work  eleven  hours  a  day,  I  asked  my  informant,  a  clear- 
headed, intelligent,  sober,  and  industrious  mechanic.  lie  smiled  gloom- 
ily (I  never  shall  forget  this  smile)  and  said  : 

I  must  "■et  .'ilotii^  with  it  or  steal — tliis  is  the  choice  left  to  all  who  are  neither  uo- 
blenien,  nor  rich  men,  nor  salaried  officers  ;  when  in  the  honse  of  correction,  or  state 
prison,  we  are  cared  for ;  but  for  the  poor  wives  and  children — I  am  going  to  America, 
my  brother  sends  me  the  money. 

And  yet  these  i)oor  fellows  are  decently  clothed  ;  tiiey  wear  cneap 
materials,  but  keep  them  clean  ;  linen  or  cotton  cloth  and  shoddy.  Their 
chances  for  bettering  their  condition  are  none,  everything  in  this  coun- 
try being  fixed  and  settled  since  centuries  ;  the  land  in  possession  of  pri- 
vate owners,  principalities  of  100  square  miles  often  in  one  hand,  and,  on 
l«p  other  side,  again,  lands  divided  in  to  such  small  parcels  that  the  own- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  499 

ers  cannot  live  oflf  their  produce ;  an  over-population  by  which  wages 
are  kept  down  to  a  minimum  ;  the  poor  people  carrying  on  a  life  of  in- 
cessant toil  and  privation,  a  continuous  struggle  for  existence,  working 
day  by  day,  from  morning  to  evening,  for  the  barest  necessities  of  life, 
knowing  that  when  old  and  invalid  and  unable  to  work  any  more  they 
have  to  depend  upon  charity  ;  after  forty  years  of  hard  work  to  be  at 
the  same  point  whence  they  started  as  young  men,  and  yet  content  and 
at  times  even  happy!  On  Sundays  and  holidays  they  go  out  with  their 
families,  hear  some  music,  have  a  dance,  breathe  fresh  air,  enjoy  them- 
selves under  the  green  trees,  delight  in  nature's  beauty,  an<i  spend  a  few 
pfennigs,  saved  by  the  assistance  of  wife  and  children.  And  then  the 
moralist  steps  in  and  says,  "  they  are  improvident  and  regardless  of 
the  future  and  spend  in  drinking  and  dancing  all  they  earn."  Oh,  the 
Pharisee!  That  they  go  sometimes  into  excesses  I  a<lmit;  but  I  only 
am  astonished  how  seldom  it  happens.  They  drink  bad  whisky  because 
they  have  no  money  for  beer  or  something  better.  They  certainly  would 
prefer  wine  and  champagne  as  well  as  our  moralist  does,  if  they  could 
afford  it.  I  might  ask,  have  they  really  no  claims  to  the  pleasures  and 
joys  of  life,  and,  besides,  what  inducements  have  they  to  save  anything, 
even  if  they  could  1  They  never  can  get  a  home  for  themselves;  noth- 
ing they  can  call  their  own  in  the  world,  except  their  poverty  and  their 
misery.  Thousands  and  thousands  more  would  come  to  the  United 
States  every  year  if  they  only  could  save  the  few  marks  to  pay  for  the 
passage. 

All  that  has  been  said  holds  out  for  the  great  majority  of  work- 
people ;  there  are  exceptions  on  both  ends  of  the  line,  a  few  lucky  ones, 
who  are  in  more  fortunate  conditions,  with  better  wages,  with  none  or 
only  a  few  children,  with  wives  who  carry  on  a  business  as  dressmaker, 
or  keep  a  little  shop,  and  so  on  5  these  few  get  along  and  save  a  few 
marks  a  year.  One  of  this  class  told  me  that  he  saved  50  marks  within 
four  years,  and  bought  furniture  for  two  rooms  worth  100  marks — alto- 
gether $35.70 — but  only  by  the  strictest  economy.  Thirty-tive  dollars 
and  seventy  cents  within  four  years,  think  of  it,  American  fellow-labor- 
ers !  The  savings  of  man  and  wife  after  four  years'  constant,  hard  work ! 
On  the  other  end  of  the  line,  we  lind  the  good-for-nothing  fellows,  the 
scamps,  the  idlers  and  tramps;  tkey  pass  away  their  time  in  idleness, 
and  spend  what  they  earn  (if  they  ever  do  earn)  in  drinking  and  dancing ; 
but  they  also  are  exceiJtious,  fortunately  not  many;  they  may  once 
have  been  good,  honest,  workingmeu,  but  they  don't  belong  any  more 
to  this  noble  and  respectable  class.  Bad  company  and  bad  whisky 
have  ruined  them;  misfortune,  poverty,  and  misery  may  have  helped  to 
do  the  work  ;  these  are  the  causes  which  surround  them  and  influence 
them  for  evil.  As  soon  as  the  workiugman  is  getting  a  regular  whisky 
drinker  he  goes  down  ;  whisky  was  in  Northern  Germany  the  common 
beverage,  and  it  is  yet  in  a  smaller  degree,  but  good,  wholesome  lager 
beer,  is  now  taking  its  place  more  and  more,  and  shows  already  a  very 
beneficial  influence;  religion, and  the  consideration  given  by  employers 
and  the  Government  to  the  welfare  of  the  laborers,  do  not  fail  to  exert 
also  an  influence  for  their  good.  The  physical  and  moral  condition  is 
the  result  of  all  the  conditions  written  upon  in  the  foregoing  pages. 
With  potatoes  and  chicory  water  as  main  food,  a  little  bad  whisky,  and, 
above  all,  miserable  water  as  a  drink,  with  small,  dark,  ill-ventilated 
rooms,  crowded  to  their  utmost  to  live  in;  no  sunshine  ever  sending  in 
its  golden  beam  ;  the  atmosphere  contaminated  with  foul  air  arising  from 
cellars  and  yards:  the  original  race  mixed  up  badly  with  foreign 
elements  j  want,  scantiness,  poverty,  and  misery  around  them,  we  can- 


500  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

not  expect  to  find  anion*;  those  classes  the  powerful  athletes  of  olden 
times  as  Tacitus  describes  tliein,  with  their  fair,  golden-reddish  hair, 
the  l)lue  eyes,  the  glance  even  whicli  the  uncouquered  Komans  could 
not  stand;  we  miss  that  well  known  "furor  tentonicus"  which  made  old 
Kome  tremble  and  su(;(;umb  to  those  barbarians. 

tScrophulosis,  with  all  its  consequences,  sore  eyes,  sore  heads,  swollen 
limbs  and  abdomens,  rhachitis,  with  its  curvatures  of  the  spine,  and  so 
on,  and  the  whole  legion  of  diseases  resulting  from  poor  food  and  bad 
air, insuflicient  nutrition  in  general,  are  only  too  frequent  and  till  the 
hospitals  and  asyhmis  with  their  victims,  cripples,  i<liots,  epileptics,  &c. 
Also  these  conditions  will  i)roduce  in  moral  respects  no  saints;  the 
purity  of  morals  is  stained  with  dark  spots,  but  according  to  all  in- 
formation obtained  not  worse  than  in  countries  better  situated.  Pros- 
titution, illegitimate  births,  syphilis  not  more  spread  than  elsewhere, 
the  crime  of  abortion  nearly  unknown.  Man  is  the  product  of  the  con- 
ditions surrounding  him.  Food  and  drink,  air  and  light,  society  and 
education  make  him  what  he  is.  I  tried  to  get  otticial  numl)ers  about  all 
these  points  to  show  in  tabular  form  the  percentage  of  suffering  in 
Ijhysical  or  moral  respects,  but  in  vain.  Those  who  have  evaded  all  the 
perils  surrounding  their  childhood  and  youth  grow  ui)  still  as  compar- 
atively strong  and  healthy  if  not  tall  men ;  and  the  three  years'  mili- 
tary service,  with  repeated  exercises  through  nine  years  further,  make 
them  tough,  enduring,  steady,  and  adroit.  They  have  inherited  a  mar- 
velous tenacity,  everlasting  energy,  and  the  powerful  vigor  of  their 
ancestors,  which  carry  them  through  the  most  unfortunate  conditions. 

I  always  am  surprised  when  looking  over  the  pages  of  history  that 
the  German  peoi)le  is  alive  yet,  that  a  German  nation  yet  exists.  After 
all  the  combats  with  the  Komans,  the  invasion  of  the  Huns,  the  con- 
stant struggles  through  the  dark  middle  ages,  with  all  their  civil  wars, 
the  terrible  ordeal  of  tlie  thirty  years'  war,  reducing  the  population  75 
per  cent,  and  making  a  desert  out  of  the  whole  of  Germany,  the  devas- 
tations again  under  the  "Great  Monarch,"  tiie  bloody  wars  against 
Nat)oleon  I — conquered  and  downtrodden — and  to-day  the  leading 
power  in  this  hemisphere  in  the  council  of  nations.  And  this  energy, 
this  tenacity,  this  vigor  is  only  asleep  within  these  poor  classes ;  it  exists 
among  them  and  awakens  under  more  i)ropitious  circumstances.  Give 
them  iresh  air  and  sunlight,  wholesome  food;  give  them  free  speech, 
free  soil,  and  free  labor;  let  them  have  freedom  of  thought  aiul  lib- 
erty of  action,  and  they  will  recui)erate,  regain  their  physical  strength, 
recover  their  moral  health,  and  justify  the  truth  of  the  words  of  the 
honorable  Secretary  of  State  in  his  letter  to  Congress  dated  May  17, 
1879 :  "  Such  are  the  characteristi(;s  of  the  German  working  classes, 
characteristics  which,  under  more  favorable  circumstances  in  the  United 
States,  have  helped  so  materially  in  the  develoi)ment  of  our  vast  re- 
sources, which  have  made  the  name  of  German-American  synonymous 
with  industry  and  good  citizenship,  and  which  have  given  to  the  agri- 
cultural and  manufacturing  mind  of  our  country  much  of  its  solidity  and 
perseverance." 

SAFETY   AND   COMFORT   OF   FACTORY   OPERATIVES. 

"What  are  the  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  employes,  &c.?" 
To  answer  the  question  as  its  importance  requires  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  look  at  all  the  various  charitable  societies,  benevolent  associa- 
tions, aid  societies,  &c.;  to  count  the  sums  contributed  by  private  charity, 
to  consider  the  means  furnished  by  the  employers  themselves  for  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  501 

safety  and  the  welfare  of  the  employes,  to  mention  the  many  ways  by 
whicli  the  h)cal  anthorities  of  towns  and  districts  i)rovide  for  the  wants 
of  the  poor  and  indigent  laborer,  and,  above  all,  to  study  the  laws  ])assed 
since  1872  by  the  German  Diet,  and  the  ordinances  of  the  Government 
referring  to  those  laws  enacted  for  the  safety,  the  improvement,  the 
welfare,  and  the  assistance  in  case  of  sickness  or  accident.  That  this 
is  impossible  with  the  limited  means  and  the  limited  time  at  command 
of  the  officers  abroad  the  Department  knows  best.  May  it  suffice,  then, 
to  say  that  from  all  sides  help  and  support  is  given:  a  few  single  names 
may  illustrate  the  idea  leading  the  employers,  and  a  glance  to  legisla- 
tion about  this  matter  show  the  way  by  which  the  Government  intends 
to  make  the  Vite  and  existence  of  the  working  classes  easier  and  to  strike 
at  the  root  of  the  direst  misery,  viz,  sickness  and  accidents. 

Among  the  many  benevolent  institutions  I  mention — 
Charitable  associations. — Society  for  Procuring  Fuel  for  the  Poor, 
Brothers'  Association  for  Aiding  in  Sickness  and  for  Moral  and  Mental 
Improvement,  Association  for  the  Care  of  the  Epileptic  at  Tabor,  La- 
dies' Association  for  Idiotic  Children  at  Kuekenmiihle.  Whoever  has 
witnessed  the  immense  pains  and  labor  taken  to  educate  and  instruct 
these  poor  wretches  in  the  elementary  principles  of  religion,  spelling, 
reading,  arithmetic,  singing,  and  has  listened  how  willingly  and  joy- 
fully tliey  answer  the  different  questions,  must  admire  as  well  the  re- 
sults achieved  as  the  services  rendered  to  humanity.  I  had  the  pleas- 
ure to  be  shown  over  the  institutions  by  the  superintendent,  Pastor 
Bernhardt,  and  think  it  only  my  duty  to  acknowledge  the  great  merits 
this  noble  man  has  won  in  his  self-sacriticing  work. 

All  these  institutions  are  founded  and  maintained  by  donations  and 
voluntary  contributions  ;  a  so-called  people's  kitchen,  jjroviding  a  good 
dinner  of  soup,  vegetables,  and  meat  for  3.^  cents,  was  started  about 
five  years  ago  by  a  subscription  of  $2,618.  It  distril)utes  about  three 
hundred  and  fifty  portions  each  day.  For  feeding  poor,  hungr3',  little 
children  visiting  the  schools  $584.70  were  collected  during  last  winter. 
Eeligious  associations,  Sunday-school  societies,  are  also  engaged  in  the 
good  work.  I  may  juention  yet  the  laborers'  colony  at  Schievelbein, 
giving  work  to  unemployed  workmen,  and  the  health  resorts  on  the 
Gernjan  sea-coasts  for  poor,  sick  children  under  the  protectorate  of  their 
royal  and  imperial  highnesses  the  crown  prince  and  crown  princess  of 
the  German  Empire. 

Charitable  institutions. —  Hospital  Bethanien,  also  for  training  of 
nurses;  ])rice,  including  board,  medical  and  surgical  treatment,  5,3, 
and  H  marks,  according  to  rooms  and  attendance;  for  children  1  mark 
per  day.  The  institution  is  beautifully  located  in  the  finest  part  of  the 
city  in  the  middle  of  a  large  garden,  and  is  the  present  of  a  liberal- 
minded  citizen.  By  its  medical  director.  Dr.  Maske,  a  i)erfect  gentle- 
man, highly  educated  physician,  and  skillful  and  eminent  surgeon,  it 
has  won  a  well-merited,  widespread  reputation.  Poor  patients  are 
paid  for  by  the  towns  where  they  have  lived  during  the  last  two  years. 
The  City  Hos])ital,  where  poor  people  are  admitted  without  pay. 

Deaconesses'  and  children's  home  at  Salem  for  education  of  poor 
girls  and  for  training  of  nurses;  children's  hospital;  hospital  for  nervous 
diseases  and  insane  persons;  Ernestinenhof  for  female  servants  out  of 
emi)loyment;  home  of  journeymen  ;  asylum  for  ruined  girls  ;  home  for 
saving  and  educating  stray  aud  wicked  boys  ;  five  kindergartens  (Krip- 
pen)  for  taking  care  of  and  instructing  smaller  children,  and  a  number  of 
other  institutions,  too  many  to  be  enumerated.      All  these  are  main- 


502  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

tained  by  the  aid  of  the  city  aud  county.  The  idea  leading  the  employ- 
ers is  represented  by  the  following  facts  : 

The  Vulcan  declares:  For  the  safety  of  our  workingmen  all  the  means 
have  been  i)rovide(l  i)rescribed  by  law,  continually-  brought  to  greater 
perfection  by  new  inventions ;  addressing  station"  is  establislied  ac- 
cording to  Professor  Esmarch's  recommendations  for  cases  of  accidents. 
We  promote  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  our  employes  by  con- 
siderable contributions  for  churches,  and  maintain  a  regular  school  oil 
Sundays  for  instruction  of  juvenile  laborers. 

Professor  Esmarch  is  professor  of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Kiel, 
aud  one  of  the  most  renowned  surgeons  living. 

The  di rectors  of  the  "  Stettiner  Kerzeu  and  Seifenfabrik  "  (Stettin  soap 
and  candle  factory)  write :  "  All  the  appliances  pertaining  to  machinery 
for  protection  of  laborers  are  made  use  of,  and  accidents  in  fact  very  sel- 
dom happen  with  us,  andonly  when  great  want  of  caution  has  been  exist- 
ing. Our  buildings  are  fireproof,  constructed  mostly  from  stone  aud 
iron  ;  besides  hydrants  are  connected  as  well  with  the  water-works 
of  the  citj'  andwith  our  own.  The  manager  of  the  Portland  cement  fac- 
tor\-,  "Stern,"  an  institution  which  I  took  occasion  to  mention  in  article 
No.  7,  says : 

We  have  an  aid  society  for  assisting  as  well  the  employes  as  their  families  in  cases 
of  sickness.  Every  eini)l()y^  pays  2.4  cents  per  week,  and  the  company  pays  the  same 
amount  for  each  of  its  men  ;  in  case  of  sickness  physician  and  medicines  are  furnished 
gratis  ;  '2:3.8  is  paid  in  cash  per  diem.  The  fund  for  assisting  the  family  membera  is 
a  sf^purate  one,  aud  raised  by  the  employes  themselves,  but  medical  treatment  and 
medicines  are  also  fiiruished  gratis. 

Schindler  &  Muetzell's  soap  factory  has  an  own  stationary  steam  fire- 
engine,  wiiich  takes  its  water  directly  from  tlie  Oder,  besides  an  elec- 
tric fire  alarm  in  the  office  connected  with  the  fire  department  of  the 
city.  An  aid  association  for  assistance  in  case  of  sickness  is  in  opera- 
tion since  twelve  years,  to  which  the  adult  laborers  ])ay  2.4  cents  each 
per  week,  the  emphj^'ers  the  same  sum  for  each  emi)loy6,  and  the  asso- 
ciation pays,  pursuant  to  a  certificate  of  the  physician  appointed,  three- 
quarters  of  the  wages  as  assistance.  The  pliysiciau's  salary  Is  paid  by 
the  owners. 

The  directors  of  the  Pomeranian  ])rovincial  sugar  refinery  state  the 
following  : 

Connected  with  our  establishment  is  an  aid  association,  which  pays, 
besides  nu^dical  treatment  and  nu'dicines,  11)  cents  per  day  to  ea(;h  one 
taken  down  with  sickness;  all  employes  are  also  insured  against  acci- 
dents, if  becoming  invalids,  and  in  caseof  doath.  Sufficient  fire-engines 
are  in  existence  to  i)reveiit  any  <langer  from  fire.  Kohlan  &  Silling, 
tobacconists,  have  an  aid  association,  which  assists  in  cases  of  sickness, 
and  ])ays  fnm^ral  expenses  in  case  of  death. 

It  would  take  too  much  time  and  space  to  go  on  further  with  details; 
but  justice  re(iuires  me  to  say  tiiat  tluis(i  enumerated  stand  not  alone  with 
their  human  efforts.  The  attention,  care,  and  provision  to  tlu^  wants  of 
the  laboring  classes,  which  has  occupied  the  mind  of  the  (Tcrnian  Gov- 
ernment and  the  (rerinan  Diet  since  the  last  few  years,  ami  the  laws 
passed  finally  in  thisrespe(;t,  are  well  worth  while  to  be  earnestly  looked 
at  and  examined  into.  Since  the  year  bSOO  already  a  numt)er  of  laws 
and  ordinances  are  in  force  with  the  purpose  common  to  all  of  them — 
prote(!tion  of  health  and  lif(^  of  the  lal)orer  They  cover  the  arrange- 
ment of  shoi)s,  factories — the  light  necessary,  the  heating,  the  quantity 
of  air  needed,  the  ventilation,  the  sup[)ly  of  drink,  water,  washing-stands, 
water  closets,  sewerage,  protection  against  fire,  means  of  rescue  in  case 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  503 

of  fire  by  way  of  stairs,  doors,  windows,  fire-escapes,  &c.,  in  short,  every- 
thinji-  imaginable  in  this  connection.  Also  ordinances  regarding  the  pre- 
cantions  to  be  taken  with  all  different  kinds  of  machinery,  the  appliances 
to  be  made  nse  of  for  this  pnrpose;  the  way  in  which  explosive,  corroding, 
or  poisonous  materials  are  to  be  handled,  the  means  by  which  the  working- 
man  can  protect  himself.  An  insi)ector  is  appointed  by  the  Govern-, 
ment  for  each  province  (Gewerbe-Rath)  to  look  after  the  enforcement 
of  these  laws,  and  to  make  annual  reports.  I  beg  leave  to  call  the  at- 
tention of  the  Department  for  further  information  to  "  Binrichtungen 
fUr  die  Wohlfahrt  der  Arbeiter  der  grosseren  gewerblichen  Anlagen 
im  preussischen  Staate  im  Anftrage  des  Miuisteriums  fiir  Handel,  Ge- 
werbe,  und  offentliche  Arbeiten,  Berlin  1876.  Konigl.  statistisches 
Bureau  und  K.  Morgenstern,  Einrichtungen  und  Schutz-Vorkehrungen 
zur  Sicherung  der  Arbeiter,  Leii)zig  1883.  I.  M.  Gebhardt.  (Arrange- 
ments for  the  protection  and  the  safety  of  the  laboring  classes.)  But  it 
is  oidy  since  two  years,  and  we  may  say  during  the  last  session  of  the 
German  Diet,  closing  now,  that  a  new' system  has  been  inaugurated  by 
the  Government,  and  agreed  to  by  a  majority'  of  the  Keichstag,  a  system 
known  as  "  Staats  Socialismus."  Its  principal  features  are  that  the 
**  state"  itself  takes  hold  of  institutions,  until  now  in  the  hands  of  compa- 
nies and  individuals,  that  it  forces  those  concerned  to  belong  to  one  or 
the  other  of  these  institutions,  and  guarantees  the  fulfillment  of  the 
promises  made. 

The  first  law  passed  June  13,  1883,  relates  to  the  "  Krankenkasse," 
funds  to  be  collected  and  used  for  aid  and  assistance  in  cases  of  sick- 
ness; the  other,  passed  just  a  few  days  ago,  is  the  law  relating  to  cases 
of  accident  called  "Unfall-Versichernngs-Gesetz  '' 

Eeferring  to  the  first  one.  Title  VII  of  "  trade  regulations,"  article 
"  aid  societies,"  reads  : 

"Section  llrlfl.  Journeymen,  helpers,  and  laborers  in  factories,  if  six- 
teen years  of  age,  can  be  compelled  by  local  laws  to  join  an  aid  society, 
organized  by  order  of  the  local  authorities.  Those  are  exem]>t  from 
being  obliged  to  join  the  town  societies  who  can  prove  that  they  are 
members  of  another  incorporated  aid  society  aiming  at  the  same  end ; 
those  who  are  not  and  neglect  to  do  so,  can  be  compelled  to  pay  all 
monies  due  from  the  time  when  they  ought  to  have  entered. 

'•Section  llli*.  Journeymen,  heli)ers,  and  laborers  in  factories  who 
pay  their  regular  assessments  to  an  aid  associatiou  incorporated  under 
the  laws  of  tbe  land  cannot  be  compelled  by  local  laws  to  join  the  town 
societies  above  mentioned." 

To  understand  fully  the  foregoing  sentences  it  must  be  known  that 
two  sets  of  "  Krankenkassen  "  are  in  existence,  which  may  be  called 
parallel  societies ;  one  set  comprising  the  employes  of  one  factory 
(Fabrikkrankenkassen),  the  other  (the  societies  of  a  town)  those  of  each 
guild,  the  journeymen  societies,  and  the  incorporated  free  societies,  but 
all  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country. 

As  mentioned  above,  these  "Krankenkassen"  will  go  into  operation 
with  the  1st  of  December,  1884,  through  the  whole  German  Empire, 
including  all  persons  working  for  wages  or  for  a  salary  not  exceeding  a 
certain  sum.  The  leading  idea  of  the  law  is  as  follows:  All  legislative 
measures,  if  of  any  value  at  all  for  the  improvement  of  the  working 
classes,  must  see  to  prevent  the  want  and  distress  caused  by  sickness 
and  its  consequence;  inability  to  make  a  living  during  the  time.  If  no 
provision  has  been  made,  the  laborer  will  abstain  by  fault  of  the  neces- 
sary means  from  calling  a  phj^sician  at  the  proper  time,  his  case  will 
grow  worse,  the  small  savings,  if  there  are  any,  soon  be  exhausted,  all 


504  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

his  little  property  sold,  and,  ruined  financiallj,  he  will  have  to  apj)ly  to 
the  poor-master  and  suffer  all  the  degrading"  ibrnis  and  consequences 
of  such  a  situation  ;  only  very  sehloni  tlie  laborer  recovers  again  from 
the  linancial  ruin.  A  provision,  proportionate  and  at  the  same  time 
generous  enou<;h  to  fulfill  tlie  demands  stated  above,  and  able  to  pre- 
vent such  a  (loh'fnl  state  of  things,  can  only  be  had  by  insurance  of 
the  laboring  classes  under  the  authority  of  the  (xovernnu^nt,  and  with 
particii)ation  of  the  emi)loyers;  the  necessity  of  this  insurance  must 
result  in  the  enforcing  of  it,  wherever  it  is  needed  and  can  be  done.  Per- 
sons who  are  not  obliged  to  becotne  members  can  also  do  so  by  their 
own  free  will ;  those  who  are  obliged  to  do  so  are  allowed  to  enter  an- 
other society;  if,  for  instance,  they  don't  like  the  guild  society  they 
belong  to,  they  may  enter  an  incori)orated  free  association,  provided  the 
one  preferred  pays  the  minimum  amount  ])rescribed  l)y  law;  also  they 
can  leave  one  and  join  another,  «S:c. ;  but  they  must  be  members  of  one 
society.  The  contributions  by  the  workingman  are  2  per  cent,  of  his 
wages  ;  the  employer  has  to  add'l  ])er  cent,  out  of  his  own  i)ocket;  for 
each  one  of  his  laborers  the  assistance  given  comi)rises  medical  treat- 
ment and  medicines  free  of  costs  and  50  per  cent,  of  the  average  wages 
for  thirteen  weeks. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit,  as  inclosure  x^o.  16  (in  duplicate),  a  copy 
of  the  statutes  for  an  aid  society  of  one  factory  (Fabrikkrankenkassen). 
The  rules  marked  j  on  the  left  nmrgin  are  obligatory,  as  will  be  no- 
ticed. The  law  passed  just  now,  known  as  "  Unfall-Versicherungs-Ge- 
setz,"  takes  care  of  the  workingman  in  case  of  accident,  and  when  the  first 
thirteen  weeks  have  elapsed  without  recovery.  Ft  does  not  comprise 
all  classes  of  employes,  as  far  as  I  was  enabled  to  learn;  its  funds  are 
raised  by  assessment  of  the  em])loyers  and  corporations. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  this  law  is  far  better  than  the  one  in 
operation  since  1871,  which  made  the  employer  resi)onsible,  in  case  of 
accident,  if  it  could  be  proven  that  the  latter  was  caused  by  neglect  on 
his  side.  Numbers  of  costly  lawsuits  were  the  results  of  the  law,  and 
the  workingman  often  could  not  get  his  rights,  because  he  had  not  the 
means  to  go  before  court.  Now  every  workingman  recovers  damages 
in  case  of  accident,  which,  if  not  large,  are  at  least  sufficient  to  ])rotect 
him  from  want  without  being  obliged  to  prove  at  first  the  fault  and 
negligence  of  the  employer.  But  it  is  objected  that  the  l)enefit  only 
begins  after  thirteen  weeks;  that  not  all  industrial  classes  are  within 
the  reach  of  the  law;  that  the  funds  are  laised  b.\'  assessment,  and  that 
insurance  by  ])rivate  com])aiiies  is  nnule  im])ossible.  Future  oidy  will 
show  how  it  works;  certainly  the  end  aimed  at  is  a  noble  and  praise- 
worthy one.  The  time  when  this  law  will  go  into  oi)eration  is  not  yet 
fixed,  as  the  mechanism  to  put  it  into  working  order  will  be  a  very  com- 
pli(;ated  one;  even  a  new  central  office,  to  be  called  "  Ueichsversiche- 
rungs-Amt"  (Central  Insurance  Office  of  the  Empire),  has  to  be  estab- 
lished in  Berlin. 

The  next  i)ro])ositi(>n  regar<ling  the  welfare  of  the  working  (glasses  to 
be  made  by  the  Government  to  the  Diet  will  be  a  general  pension  and 
invalids  law  for  the  supi)ort  of  old  and  crippled  laborers. 

Also  in  other  way  s  the  Go vernment  does  e very thing])ossibl(i  to  promote 
the  nmral  and  physi(;al  well-being  of  the  laboring  (Masses;  among  the 
measures  concerning  the  moral  interests  compulsory  education  ranks 
first;  the  Government  holding  that  education  alone  can  bring  forth 
good,  intellectual,  and  moral  <;itizens;  among  those  ap])lying  to  the 
physi<;al  interests  1  oidy  mention  that  useful  inventions  and  such  ones 
which  promote  the  health  of  the  workingraen  are  published,  the  latter 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  605 

often  after  having  been  bought  at  high  prices  from  the  inventors  and 
patentees.  So  not  long  ago  the  Government  paid  200,000  marks  for  a 
new  invention,  preventing  the  terrible  disease,  periostitis  and  necrosis 
of  the  lower  jaw,  caused  by  the  emanations  of  phosphor  in  manufactur- 
ing lucifer  matches  and  ordered  its  introduction  in  the  match  factories. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

Speaking  about  political  rights  of  the  workingmen  we  must  discrimi- 
nate between  those  rights  exercised  in  behalf  of  the  German  Empire 
and  those  granted  by  the  different  German  states  within  their  own 
boundaries. 

The  legislative  body  of  the  German  Empire  comprises  the  Bundes- 
rath,  composed  of  delegates  of  the  German  sovereigns,  and  the  Reich- 
stag, composed  of  deleg;  tes  of  the  people,  one  delegate  for  each  100,000 
inhabitants.  Every  German  male  adult,  if  twenty-one  years  of  age,  is 
entitled  to  a  vote  in  these  elections,  which  take  place  every  three  years  j 
the  vote  is  a  secret  one,  by  ballot.  Quite  different  are  the  laws  in  the 
different  German  states  regarding  their  own  legislature;  in  Prussia,  in 
which  this  consular  district  is  situated,  the  legislature  comprises  the 
Herrenhaus,  in  which  the  representatives  of  the  privileged  classes  are 
seated,  and  the  Landtag,  the  representative  body  of  the  people.  But 
the  right  to  vote  for  delegares  of  the  Landtag  dei)ends  on  a  certain  tax 
to  be  paid;  those  paying  no  taxes  or  being  dependent  upon  public  char- 
ity are  not  entitled  to  vote;  besides,  the  vote  is  not  a  secret,  but  an  open 
one,  by  mentioning  the  name  of  the  candidate  preferred  to  the  inspector 
of  election.  It  is  self-evident  that  by  this  mode  the  workingman  whose 
existence  often  dejiends  upon  the  good  will  of  one  or  the  other  influen- 
tial person  is  not  at  liberty  to  do  as  he  likes,  even  if  he  is  entitled  to 
vote.  More  complicated  yet  is  the  matter  in  the  so-called  communal 
elections  for  city  and  county  officers. 

The  same  ratio  of  taxes  must  be  paid  as  in  elections  for  Landtag 
to  become  a  voter ;  then  the  whole  amount  of  taxes  to  be  collected  in  a 
certain  district  is  divided  into  three  equal  parts,  and  perhaps  a  small 
number  of  voters  able  to  pay  the  first  part  of  it  elect  as  many  represent- 
♦atives  as  the  three  or  four  fold  number  of  persons  paying  the  second 
part,  &c. ;  the  vote  is  also  an  open  one.  For  instance:  A  town  ought 
to  collect  for  the  fiscal  year  000,000  marks  of  taxes  ;  the  voters  are  di- 
vided in  three  classes,  each  class  paying  300,000  marks;  say  there  were 
6,000  voters  in  the  place,  of  which  50  would  compose  the  first  class,  be- 
ing assessed  together  for  300,000  marks,  1,500  would  pay  the  second 
300,000  marks,  and  the  rest,  of  4,450,  the  third  ones  ;  the  50  of  the  first 
class  sent  as  many  representatives  into  the  "Collegium  of  Stadtveror- 
ducten"  (common  council)  as  the  1,500  of  the  second  and  the  4,500  of  the 
third  class.  The  "Stadtverorducten"  here  in  Stettin,  02  in  number, 
receive  no  pay;  they  elect  the  "jnagistrate"  (executive  body),  com- 
posed of  eighteen  persons,  presided  over  by  the  mayor,  who  draw  a 
good  salary  and  are  elected  foranumber  of  years,  usually  being  elected 
again  when  the  time  is  over;  if  not  elected  again,  or  getting  old  in  the 
service,  they  are  put  on  the  pension  list.  The  mayor  of  this  city  (Ober- 
biirgermeister)  receives  a  salary  of  1:^,500  marks,  besides  residence,  and 
is  elected  for  twelve  years.  The  magistrate  appoints  its  officers  in  case 
of  vacancy,  who  also  draw  salary  and  pension  and  are  ai)pointed  for 
life.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  interest  taken  in  these  elections  by  the 
laboring  classes  cannot  be  a  very  lively  one ;  the  poorer  ones  are  totally 


506 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


excluded  from  voting;  others  prohibited  from  doing  so  by  their  depend- 
ence, and  the  influence  exercised  at  ail  a  very  limited  one. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  different  fractions  in  the  Reichstag 
shows  best  what  influence  they  can  have  upon  the  legislation  of  the 
German  Empire : 

Conservatives 76 

Ceutriuu 106 

National  liberals 45 

Liberals 100 

People's  party  9 

Poles 18 

Social  dejuocrats 13 

Independents 27 

Vacant  seats 2 

Taxes  are  of  a  very  different  kind,  as  real-estate  tax,  trade  tax,  in- 
come tax,  and  class  tax,  and  they  are  levied  as  well  by  the  state  as  by 
the  cities  and  towns.  It  is  only  the  last  mentioned,  "  class  tax,"  a  kind 
of  income  tax  which  aflects  the  workingman.  It  begins  with  an  income 
of  420  marks,  and  is  divided  in  twelve  classes  up  to  3,000  marks,  when 
the  income  tax  proper  sets  in.  The  following  schedule  gives  the  re- 
spective amounts :     » 


Fiiat  class 

Second  class . . 
Third  class  ... 
Fiiuith  class. . 

Fifth  class 

Si.xth  class 

Seventh  class 
Eighth  class.. 

Kiutli  class 

Tenth  class.... 
Eleventh  class 
Twelfih  class. 


Tax. 


Alarkt 


420  to 

060 

900 

050 

200 

350 

500 

650 

800 

100 

400 

700 


660 
900 
1,050 
1,200 
1,350 
1,500 
1,  650 
1,800 
2,100 
2,400 
2,700 
3,000 


State.      City.      TotaL 


Marks.   Marks.   Marks. 


7 
14 
21 
28 
42 
56 
70 
84 
98 
112 
140 
176 


The  two  lowest  classes  will  cease  with  April  1,  1885,  and  incomes 
below  $214  become  exempt  from  taxation,  so  the  majority  of  working- 
men  will  be  relieved.  By  a  separate  law  the  state  taxes  for  July,  Au- 
gust, and  September  are  also  remitted  since  a  few  years.  It  appears 
that  the  city  taxes  are  a  good  deal  higher  than  the  state  taxes,  the 
amount  here  in  Stettin  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  real-estate  tax,  30  per 
cent,  of  the  trade  tax,  125  jier  cent,  of  the  class  and  income  tax,  i)aid 
to  the  state.  The  tendency  of  legislation  goes  to  lessen  the  burdens 
of  the  working  people ;  also  to  j)rotect  labor  by  a  protective  tariff, 
which  was  tlrst  inaugurated  in  1879,  and  to  iinprove  the  physical  and 
moral  welfare  of  the  working  classes  by  enacting  and  enforcing  laws 
referring  thereto  as  1  have  tried  to  illustrate  in  tlie  foregoing  pages. 

There  remains  to  say  a  few  words  about 

CAUSES   OF   EMIGRATION. 


A  number  of  causes  combine  to  swell  the  flood  of  emigration.  Among 
them  I  will  enumerate: 

1.  The  overi)opulation  of  the  most  parts  of  Germany;  counting  two 
hundred  and  sixteen  persons  per  square  mile,  as  against  only  fourteen 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  507 

in  the  TInited  States;  the  population  increased  from  41,228,000  in  1872 
to  45,()20,(H)0  in  1882,  which  makes  4,392,000  within  ten  years,  or  nearly 
half  a  million  every  year,  notwithstanding"  emigration. 

2.  In  other  ])arts  where  the  iK)pnlation  is  less  dense  large  estates  are 
in  the  hands  of  a  few;  the  jx'ople  living  either  as  tenants  or  laborers 
within  these  so-called  "latifundia",  entirely  dei)ending  ui)on  the  owners 
thereof,  without  any  prosj)ect  for  a  change  for  the.  better,  neither  to 
themselves  nor  to  their  children. 

3.  The  sniallness  of  wages,  with  all  its  consequences,  as  described  in 
articles  1,  2,  and  10,  which  drives  them  to  "the  last  ditch,"  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  across,  with  the  common  device  "it  cannot  get  worse." 

4.  The  relatives  and  friends  living  already  in  "America,"  scarcely  a 
family  among  the  lower  classes  here  is  without  such.  Each  of  the  former 
acts  involuntarily  as  an  emigration  agent;  news  from  America  is  waited 
for  with  eagerness.  If  a  letter  arrives  the  people  congregate  in  groups; 
the  letter  is  read  to  all  by  the  lucky  fellow  who  received  it;  the  dull 
faces  lighten  up,  the  eyes  glisten,  and  one  wish  only  is  common  to  all, 
"Oh!  that  we  could  go  to  America!" 

5.  The  money  advanced  by  their  American  friends,  either  in  cash  or 
in  form  of  ])assage  tickets.  Without  this  help  hundreds  and  thousands 
never  would  have  seen  the  hosi)itable  shores  of  the  "free  land";  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  more  would  leave  every  year  if  they  only  had  the 
means. 

6.  The  words  "  ora  and  labora,"  once  comprising  the  substance  of  all 
their  rights,  is  not  believed  in  any  more  in  this  sense  of  the  word  ;  and 
a  hundred  Stocker  and  Windthorst  cannot  restore  the  lost  faith  ;  the 
poor  fellows  begin  to  understan<l  that  they  also  have  some  claims 
besides,  and  some  more  rights  in  this  beautiful  world. 

7.  As  other  causes  might  be  mentioned,  among  many  the  game  law, 
the  law  against  the  socialists,  the  obligation  to  do  military  duty,  and 
some  more  ;  but  all  these  are  of  minor  importance — the  main,  ])rincipal 
cause,  the  leading  idea,  is  to  better  their  condition,  to  get  indei)endent, 
to  become  free  citizens  of  a  free  country,  with  equal  rights  to  all ;  a 
country  which  affords  the  oi)portunity  to  rise  higher  in  material,  phys- 
ical, and  moral  weltare,  and  the  wish  to  see  their  children  happy,  free, 
and  content  before  they  themselves  ])ass  away.  The  great  bulk  of  the 
emigrants  are  laborers,  agri(!ulturists,  and  mechanics  of  every  sort 
and  ability.  The  other  classes  here  are  mostly"  well  doing,  and  as  a  class 
do  not  emigrate;  a  few  dozens,  ])erhaps,  of  studied  and  professional  men 
who,  either  led  by  the  idea  of  tinding  a  better  field  for  their  work,  or 
driven  by  the  desire  to  see  foreign  countries  and  to  increase  their  knowl- 
edge; some  young  merchants  who  want  to  enrich  themselves  by  estab- 
lishing branch  houses,  agencies,  and  so  on,  to  import  European  goods, 
and  a  few  "  lost  existences,"  who  have  nothing  to  lose  and  everything 
to  gain,  make  the  rest. 

Tlie  selection  of  their  new  homes  is  influenced  by  occupation,  friends, 
and  climate;  they  will  go  where  they  are  told  they  will  do  the  best;  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  all  these  men  and  women,  who  have  given  up 
home,  friends,  and  "  fatherland,"  knowing  that  they  never  will  see  them 
again,  find  their  wishes  fulfilled,  their  expectations  realized,  and  become 
good,  industrious,  honest,  and  true  citizens  of  our  great  Republic. 

Part  II. — Female  Labor. 

The  number  of  women  and  children  employed  in  mechanical  and 
manufacturing  pursuits  in  the  province  of  Pomerania  is  given  in  the 
following  tables,  submitted  as  inclosures  Nos.  17  and  18,  their  number 


508  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

being  about  13  per  cent,  of  all  employed  therein.  In  Eastern  and 
Western  Prussia  about  3,600  females  are  employed ;  the  number  of 
juveniles  I  could  not  make  out.  Of  tl;e  former  about  one-third  (1,200) 
are  busy  in  cigar  and  tobacco  factories  (700  in  Eastern,  500  in  Western 
Prussia);  a  considerable  number  also  are  engaged  in  sugar  factories, 
"Where  they  clean  and  trim  the  beet  roots,  and  also  by  rag  dealers  in 
assorting  rags.  It  is  impossible  to  get  at  the  numbers  of  those  com- 
prised under  1  b  and  c,  but  an  increase  has  taken  place  of  late,  an<l  many 
females  occupy  at  i>resent  positions  as  clerks,  saleswomen,  accountants, 
private  teachers  in  languages  and  music,  positions  formerly  only  occu- 
pied by  men  ;  female  bankers,  lecturers,  i)ublic  speakers  don't  exist,  no 
Susan  Anthony  nor  Lucy  Stone  yet  having  been  l)orn  in  Germany;  but 
on  the  other  side  no  male  washerwoman  competes  here  with  the  unde- 
nied  [)rivilege  of  the  tender  sex  to  act  as  laundresses. 

Agriculture,  garden  and  farm  labor  is  common  to  all,  and  the  female 
inhabitants  of  the  rural  districts  are  attending  the  fields  without  ex- 
em])tion,  e  and  /.  Mining  and  other  pursuits  are  contained  in  tables  17 
and"  18. 

FEMALE   WAGES. 

The  wages  differ  from  12  to  24  to  35  cents  per  diem ;  the  latter  price 
is  an  exceptional  one;  as  a  rule  they  are  about  one  third  to  one-half  of 
those  paid  to  men.     (See,  also,  inclosures  1  and  2.) 

HOURS   OF   LABOR. 

The  hours  of  labor  are  the  same  as  for  male  laborers,  but  are  differ 
ent  in  different  industrial  pursuits,  varying  from  ten  to  fourteen  hours* 

MORAL    AND  PHYSICAL   CONDITION. 

The  moral  and  physical  condition  is  all  that  can  be  expected,  and  at 
least  not  worse  as  in  other  countries  with  the  same  class.  In  all  larger 
factories  male  and  female  laborers  are  separated;  extra  rooms  for 
changing  their  clothes  are  provided  for;  they  live  mostly  with  their 
parents  or  relatives;  tliose  without  such,  rent  a  sleeping  place — in 
common  with  others — from  a  family  for  71.4  to  90  cents  per  month  ;  they 
do  not  allow  immorality  among  themselves,  watch  one  another,  and  drive 
those  out  of  their  ranks  who  are  found  guilty  of  a  lewd  life.  After  a 
ten  to  twelve  hours  day's  work  the  shop  girl  wants  to  enjoy  herself;  a 
walk,  a  dance,  some  music  must  make  up  for  all  the  hard  work,  the 
troubles  and  privations  she  endured  without  lamentations  during  the 
day. 

MEANS   PROVIDED  FOR   SAFETY    AND   IMPROVEMENT. 

The  means  i)rovided  for  the  improvement  and  safety,  as  also  the  pro- 
visions made  in  regard  to  sanitary  measures  of  the  female  employes,  are 
all  the  same  as  for  males,  and  are  dwelt  on  in  detail  in  Part  I,  article  11. 

As  peculiar  to  their  sex  may  be  remarked,  that  pregnan(;y  and  child- 
bed are  not  looked  at  as  sickness,  but  that  a  benefit  is  paid  by  the  aid 
societies  in  such  (jases. 

Duiingthe  work  hours  the  female  laborers  are  particularly  looked 
after;  some  occupations  are  not  allowed  to  them,  and  none  at  all  at 
night-time. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY.  509 

WAGES   AND    FOOD   PRICES. 

Wages  ])ai(i  aiul  prices  of  necessaries  of  life  have  iieitherincreased  nor 
clianj^ed  materially,  otherwise  during  the  past  five  years.  The  effect  of 
employment  of  women  on  the  wages  of  men  has  been  in  many  instances 
a  reduction  of  the  wages  of  the  latter,  as  particularly  in  the  nmnufact- 
uring  of  cigars,  but  no  effect  is  perceptible  yet  on  the  general,  so(;ial, 
and  industrial  coiulitions  of  the  country. 

EDUCATION  OF  FEMALE  LABORERS. 

It  will  scarcely  be  possible  to  answer  the  last  and,  for  the  future  of 
the  land,  the  most  important  question  with  the  care  and  exactness  that 
it  requires.  It  may  be  assumed  a  priori  that  ten  to  twelve  hours 
work  of  the  mother  and  of  the  other  adult  females  of  a  family  in  a  fac- 
tory, or  fourteen  to  eighteen  hours  in  the  field,  will  neither  prove  very 
pleasant  for  the  family  circles  nor  very  beneficial  for  the  education  of 
the  children,  but  how  and  what  the  effects  are,  especially  as  concerns 
the  children  of  such  employes,  and  on  their  moral  and  pliysical  condi- 
tion, I  am  at  a  total  loss  to  say,  from  want  of  experience  and  knowl- 
edge. That  the  state  of  education  of  women  employed  is  a  very  dif- 
ferent one,  if  comparing  those  employed  as  teachers,  accountauts,  book- 
keepers, &c.,  with  those  working  in  the  fields  or  as  scavengers  in  the 
streets  of  the  cities,  is  self  evident ;  the  former  having  at  least  an  edu- 
cation as  good  as  a  graduate  of  our  high  schools;  the  latter,  perhai)S, 
like  those  that  have  passed  the  priuuiry  grades. 

JUVENILE   LABORERS. 

Keferring  to  juvenile  laborers,  all  that  is  known  to  me  has  already 
been  told  in  Part  I  of  this  report,  and  in  the  inclosures  accompanying 
it;  wages  paid,  numbers  emi)loyed,  laws  and  regulations  concerning 
them,  &c.  It  only  remains  to  say  that  an  increase  of  juvenile  laborers 
in  the  Province  of  Pomerania  has  taken  place  during  the  last  year,  as 
proven  by  the  comparative  table,  inclosure  No.  19,  caused  by  the  com- 
mendable fact  that  a  number  of  larger  machine  shops,  as  also  the 
railroad  repair-shops  under  control  of  the  Government,  have  taken 
greater  numbers  of  apprentices,  and  that  more  attention  has  been  paid 
to  this  class  of  laborers  as  before,  because  a  scarcity  of  young  skilled 
mechanics  became  apparent. 

woman's   labor   IN   GERMANY. 

1  cannot  close  these  remarks  about  female  labor  without  saying  a  few 
words  about  "  the  degradation  of  the  women  of  the  lower  classes." 

It  is  perfectly  true  what  the  Hon.  Mr.  Kuggles,  late  consul  at  the 
Island  of  Malta  and  at  Barcelona,  says  about  the  German  i)easant 
woman  in  his  book  "Germany  seen  without  Specta(;les": 

"  She  prepares  the  field  for  planting  ;  she  drives  the  oxen  and  holds 
the  plow,  and  not  uufrequejitly  she  takes  the  place  of  the  ox  before 
the  plow.  She  sows  the  seed  and  tills  the  soil,  she  shovels,  she  hoes, 
.she  reaps,  she  gathers  the  harvest,  she  thrashes  the  grain  and  carries 
it  to  the  mill,  she  markets  the  products  of  her  small  strip  of  land,  to 
buy  bread  for  her  children  and  beer  for  her  lord  and  master.  She  does 
the  work  and  the  drudgery  in  the  factories,  she  is  the  scavanger  ibr 
cleaning  the  streets  and  for  gathering  offal  in  the  cities  and  highways 


510  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

for  enrichinor  the  land,"  &c.  All  this  is  labor,  labor  done  every  day  by 
the  free,  independent  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  if  we  liold  up 
the  di<j^iiity  of  labor,  and  proclaim  that  no  labor  is  do<j,radin^%  this  out- 
burst of  indi^"nation  seems  somewhat  strange.  The  women  of  the  better 
situated  classes  are  treated  the  same  way  as  women  are  treated  in 
America,  live  in  the  same  manner,  and  many  of  theui  are  even  taking 
less  care  for  Their  households,  as  a  true  American  lady  does.  But  the 
Germans  have  also  their  ideas  about  degradation.  For  instance,  it  is 
degrading"  even  for  a  ma)i  of  tlie  better  situated  classes  to  carry  any- 
thing in  his  hands,  a  book,  a  satchel,  any  little  package.  One  day  I 
took  a  pair  of  shoes  wrapped  in  a  newspaper  to  a  shoemaker  keeping  a 
little  shop,  about  as  large  as  a  small  bedroom.  Imagine  my  astonish- 
ment when  the  fellow  brought  them  back,  he  walking  in  front,  six  feet 
behind  him  a  servant  boy  with  the  shoes.  Upon  my  question  why  this 
boy  was  coming,  he  told  me,  rather  indignantly,  that  it  was  degrading 
for  a  man  of  his  position  to  carry  shoes  in  his  hands.  I  saw  school-girls 
ten  to  twelve  years  old,  a  servant  following-  and  carrying  a  music  map. 
Now,  the  difference  is  that  the  American  draws  the  line  regarding 
degrading  lal)or  and  not  degrading  labor  between  the  sexes,  the  Ger- 
man between  social  castes  and  classes,  both  of  them  according  to  the 
rules  that  good  manners,  custom,  and  education  have  taught  them. 
We  Americans  cannot  understand  the  Germans  in  many  things,  and 
the  Germans  do  not  understand  our  ways.  I  think  the  ditiiculty  is  that 
we  forget  that  man  is  not  a  being  put  into  the  world  perfect  and  devel- 
oped at  once,  but  that  he  is  the  result  of  an  evolution  going  on  since 
untold  times.  If  we  remember  that  only  with  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury feudal  servitude  in  Germany  began  to  get  abolished,  that  only  with 
the  year  1832  it  disappeared  forever  in  the  Saxonian  province  of  Upper 
Lusatia,  in  Austria  not  before  the  memorable  year  1848,  and  that  this 
"degradation  of  the  women  of  the  lower  classes"  is  only  a  relict  of  the 
thraldom  in  whicli  these  very  same  classes  were  born  and  brought  up. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

It  is  with  great  pleasure  and  sincere  thanks  that  I  acknowledge,  be- 
fore closing  this  report,  the  liberality  and  courtesy  as  well  of  those  gen- 
tlemen mentioned  above  as  also  of  Messrs.  Ilertel,  royal  inspector  of 
trades;  Dr.  Scharlau,  president  of  the  common  council;  Director  R. 
Meyer,  member  of  the  Stadtverordueten-Collegium ;  I.  Schultz,  man- 
ager of  the  co-operative  consume  association  in  Stettin;  A.  P.  Voss, 
and  many  others,  who  all  gave  very  willingly  the  information  I  sought. 
The  many  contradictions  that  appear  in  the  price  of  wages,  in  the  time 
of  work  hours,  in  prices  of  food  and  rent,  result  from  the  variety  of 
informants  and  the  diversity  of  their  individual  opinions  concerning 
demands  to  be  made  and  work  to  be  done;  from  the  capacity  of  the 
employed  as  well  as  from  the  liberality  of  the  employer,  not  two  of  the 
latter  paying  exactly  the  same  wages;  from  the  manner  the  working- 
men  are  paid,  if  by  hours  or  by  i)iece-work,  and  so  on.  The  discrep- 
ancies in  character  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  inhabitants 
of  a  country  are  composed  of  a  multitude  of  persons  different  in  man- 
ners, custom,  passion,  and  education. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  GERMAN  LABORERS. 

The  German  laborer  is  poor  but  honest,  suffering  and  struggling 
for  his  daily  existence,  but  content,  fond  of  pleasure,  but  industrious 
and  economical,  loving  the  place  of  his  birth,  the  play-grounds  of 
his  childhood,  the  fields  that  have  witnessed  the  labor  and  the  bravery 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


511 


of  his  youth  and  manhood  ;  but  de8])airing  to  ever  better  the  condi- 
tions lie  lives  in,  he  gives  up  everything  to  find  a  new  home,  a  brighter 
future  for  himself  and  his  beloved  children  in  a  far  away  land,  that  land 
which  is  the  hope  of  all  the  unfortunate,  of  all  the  oppressed  and  down- 
trodden of  the  world.     May  his  hope  forever  remain. 

GENERAL   TRADES. 

Wages  paid  the  general  trades  in  Stetti7i. 
[Per  week  of  60  hours.  J 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TRADE8. 

Bricklayers —  per  week . 

Hod-carriers do. .. 

Masons  (furenien) do  .. 

Tenders do . . . 

Plasterers    do... 

Tenders do. . . 

Slaters do . . . 

Roofers do. .. 

Tenders do . . . 

Plumbers do . . . 

Assistants do. . . 

Carpenters do. . . 

Gas-litters do . . . 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers* per  week . 

Blacksmiths do... 

Bookbinders do 

Brew(>rs,  including  lodging: 

Foreman per  year. 

Mal.-iter per  month. 

Machinist do... 

Cooper do.  .- 

Teamsters  and  laborers do . . . 

Butchers  t per  week. 

Brass  founders •. do 

Cabinet-makers  I do. .. 

Confectioners* do 

Cigar-makers* per  1,000. 

Coopers per  week. 

Distillers do... 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters do. .. 

Cab  and  carriage* do. .. 

Street  railway do . . . 

Dyers do . . . 

Engravers  in  brass,  gold,  and  silver do... 

Furiiers do . . . 

Gardeners do . . . 

Hatters do... 

Horseshoers do. . . 

Jewelers do. .. 

Laborers,  porters,  &c do . . . 

Lithogranhers do 

Millwrights do 

Nail-makers  (hand)|| do  .. 

Potters  J do... 

Saddle  and  harness  makers do. .. 

Sail-makers do... 

Stevedores do... 

Tanners ; do. .. 

Tailors  (piecework  about) do.  -. 

Telegraph  operators per  annum . 

Tinsmiths per  week. 

Weavers  (piecework  in  mills  about) do... 


Lowest. 


$3  57 
1  78 
7  14 
1  78  J 
7  14 

3  57 

4  28 
4  28 
1  78 

4  28 
1  78 

5  00 
4  28 


95 

5  71 
3  33 

833  00 
17  85 
21  42 
17  85 
14  28 


3  57 

3  33 

2  86 

83 

2  86 

2  86 

4  28 

3  57 

4  28 
4  28 
4  28 
2  86 
2  38 

4  28 

5  00 
2  38 
4  28 
2  86 
2  86 

1T4  28 

2  86 
4  28 

285  60 

3  57 
2  38 


Highest. 


$5  00 

2  50 
10  71 

3  92 
10  71 

6  43 

7  14 

6  43 
3  92 

7  14 
3  92 

6  43 

7  14 


1  90 

7  14 
4  76 

952  00 
23  80 


Average. 


19  04 

17  85 

1  67 

5  95 

5  00 

3  81 
§83 

5  00 

4  28 

3  81 
1  67 

5  71 
5  71 
5  95 

4  28 

5  71 
7  14 
5  71 
9  52 

4  76 

5  71 

6  43 

4  76 

5  71 

4  76 

5  71 
117  14 

5  71 
5  71 
571  20 
4  28 
4  76 


$4  28 
2  14 
8  92 
2  86 
8  92 
5  00 
5  71 
5  35 
2  86 
5  71 
2  86 
5  71 
5  71 


1  43 
6  43 
4  05 


1  19 
4  76 
4  28 

2  38 
§65 

4  28 

3  81 

3  33 


1  31 

4  28 

4  28 

5  12 
3  92 
5  00 
5  71 

5  24 

6  19 
3  57 
5  00 
5  71 
3  57 
5  00 

3  81 

4  28 
TT5  71 

4  28 

5  00 
428  40 

3  92 
3  57 


*  Including  board  and  lodging. 

t  Include  board  and  lodging  and  perquisites  in  form  of  bones,  bristles,  &c. 

t  Striking  at  present. 
5  Extra  hours,  12  cents  per  hour. 
[|  One  single  man  in  existence. 
TI  Per  ton,  9J  to  141  cents. 


512 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
IVages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Stettin. 


Occupations. 


Male  hands  in  Clianiotto  factory 

Male  liiindB  in  I'ortlaud  cement  works. 

Meclianits 

Malt-  liands  in  soap  "wovks 

Feiiinlp  hands  in  soap  work.s   

Male  hands  in  ei^ar  factory 

Female  hands  in  cigar  factory 

Piece-workers,  per  1,000  cigars 

Schin<ller  &.  Meritzell's  Soap  Works: 

Toiitlist 

Men  t 

Sugar  refinery : 

Male  hands 

Female  hands 

Chemical  works 

Paper-mills 

Steam-millH 

Sugar  factories    

Oil-mills 

Distilleries 

Oil  refinery 


Lowest. 


$3, 332 


4.28 
*.428 


2.856 
1.071 
1.309 

1.25 
2.856 


Highest. 


$5.95 


4.76 
*.  655 


3.57 

1.428 

3.57 

2.50 
3.57 


Average. 


$4,284 
3.57 
4.  .52 
*.536 
3.49 
3.21 
1.25 
2.44 

1.535 
3.216 

4.00 
1.80 
4.00 
3.36 
4.43 
2.08 
3.71 
3.57 
3.00 


*  Per  day.        t3.6  cents  extra  per  hour  for  overwork.        1 6  cents  extra  per  hour  for  overwork. 

MACHINE-SHOPS. 
Average  wages  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  machine-shop  of  the  Vulcan  ship-building  yard. 


Occupations. 


Blacksmiths i     $4  10 


Locksmiths. 

Ajiprentices 
Turners      

Apprentices  . 
Coppersmiths  ... 

Apprentices  . 
Transport-men  . . 

Saddlers 

Cabinet-makers . . 

Varnishers 

Joiners    

Apprentices . 

Drillers 

Brass  founders  .. 

Ai)prentices . 
Molders 

Apprentices  . 


Wages. 

$4  10 

4  25  1 

1  94  1 

4  78  i 

1  80 

5  47 

1  13 

2  83 

3  22 

4  12 

3  49 

4  12 

1  00  I 

3  48  1 

3  26  1 

1  56  I 

5  02 

2  03 

Occupations. 


Foundry  men  . . . 
Metal  refiners . . . 
Fitters  

Aj)prentices  . 

Grinders 

Carpenters 

Masons 

Helpers 

Hammersmiths  . 

Messengers 

Teamsters 

Watchmen  

Boiler-makers  . . 

Laboreis 

Drillers 

Boys 

Gas-factory  men 


Wages. 


$3  OS 
4  21 
3  62 

1  06 

3  43 

4  11 
4  81 

2  26 
4  23 

2  95 
4  08 

3  72 
3  95 
3  17 
3  69 
1  52 
3  00 


GLASS   WORKERS. 

Glass- workers  in  Pomerania  (Stettin)  receive  for  twelve  hours'  work 
95.'J  cents  to  $1.07,  and  twenty  days  a  month  employment.  Sul[)huric- 
acid  glass  bottles,  3.5  cents  each ;  26  wine  bottles,  9.5  cents. 

MINES   AND   MINING. 

Wages  paid  per  day  or  tveek  of  sixty  hours  in  and  in  connection  tvith  mines  i«  Pomerania 

{Stettin). 


Occnpations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Blacksmiths 

Turners  in  iron 
Workmen 


$3.57 
2.856 
2.142 


$4,284 
3.57 
2.142 


$3. 808 
3.094 
2.142 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

SHIP-YARDS. 


513 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood  ship- 

huildiug — in  Steltin. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Joiners 

.$3,713 
3.  951 
3.046 
3.641 
2.  856 
3.57 
2.856 
4.284 
3.57 
2.428 

$4.  332 
4.  808 
3.C89 
4.  808 
3.856 
4.284 
3.  142 
5.831 
4.57 
3.142 

$4.  022 
4  379 

3  368 

4  225 

Painters 

3  356 

Smil  ha 

3  927 

Hanimeriiicn 

2  999 

■Coppei  smitlis 

5  57 

4  07 

Laburei's , 

2  785 

Wages  paid  in  the  Vulcan  ship-yard  (iron). 


Occupations. 


Blacksmiths  

Sawyers 

Ship-carpenters 

Painters 

Kigg.is  

Tard-nien  

Laboiers  in  saw-mill 

Joiners 

Tool-makers 


$4.  046 
4.  024 
4.  553 
3.101 
4.212 
2.677 
3.441 
3.  865 
3.358 


Occupations. 


Plate-fitters  

Macliiue  smiths 

Riveters 

Calkers 

Turners  and  drillers 

Laborers 

Boys 

Watchmen 


Average. 


$3.  972 
3.905 
3.708 
3.434 
3.451 
2.925 
1.925 
3.57 


seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distingnishing  beticeen  ocean,  coast, 
and  river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Stettin, 


Occupations. 


Sailing:  vessel: 

Mate 

Seaman 

Steamer : 

Mate 

Se.'iman* 

Hivei'  steamer : 

Mate 

'  ^Sailor 

River  sailing  craft: 

J.V.''  Matet 

■^  Sailor 

Coasting  sailing  vessel: 

Mate 

Sailor    

Coasting  steam  vessel: 

Mate 

Sailor 


Lowest. 


$14  28 
7  14 


17  85 
13  09 


Highest. 


$28  56 
14  28 


Average. 


21  42 
16  66 


$21  42 
11  42 


26  18 
10  00 


19  63 

14  87 


14  28 
12  85 


17  85 
12  85 


16  66 
14  28 


21  42 
14  28 


9  04 


15  47 
13  56 


19  63 
13  56 


*  Sailors  helonsing  to  steamers  receive  4/^  cents  extra  wages  per  hour  if  their  services  are  required 
beyond  ton  liour-<  a  (lav  ;  mates  receive  riotliing  extra, 
t  Two-thirds  of  the  freight,  out  of  which  he  has  to  pay  his  men. 


92  A — LAB- 


-33 


514  LABOR    IN    FA'ROPE llERMAXY. 

STORE    AND    SllOV    WAGES. 
IVaiirf  paid  in  florcf,  uhoUsnh  ami  rttail,  to  nuilcs  timi /cmnleii,  in  Sttltiti. 


Occapatioos. 


Jnnior  shopman* p«r  annum.. 

Shopman*   do — 

A  wivuticri do 

Jiiui><r  dwkt do 

Clfik*  do.... 

liooVktH^per : 

111  rt-t-nil  bu£dnt^s^ do 

Colilidenti*! do ' 

Goiit'spoiuling do  — 

Chart  ejvr .' do 

Sliopwonian : 

St<llfr do... 

Cashier do . . . 

BiH>kk(:x>per do 

Office  nit\ssens^r per  ■week . . ' 

'K'orkuiau do. 


LoVMt. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$57  12 

$71  40 

$f.4  -.'6 

HI-  10 

142  (to 

l.U)  SH) 

U  28 

28  56 

21  36 

17«:  50 

297  50 

2S8  IH> 

214  20 

428  40 

321  30 

357  00 

571  00 

450  00 

95-*  00 

1,  -IJS  00 

1,190  00 

714  M 

9:.2  00 

Ki;!  00 

571  20 

1,  428  00 

9U9  CO 

S3  6S 

128  52 

107  10 

42  64 

71  4U 

67  12 

57  12 

107  10 

85  66 

3  92 

4  76 

4  28 

2  65 

428 

3  67 

'  With  board  and  lodg:ing. 


t  Withont  board  and  lodsrinjr. 


HOrSEHOLD  WAGES. 
Wtigt*  per  month  or  ^'ear  to  kousehoiii  servants  in  Stettin. 


Occupations. 


Cook,  female* per  year. 

Fami  servant,  female* do... 

Kite  lien  maid* do  .. 

House  luaiil' do... 

Uurse  maid* do — 

Housekeeper* do. . . 

"Waiter*  per  month . 

Laundreisst    per  day . 

Cook,  lualej per  mouth. 

Farm  laborer* per  annum. 

Coaehm.in; per  mouth. 

Footman* — do  .. 


LoTrest. 


$2&56 
17.14 
17.14 
17.14 
14.28 
35.70 

3.57 
.357 
17.85 
35.70 
14.28 

5.71 


Highest^ 


$57.13 
21.43 
25.70 
35.70 
21. 42 
71.40 

7.14 

.476 

24.99 

42.84 

31.42 

a  57 


ATx<rage. 


$42  84 
19  28 
21  42 
26  42 
17  85 
58  55 
5  36 


21  42 

39  27 
17  85. 
7  U 


*  With  bo.iid  and  lodging.  f  AVith  boanl.  :;  Without  boanl  and  lodginj 

Wageti  paiti  other  female  ocntpatioiig  per  week  of  nixtu  hoitra  at  Stettin. 


Oooapations. 


Lowest. 


Past^'board  factory per  week..'      $0,714 

Cartruljie  factory* do 1. 713 

Ilairies  (femalts),  includiu!;  Siinilsys do 

Uurses  itwelve  hours  per  day),  without  board ptT  mouth,. 


Highest. 


$2,142 
2.213 


Avexage. 


$1.  428 
l.Ofia 
1.66 

14.  00 


*  For  some  there  is  six  weeks',  and  for  others  there  is  three  months'  employment  during  the  year;  in 
■II.  380  women  are  employed. 

Pressuiakrr,  wht'ii  in  house  of  customer,  for  ten  hours"  work,  r»9.5  to  71.4  rout.s  iui'ludiusj  boanl ;  for 
innkiiii:  a  d^t^ss  at  home,  acconling  to  material,  $3.10  to  $4.76;  buttons,  silks,  liuiugs,  &o.,  are  to  be 
fnmi^hed  by  the  customer. 

Female  teachers  private  lessons,  languages  47.6  cents  i>er  hour-,  singing,  71.4  cents  per  one-half 


LA]:()H   IN   i;r;j{c»i'j; — cekmasy.  b\b 

AGlilCUI/J  I  liAJ.    WAfiKH, 
ff'ayen  paid  per  day  to  aijr't<.ullurul  luhorem  in   Ihc  dintricl  of  Stettin,  without  hoard  and 

lo'lfjilif/. 


Halca... 
Temalet . 


Occiipatiou*. 


A-vemyfe. 


$1  VI 
1  42 


coKi'OfjA'j  ION  j:mi'J-oyi<;s. 

H'aycH  jiaid  jj'-r  annum  to  the  lorjioralion  employes  in  the  city  of  Stettin. 

AI>MIN;H1  I'.AIION    <>]■■    'JHK  CI'l  Y. 

Mfirjinlrate.  —  V'ljHt  ina.vor,  i*:{,yi;5.  B<;coiid  mayor,  Kulary,  §1,904;  for  adtjiiriiHt ration 
of  Kaviii^H  hank,  i$107.10  ;  total,  §2,011.10.  City  attorney  aiirl  al<]<;rriia(i,  $1,41><J.40; 
«uiit;riiit<-n<J<'nt  of  Um  <|(fpaitr(H!iit  arul  al<l«!rriiaii,  S),570.';0;  city  tr<;aKur<;r  ami  alder- 
man, Sl,42>f;  comuiiHhioii<;r  of  public  IjuildingH,  §;i,14*«i ;  aldermen,  §l,285.i{0;  kcLooI 
inKpectors,  81,42'^. 

Salariid  officem  appointed  hy  lh*>  magintrate. — Two  city  architects,  each  §1,142.40; 
city  enninecr,  *^.'jfi.r!0 ;  city  auditor,  fi'JUfi.'^O ;  city  clerk,  $'Jtih.W;  commiKsioner  of 
jiublic  iiuilditif^H,  ,*Hrjf;.t-0;  city  secretary,  $*^>().^iO  ;  city  register,  §714  ;  city  hofmeihiter 
and  Hccrelarv,  §749.70;  four  bookkeepc^rH,  1  at  §f;45i.«>0,  2  at  §.'j5:{.:{.'>=§1,10<j.70  ;  1  at 
$^>17.(,', ;  total,  §2.200.9.').  Three  »ecretarieH,  2  at  §000.90=§l,2l:<.8f) ;  1  at  §517.05 ;  total, 
$1,731.45.  Hevei'i  aKwiHfanlH,  with  §r,53.:J5  to  §;j.07  each,  total,  §2,998.80,  A  nuiuberof 
meHs<;iigirH,  janitorw,  fi/etnen,  Aic,  from  §:5;}:}.20  to  §221. :}4,  Extras  and  remtmera- 
tion  allosv(;d  n  aking  a  grand  total  of  §21,012.18. 

Kmploy<^«  in  the  city  gan  and  water  workK,  from  §470  to  §1,428.  Workingmeti, 
47.0  to  59.5  centH.  J'ol icemen,  §15.75  to  §10.(JC  to  commence  with,  riHing  to  §:i5.70  per 
month,  uniform  provided  for. 

MIJK    I>1-.I'AI'.IMI;NT. 

Superintendent,  §78.5.40  ;  cliief  rtf  def.artment,  §571.20 ;  firKt-claKH  fireman,  §205.00 
to  §282.74  ;  «ecoti«l-cIas«  fireman,  i»214.20  to  §2.57. <<4  ;  how  cart  man,  18  cents  a  night, 
besides  relief  and  regular  i^ensiouH  to  memberB'  widows  and  children. 

KCUOOL    JjKI'AinMK.NT, 

Stadt  ffymnaiiium. — Director,  $410.55  more  than  the  next  hijfhest  salarj'.  Twenty- 
nix  teachers,  from  §1,042.20  to  §:i:W.20  ;  average,  §701.81.  Special  salaries  for  singing, 
drawing,  &,c.,  aciording  to  Iiours  given  :  Diau  ing,  §514.08  ;  ni/iging,  §214.20;  gym- 
nast ics,  .§285.00;  average,  §:}:i7. 90.  Two  janitors,  from  §2^/2.02  to  §90.24;  average, 
$149.4:5. 

Jieal  f/yranasium  (a  school  in  which  languages,  as  well  as  arts  and  sciences,  are 
taught). — Director,  §:i28.44  (in  gold)  more  than  the  next  highest  salary.  Twenty- 
four  teacherK,  from  §l,5t;(i.09  to  §:5:'.:5.20  ;  average,  §0:n.:U.     .Janitor,  §22^J*.4X" 

Superior  ffirln'  Hchool.  Director,  §574.77  more  than  the  next  hijjlieht  salarv.  Kight 
teacliers  from  §1,500.09  to  §440.:W ;  average,  §807.05.  Hix  female  teachers  from  §487.90 
t()  §:j:52.20  ;  average,  §:'.82.78.     Gymnastics,  §214.20  ;  drawing,  §157.08 ;  janitor,  §104.78. 

Elevated  f/irh'  nehool. — Rector,  §:i.':i.4:i  more  than  the  next  hi;ihest  t-alary.  ,Six 
teachers  from  §999.00  to  §428.40;  average,  §.591.02.  Two  female  teachers  from  §285.00 
to  §257.04  ;  average,  .§271. :52.  Lessons  in  needle-work,  §257.04;  gymnastics,  $124.95: 
drawing,  §2:Jh  ;  janitor,  §140.37. 

GirW  Hchool. — Principal,  §142.80  more  than  the  next  highest  salary.  Eight  teachers 
from  §714  to  §470);  average,  ^'A\A'Z.  Two  female  teach<rs,  §2*^5.00  each  ;  two  female 
teachers  for  needle-work,  §228.48;  gymnastics,  §71.40;  janitor,  §116.48. 

lioyn'  nehool. — Principal,  §142.80  moie  than  the  next  Iiigliest  salary.  Fifteen  teach- 
ers from  §714  to  §249.90;  average,  §410.15.  Gymnastics,  §£;:i.55 ;  janitor,  §184.00, 
Average  salary  of  all  teachers,  §0:i4.:'.9.  Average  salary  of  all  female  teachers,  §3l;{.23, 
•xcept  specials — needle-work  average,  §242.70. 


516 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


PRINTERS'  WAGES. 

Statement  showing  the  tcages  paid  iter  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers  {compositors,  pressmen, 
proof-readers,  ^-c. )  in  Stettin. 


Occupations. 


Type-setters 
Preaaiuau  — 
Proof-readers 
Apprentice.. 
Laborer 


Lowest. 


$3  81 

4  05 

G  43 

71 

2  8ti 


Highest. 


$7  14 

7  14 

6  C6 

95 

4  28 


Average. 


$5  47 

5  59 

6  55 
83 

2  57 


AVERAGE  WAGES   IN  POMERANIAN  CITIES. 
Average  wages  paid  to  worlcingmen  in  the  following  cities  of  Pomerania,  per  diem. 


Name  of  city. 


Number 
of  inhab- 
itants. 


Laborers  over  six- 
teen years  of  age. 


Males. 


Females. 


Laborers  under  six- 
teen years  of  age. 


Males. 


Females. 


City  of  Stettin 

Alt  Danim 

Gartz  on  the  Oder 

Grabow  on  the  Oder 

Pencun  

Poelitz 

Greifenbagen 

Bahn 

Fiddichow 

Pyritz 

Stargard  in  Prussia 

Freienwaldo  in  Prussia  . 

Noerenbcrg 

Jacobshagen 

Zachau 

Naugard 

Daber 

Massow 

GoUnow 

PwCgcnwalde 

Cabes  

Plathe 

Wangerin 

Grei  fen  berg  in  Prussia. . 
Treptlow  on  the  Kega  ... 

Camniin 

Swineniiinde 

TTsedoin 

Wollin 

Ueckormiinde 

Puse  walk 

Ncuwarp 

Anclam 

Domniin 

Jarmon 

Treptlow  on  the  ToUense 


756 
987 
18.' 
072 

oeo 

146 
906 
146 
931 
123 
8-.'8 
384 
956 
945 
509 
949 
271 
815 
000 
442 
(il2 
225 
709 
8(10 
0.V2 
856 
478 
810 
500 
516 
409 
280 
(100 
507 
642 
165 


Cents. 
47.60 
41.65 
41.  05 
47.60 
35.  70 
29.75 

28.  56 
23.80 
23.80 
30.94 
35.70 
35.70 
23.80 
23.  80 
35.70 
35.  70 
23.  80 

29.  75 
35.  70 
3.5.  70 
23.80 
29.75 
32.13 
3.i.  70 
29.75 
35.  70 
29.  75 
35.  70 
29.75 
35.70 
23.80 
35.70 
42.84 
35.70 
29.75 
35.70 


Gents. 
23.80 
21.42 
29.75 
21.42 
23.80 
17.85 
19.04 
11.90 
14.28 
14.28 
19.04 
23.  80 
9.52 
14.28 
17.85 
23.80 
11.90 
17.85 
17.85 
23.80 
14.  28 
16.66 
21.42 
23.80 
14.28 
23.  80 
19.04 
23.80 
17.85 
23.  80 
23.80 
29.75 
23.  80 
23.80 
17.85 
23.80 


Oents. 
23.  80 
23.80 
17.85 
23.80 
17.85 
17.85 
11.90 
11.90 

9.52 
11.90 
11.90 
11.90 

9.52 

9.52 

7.14 
11.90 

9.52 
11.90 
17.85 
11.90 
11.90 

9.52 
14.28 
17.85 

9.52 
14.  28 
19.04 
17.85 

9.52 
21.42 
14.28 
29.75 
23.80 
23.  80 
11.90 
17.85 


Centg. 
14.28 
13.09 
14.28 
21.42 
17.85 
11.90 
9.52 
9.52 
9.52 
11.90 
9.52 
5.95 
4.76 
9.52 
5.95 
9.52 
7.14 
9.52 
11.90 
11.90 
11.90 
7.14 
14.28 
11.90 
9.52 
11.90 
9.52 
17.85 
'  9.  .52 
21.42 
9.  .52 
23.80 
14.28 
17.85 
11.  fO 
11.  £0 


Note. — At  a  nurting  of  the  authorities  of  the  distrirt,  held  May  5,  1884,  the  wages  have  been  fixed 
for  Stettin  (city)  :  Men.  47.6cent8;  women,  23.8ccnt8;  boys,  23.8cent8  ;  girla,  14.28  cents.  For  all  other 
places  in  the  di.striit  of  Stettin  :  Men, 23.8;  women,  16  66;  boys,  11.9;  girls, 9.52.  Ten  working-hours 
the  day,  from  7  to  12  a.  m.,  and  1  to  6  p.  m. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

LIVING  EXPENSES  IN   STETTIN. 


517 


statement  of  earnings  and  living  expenses  of  four  teen  individual  employes  in  different  occu- 
pations. 


Occupations. 


In  cement  factory 

In  nincliino-.sliop 

In  cliiinii-il  tiictorj' 

In  papcr-uiill 

In  flour-mill  (by  steam). 
In  oil  factory 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

In  soap  factory I    1 


Number  of  the  members  of 
families. 


In  railroad  service. 

Cabinet-maker 

Locksmith 

Shoemaker 

Tailor 

Navvy  

Field-laborer 


Occupations. 


o    ■ 
o  s« 

o  yj 

t>i 

^  n 

^  oj 

c:-~< 

-P'-" 

^  js 

o 

d 

a  -n 

9  M 

c;-a 

c  ^ 

p  2 

-a 

S 

r:  o 

^ 

S3 

d3 

o 

1 

2 

2 

1 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

i 

Income. 


3 


$128  52 
185  64 
190  40 
167  79 
220  15 
185  64 

173  74 

157  08 
160  65 
142  80 
130  90 

136  85 

154  70 
78  54 


"2  " 

a  J. 

CS  O 

^ 

ag 

a 

a 

^ 

O  o 

$42  84 

71  40 

$17  85 

28  56 

35  70 

23  80 

C  28  56? 
\  21  42^ 

21  42 

61  86 

65  45 

28  56 

47  60 

C19  04? 
\  28  565 

17  85 

9  52 

21  42 

23  80 

$171  38 
185  64 
201  80 
214  20 

220  15 

221  34 

247  52 

181  68 
226  10 
142  80 
159  46 

232  05 

182  07 
123  76 


In  cement  factory 

In  machine-shop 

In  clieinical  factory  ... 

In  paper-mill 

In  flour-mill  (by  steam) 

In  oil  factory 

In  soap  factory 

In  railroad  service 

Cabiubt  maker 

Locksmith 

Shoemaker 

Tailor 

Navvy  

Field-laborer 


Expense  by  percentages. 


3 
2 
3 

3^ 
3 
4 
1 
1 
3 
2 
3 
2 
1 
11 


-s 

a 

*   • 

05 

<a 

P 

^ 

S) 

o  S 

%"- 

s 

o 

§ 

•d 

M 

H 

< 

li 

* 

1 

* 

* 

1^ 

\ 

4 

i 

^A 

1 

1 

1 

1* 

n 

1 

1 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

1 

2 

1 

U 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

\ 

i 

3 

i 

11 
4 
8 
2 
1 
2 
1 


FOOD   PRICES   IN   STETTIN. 


Articles. 

Price. 

Articles. 

Price. 

Wheat  flour per  pound.. 

Kye  flour do 

Beef: 

Fore  quarter do 

Hind  quarter do 

Veal: 

Fore  quarter do 

Hind  quarter do 

$0.  one 

0.024 

0.119 
0.143 

0.  095 
0.119 

Mutton  ; 

Pure  quarter per  pound.. 

Hind  quarter do 

Pork: 

Fresh do 

Salted do 

Ham do 

Sausage do 

$0. 119 
0.143 

O.llOto  0.155 

0.143  to  0.190 

0.214 

0.238 

518 


LABOR  IX  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Food  prices  in  Stettin — Coutiuued. 


Articles. 


Bacon per  pound., 

Lard do... 

Butter. do. .. 

Chepse do . . . 

Codfish do 

Rice do  . . 

Oatmeal do . . . 

Pearl  barlej- do. .. 

Beans do... 

Lentils do . . . 

Peas do . . . 

Potatoes per  50  kilograms. 

Salt per  pound. 

Milk per  liter. 

Sauerkrant per  pound. 

Poppy-oil do . . . 

Sweet  oil do . . . 

Petroleum do. .. 

Vinegar per  liter. 

AUdliol do 

Whisky do... 

Tobacco per  pound. 

Coflee : 

Kio do... 

Java do. . . 

Chicorj' do... 

Sugar : 

Refined do... 

Common do  — 

Sirup do . . . 

Eggs peregg. 

Candles : 

Stearine per  pound. 

Tallow do... 

Soap,  common do  . . 

Coals per  cwt. 


Price. 


$0. 190 
0.190 
0.  28,1 
0.119 
0.  095 
0.  000 
0.024 
0.048 
0.048 
0.  0:!6 
0.036 
0.476 
0.024 
0.036 
0.024 
0.190 
0.285 
0.033 
0.  048 
0.143 
0.060 
0.238 

0.190 
0.262 
0.043 

0.095 
0.  083 
0.060 
0.012 

0.167 
0.  190 
0.060 
0.238 


Articles. 


Hard  wood per  4  test  meter. . 

Soft  wood do 

Bread,  rye  per  po\md.. 

Shirting: 

Not  bleached per  meter.. 

Bleached do 

Sheeting: 

Not   bleacher],   65  to  75  centi- 

Tuetcis  wide  ....  per  meter.. 

Bleached,  75  to  82  centiraetei's 

wide per  meter. . 

Bleached,  160  centimeters  wide, 

per  meter 

Flannel,  about70centimeters  wide, 

per  meter 

Calico  per  meter.. 

Ticking,  67  to  75  centimeters  wide, 

per  meter 

Woolen    cloth  for  mechanics,  120 

centimeters  wide per  meter. . 

Boots,  for  mechanics 

Boots,  for  mechanics,  horse  leather. 

Shoes,  foT  mechanics 

Rent  for  2  rooms  and  kitchen,  per 

month 

Rent  for  3  rooms  and  kitchen,  per 

month 

Rent  for  4  rooms  and  kitchen,  per 

mouth 

Board  and  lodging  for  single  men, 

per  week 

Board  and  lodging  for  single  women, 

per  week  

Soup    kitchen   for   the   poor,    per 
meal 


Price. 


$8,009 
4.000 
0.024 

0.  084  to  0. 144 
0.  096  to  0. 144 


0.  096  to  0. 144 

0. 108  to  0. 144 

0.  264  to  0.  312 

0. 1(18  to  0. 144 
0.  084  to  0. 144 

0. 120  to  0. 180 

0.950  to  1.190 
1.600  to  1.900 

2.  020  to  2.  380 

0.  890  to  1. 190 

1.  900  to  2.  850 

3.  570  to  4.  760 

4.  7f.0  to  5.  950 
1.  900  to  2.  389 

1.430 
0.036 


INDUSTRIES   AND   EMPLOYES    OF    POMERANIA. 

Table  shoicing  industries  and  number  of  persons  occupied  within  the  province  of  Ponwrania. 


Occnpations. 


Mining,  smelting  and  salt. 

Stones  and  earth 

Metals 

Machines,    tools,     instru- 
ments, &,c 

Chemicals 

Heating  and  lighting 

Textile  fabrics 

Paper  and  leather 

W^ood  and  carving 

Food  ;iiid  ]>rovi8ions 

Clothing'  :iiid  cleaning 

Pol.vi;iii]>hical 

Other  bi  anches 


Establishments. 


7 
602 

7 


14 
32 
28 
11 
185 
519 


12 

16 

10 

130 

619 


2       12 
263     952 

8l      74 


Laborers. 


Over  16 

years  of 

age. 


127 
6,  953 
1,061 


107   6,825 

181  1,254 

99,  1,  165 

731      457 

38       674 

327I  2,288 

266  1, 454   7, 173 

4i        41        17 

9I      83!      688 

13]      22i       128 


14  to  I  12  to 

16     I      14 
years    years 
of  age.  of  age. 


g     a 


4 

771317 
40|  56 


110 
322 
301 

21 
328 

20 
172 

45 


49   16 


. .  229  ...  I     2 

28|  31    29   22 

23    12 

28   38;. 

42   48[. 
64  ...  . 
49    30    15 
9     2 
42   21 
28    181     2 


Totals 1,  089'1, 474,700  3,  203  28,  810  1,  102  918  247   57   56  32,  2.")0  30,  972  1, 278  29,  785  2,  465 


16 


Grand  total. 


131  131 
8,109  7,724 
1, 157   1, 101 


7,  056 

1,  380 

1,3I0' 

870! 

1,  068| 

2,  373 
7,  595 

48 
923I 
230  i 


6,  825 

1,  282 
1,2'0 

779 
975 

2,  309 
7,501 

37 
860 
173 


127         4 
385   7,286     823 
56;  1,117       40 


231'  7,0.56 
98  1,307 
35,  1,  188 
91 1  485 
93  716 
64'  2,  .3.52 
94:  7,237 
11  26 
63  730 
57 1      1.58 


73 
122 
385 
352 

21 
358 

22 
193 

72 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  519 

TRADE  REGULATIONS  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

[Translated  from  the  German.] 

Title  VII. —  JVorkingmen  {journeymen,  helpers,  apprentices,  ivorkmen  in  factories). 

I.  General  relations. 

Sec.  105.  Tlie  regulation  of  the  relations  between  masters  and  their  employes  is 
left  to  themselves,  within  the  restrictions  of  the  law  of  the  German  Empire. 

The  masters  cannot  compel  their  workmen  to  work  on  Sundays  or  holidays.  Such, 
work  which  cannot  be  postponed,  or  does  not  allow  an  intermission  without  loss,  ia 
not  com])rised  in  the  foregoing  regulation. 

The  holidays  are  designated  by  the  Government. 

Sec.  106.  Masters  who  have  lost  their  civil  rights  are  not  allowed,  as  long  as  these 
rights  are  withheld  from  them,  to  instruct  persons  under  eighteen  years. 

The  police  authorities  can  enforce  the  dismission  of  such  persons,  if  employed  con- 
trary to  the  above  regulation. 

Sec.  107.  Persons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age  can  only  be  employed  as  working- 
men,  if  they  have  a  book  of  employment  (Arbeitsbuch),  unless  otherwise  ]n'ovided  for 
by  law.  When  such  workingmen  are  engaged,  the  master  has  to  ask  for  tlie  book, 
teep  the  same  in  security  and  show  it,  if  asked  for  by  legal  authorities,  and  return 
it  to  the  employ^  at  ]n>  dismissal.  These  regulations  do  not  apply  to  children,  who 
4ire  bound  to  visit  the  public  schools. 

Sec.  110.  The  book  of  employment  must  contain  the  name  of  the  workingman,  the 
town  or  village  where  and  the  year  and  day  when  he  was  born,  as  also  his  signature. 
These  books  have  to  show  the  seal  and  signature  of  the  authorities.  The  latter  shall 
keep  a  register  of  the  books  of  employment  issued  by  them.  The  arrangement  of 
«ai(l  books  will  be  ordered  by  the  chancellor  of  the  Empire. 

Sec.  111.  When  the  workingman  enters  the  master's  service,  the  latter  shall  record 
an  the  book  the  date  of  beginning,  as  also  the  kind  of  work  given  him,  also  at  the  dis- 
missal the  date  of  leaving;  and  if  the  work  was  changed  during  the  time,  the  kind  of 
work  last  employed  at  is  to  be  recorded. 

Sec.  112.  If  the  master  should  not  return  the  book  as  prescribed  by  law,  or  should 
neglect  to  enter  the  items  above  mentioned,  or  should  have  inscribed  improper  re- 
anarks,  the  workman  can  sue  him  for  damages  within  four  weeks. 

Sec.  im.  The  workman  can  at  his  dismissal  demand  a  certificate  stating  the  length 
•of  time  he  worked,  and  what  kind  of  work  he  was  employed  at. 

Sec.  115.  The  masters  are  obliged  to  pay  the  wages  in  cash  money.  They  cannot 
pay  the  wages  in  goods. 

Exceptions  to  this  regulation  are,  provisions,  fuel,  &c.,  provided  they  are  not 
charged  higher  than  the  marked  price;  also,  the  laborers  can  be  charged  with  rent, 
food,  medicine,  medical  advice,  as  also  with  tools  and  materials  used  by  them,  and 
the  same  deducted  from  their  wages. 

II.  Relation  of  journeymen  and  helpers. 

Sec.  120.  Masters  employing  laborers  under  eighteen  years  are  obliged  to  take  par- 
ticular care  of  their  health  and  morality. 

They  have  to  grant  said  laborers  upon  their  demand  the  time  to  visit  a  public 
.«chool  for  further  education ;  if  necessary,  the  authorities  shall  fix  the  time  to  be  spent 
in  it. 

The  masters  are  finally  oljliged  to  nuike  all  arrangements  needed  for  the  safety  of 
life  and  i)reserviiig  of  health  which  their  respective  trades  may  require. 

Sec.  121.  Journeymen  and  helpers  are  obliged  to  comply  with  the  order  of  their 
masters  regarding  the  work  they  are  employed  at  and  the  rules  of  the  house  ;  they 
are  not  obliged  to  do  household  work. 

Sec.  122.  A  journeyman  or  helper  can  be  dismissed  from  work,  or  quit  the  same,  if 
notice  is  given  by  either  side  fourteen  days  before. 

Skc.  123.  In  particular  cases  stipulated  by  law,  journeymen  and  helpers  can  be 
dismissed  without  foregoing  notice,  and  at  once. 

Sec.  124.  In  ])articular  cases  stipulated  by  law,  journeymen  and  helpers  can  leave 
work  without  notifying  the  masters  before. 

■Sec.  125.  A  master  who  persuades  a  journeyman  or  helper  to  leave  his  work  before 
properly  finishing  it,  can  be  held  responsible  by  the  former  master  for  damages. 

In  the  same  way  a  master  nuiy  be  held  responsible  if  he  engages  or  holds  a  jour- 
neyman or  helper  whom  he  knows  to  be  obliged  to  work  for  another  luaster. 


520  LABOR  IN  EUROPK GERMANY. 

III.  Relations  of  apprenticks. 

Skc.  120.  The  uiaster  is  oblij^eil  to  show  aiul  teach  the  appnutice  the  d'flVront 
"branches  of  his  tnulM  in  such  rotalioii  as  is  most  practical  l"or  learning  it.  He  hin!s<'lf 
lunst  teach  and  show  the  ai)printice  or  apjioint  a  fit  person  i)articiilarly  for  that  pur- 
pose. "'"    "^^^f"' 

He  sliall  n<  t  use  the  apprentice  for  other  services  not  pertaining  to  the  trade,  or  set 
hiin  .-It  work  (hiring  church  hours  on  >Snn(lays  and  holidays. 

It  is  his  diitv  to  teach  the  a])prenticc  diligence  and  good  morals,  and  to  guard  him 
against  ex(;esses. 

Sec.  I'<i7.  The  apprentice  is  under  the  discii)liue  of  the  master,  and  has  also  to  obey 
the  orders  of  his  substitute. 

Sec.  l'2S.  The  a])]>renticesliip  can,  before  the  expiration  of  the  first  four  weeks,  be 
t'issolved  on  r(  (jUi  st  of  eitlier  party.  An  iigreement  taking  tlie  ajiprentice  on  trial 
for  more  than  thre«^  months  is  nnll  and  void.  After  ex])iiation  of  i)robation  time  he 
may  be  discharged  tefore  the  end  of  the  aiipren*^icesliiit  in  jiarticnlar  cases,  such  as^ 
for  instance,  dishonesty,  disobedience,  &c.  The  a]>iirentice  himself  can  dissolve  the 
apprenticeshi))  after  the  expiration  of  the  probation  tinu;  m  the  following  cases  :% 

1.  In  case  of  sickness,  inability  to  work,  or  if  the-master  (iomiuits  an  act  of  violence 
against  him,  or  insults  him  in  a  brutal  manner,  or  in  case  the  master  does  not  jjay  him 
his  wages,  or  encourages  him  to  dishonest  or  immora!  acts. 

2.  If  the  master  neglects  his  dnt  <  s  in  regard  to  the  liealth  and  moral  education  of 
the  apprentice,  or  neglects  to  fulfill  the  duties  mentioned  in  the  contract  of  the  ai)preu- 
ticeship,  or  misuses  the  rights  of  discipline  intrusted  to  him.  The  death  of  the  ap- 
prentice dissolves  the  contract  of  apprenticeship;  the  death  of  the  master  dissolves 
the  c  ntract  if  notice  is  given  of  the  dissolution  within  four  weeks. 

Sec  129.  At  ex])iration  of  the  apprenticeship  the  master  is  bound  to  give  the  ap- 
pren  'ce  a  certificate,  mentioning  the  trade  learned,  the  duration  of  apprenticeship^ 
and  the  knowledge  and  skill  obtained,  as  also  the  behavior  of  the  a])prentice  during 
this  time;  this  certificate  has  to  l)e  certified  by  the  local  authorities  free  of  cost. 
Where  guilds  or  other  societies  of  the  trade  exist,  they  can  issue  certificates. 

Sec.  130.  If  the  apprentice  leaves  his  place  unlawfully  Avithout  the  consent  of  the 
master,  the  master  cannot  claim  him  again  unless  he  has  a  written  contract.  In  the 
latter  case  the  police  authorities  may  com])el  the  apprentice,  if  desired  so  by  the  mas- 
ter, to  stay  so  long,  nntil  the  ap]ireuticeshii)  has  been  dissolved  by  lawful  decision. 

Sec.  IIjI.  If  tlie  master  is  infoinied  by  a  written  declaration  from  the  father  or 
guardian,  or  if  the  apprentice  is  of  age  by  the  latter  himself,  that  the  apprentice  in- 
tends to  learn  a  different  trade,  then  the  apprenticeship  is  dissolved  after  expiration 
of  four  weeks,  if  the  apprentice  is  not  discharged  before.  The  reason  of  dissolution 
must  be  mentioned  by  the  master  in  the  book  of  employment.  Within  nine  months 
after  the  dissolution,  the  apprentice  cannot  be  employed  in  the  same  trade  by  another 
master  without  the  consent  of  the  former. 

Sec.  132.  If  the  apprenticeshii)  comes  to  an  end  before  the  time  fixed  in  the  con- 
tract, damages  can  only  be  claimed  by  the  master  or  apprentice  if  a  written  contract 
exists. 

IV.  Relations  of  laborers  in  factories. 

Sec,  134,  Paragraphs  121  to  12.")  may  be  referred  to,  regarding  factory  laborers ;  iC 
the  laborers  are  regarded  as  apprentices,  paragraphs  126  to  J 33  are  to  be  referred  to. 

Sec.  13;"),  Children  under  t^velve  years  of  age  shall  not  be  employed  in  factories. 
Children  under  14  years  of  age  are  not  allowed  to  work  more  than  (i  hours  per  day. 
Children  that  are  obliged  to  visit  public  schools  are  not  allowed  to  work  in  factories 
unless  they  attend  a  regular  course  of  study  of  at  least  3  hours  ])er  day. 

Persons  between  fVmrteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  shall  not  work  more  than  10  hours 
per  day.  The  engagemtMit  of  women,  after  having  given  birth  to  a  child,  is  not  al- 
lowed before  three  weeks  have  elapsed. 

Si  c.  136,  The  working  hours  of  juvenile  laborers  shall  not  begin  before  5.30  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  nor  last  longer  than  8  30  o'clock  in  the  evening.  Between  the  work- 
ing hours  of  every  working  diiy  regular  int<'rmissions  must  be  allowed.  The  time  of 
rest  must  be  of  half  an  hour's  length  t"or  (-hildren  :  for  young  ])e()]ile  between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age,  an  hour  tor  dinner,  as  also  half  an  hour  in  the  forenoon  and 
half  an  hour  ill  the  afternoon.  During  the  jiauses  the  young  laliorcrs  shall  not  be 
em])loyed  at  any  work,  nor  tluur  ])reseuce  allowed  in  the  rooms  where  they  are  em- 
ployed, unless  all  work  is  stojiped  therein  during  this  time.  Juvenile  laborers  shall 
not  be  em])loyed  on  Siindf.ys  or  holidays,  nor  <luring  the  hours  designated  by  the  min- 
ister of  the  gospel  for  the  instruction  in  catechism,  for  confirmation,  confession  and 
Cf)nimuuion. 

Skc.  137.  The  eni])loyment  of  children  in  a  factory  isnot  allowed  if  a  card  for  employ- 
ment has  not  been  tendered  before  to  the  employer.     This  also  ajiplies  to  young  peo- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE- — GERMANY. 


rv2i 


pie  bctweiMi  ftnirtocn  aiul  sixteen  years,  who  are  yet  obliged  to  visit  the  pnlilic  .schools. 
A  hiiok  of oinploymiiit  is  not  necessary  in  this  case. 

Sicc.  138.  If  jnveniUi  laborers  are  to  be  eni])h>yed  in  factories,  the  eui])loyer  shall 
inform  by  leiter  the  police  deparlnient  belore  the  beoinning  of  enii)loynient.  In  tiiis 
notice  the  following  is  to  be  stated  :  Tlie  factory  where  employed,  on  what  days  of 
the  week  employment  is  to  take  place,  the  commencement  and  end  of  the  working 
honrs  and  )ianses,  as  also  the  kind  of  wurk  employed  at.  A  cliange  herein  is  not 
alhnved  before  being  re])ort(d  to  the  authorities.  It  is  the  dnty  of  the  emi)Ioyer  to 
exhibit  a  list  of  the  jnveniie  laborers  in  the  rooms  of  each  factory  on  a  place  easily 
visii)le,  stating  IIk^  working  days,  as  also  the  commencement  and  ending  of  the  work- 
ing hours  and  time  of  rest;  also  shall  be  exhibited,  in  the  i)remises  mentioned  above, 
a  card  containing  the  regulations  for  employment  of  juvenik^.  laborers. 

Sec.  l:5i)  a.  By  resolutions  of  the  federal  conncil  it  can  be  lorbidden  or  only  condi- 
tionally allowed  to  employ  juvenile  anil  female  laborei's  in  branches  of  industry  by 
which  their  health  or  morals  are  getting  endangered.  Particularly  can  it  be  forbid- 
den that  women  be  emjdoyed  at  ctsrtain  branches  of  industry  during  night  time.  The 
resolutions  of  the  federal  council  have  to  be  laid  before  the  next  meeting  of  the  Ger- 
man Reichstag.     They  are  null  and  void  if  declared  so  by  this  body. 

Sec.  I'M)  b.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  ])olice  authorities,  or  of  ofdcers  appointed  ex- 
pressly by  the  Government,  to  control  the  execution  of  the  regulations  mentioned  in 
paragraplis  135  to  139  a,  as  also  in  120,  section  3. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  above  mentioned  officers  to  make  yearly  reports  of  their  official 
doings.  These  reports,  or  abstracts  of  the  same,  are  placed  before  the  federal  council 
and  German  Reichstag.  The  inspection  of  the  factories,  if  in  operation,  by  the  above- 
named  officers  must  be  allowed  by  the  proprietors  at  any  time,  especially  at  night. 


Ilnclosure  No.  7.] 
Results  of  the  loan  and  credit  co-operative  societies  from  187G  to  1S82,  inclusive. 


DO 

Number 

Snms    advanced    and  re- 
newals granted. 

Own  capital. 

<2 

.2  ca 

of  mem- 

Year. 

'^1. 

bers    of 

el" 

the    so- 

Average 

Total 

So 

*2 
u  a 

^    00 

cieties. 

Total  amount. 

sum  for 
each  so- 
ciety. 

Shares  of  the 
members. 

Eeserve. 

amount  of 
both. 

^^ 

< 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

ifarks. 

Marks. 

1876.... 

806 

431,216 

1,525,389,219 

1,  892,  542 

88,876,  139 

10,01,5,027 

98,  >-9l,166 

122,  694 

1877.... 

929 

468,  652 

1,  550,  402,  483 

1,  66S,  894 

98,  685,  583 

12,005,410 

110,  700,  993 

119,161 

1878  .. 

948 

480,  507 

1,  456,  003,  733 

1,  535,  869 

102,  882,  342 

13,  853,  027 

116,735,369 

123,138 

1879.... 

899 

459,  033 

1,  398,  l-JO,  830 

1,55.5,195 

100,  9116,  248 

1.5.117,802 

116,114,050 

129,160 

1880  . . 

906 

460,  656 

1,  447,  526,  317 

1,597,712 

102,  029,  366 

16,  398,  002 

118,427,428 

130,  714 

1881.... 

902 

462,212 

1.472,004,974 

1,631,934 

102,374,010 

17,  396, 1.57 

119,770.167 

132,  780 

1882.... 

905 

461, 153 

1,  502,  367,  435 

1,  660,  074 

103,  286, 404 

18, 182,  515 

121,408,919 

134,  21» 

BORROWED  FUNDS. 


Tear. 

From  pri- 
vate persons. 

From  banks 
and  societies. 

Total. 

Average 

sum  for  each 

society. 

Per  cent,  of 

own  capital 

against  the 

borrowed 

funds. 

1876 

Marks. 
198,349,234 

209,  28.5,  582 
208,041,742 
207,016,091 
231,  (10.5,  835 
240,  313,  951 
240, 112, 136 

Marks. 
14.160,425 
17,141,6.59 
17,  .548,  473 
13,  621,  864 
11,371,333 
10,838,145 
10,  663,  765 

Marks. 
121   96''  822 

Marks. 
334.  472.  581 

Marks. 
414,978 
377.  846 
36.5,  607 
386, 168 
402,  262 
414,  964 
419,  203 

29.  5T 

1877 

124,  ,59]' 862  1     351.019.  103 

31.54 

1878 

121,  00.5,  198 
126,  ,527,  520 
122,072,777 
12.3.146,318 
128,  603,  391 

346,59.5,413 
347,  16,5,475 
364,  449,  945 
374,298,414 
379,  379,  292 

33.  eg 

1879 

33.44 

1880 

1881 

32.  4» 
31.99 

1882 

32.01 

522 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


finclosure  Ko.  8.] 
Eesults  of  the  co-operative  consume  societies  from  1876  to  1832,  inclusive. 


f2 

n 

Amounts  duo 

2  2 

o 

by  niernbera 

^•^ 

§9^ 

lor  ^  <)  o  d  8 

a  o 

H-W 

bought  on 

tS  c 

O  « 

credit. 

s>  d 

Number 

Receipts  from 

Amounts 

Debts  con- 

c,o 

of 

sales  during 

due  to  mem- 

Reserve. 

tracted   on 

Zj  o 

.2 

^» 

mem  bers. 

tlie  j'ear. 

bers. 

loans. 

13  u 

i . 

o  ^ 

o  5 

Amount. 

1? 

a» 

^o4 

iM 

M 

6 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

1876.. 

180 

101,727 

24,378,410 

3,  046,  093 

556,  398 

2,672,415 

1,004,186 

142,  722 

49 

1877.. 

202 

99,  862 

26,  503,  379 

3, 199,  532 

671,  519 

2,  564, 148 

899, 163 

158, 113 

54 

1878.. 

202 

109,  515 

28,  601,  734 

2,927,619 

852,  695 

2,  810,  083 

785,  394 

164,  703 

51 

1879  . . 

191 

130,  777 

28,  772,  988 

3,  204,  677 

954,  723 

2,  476,  502 

722,  390 

99,  920 

4« 

1880.. 

195 

94,  360 

30,  359,  000 

3, 177,  329 

1,  036, 153 

2,  884,  583 

668,  59: 1 

141,  639 

49 

1881  .. 

185 

116,  510 

32,  761,  636 

3,  088,  788 

1,  206,  289 

2,  926,  506 

.537,  672 

122, 759 

48 

1882.. 

182 

130,  089 

33,  603,  799 

3,  352,  568 

1,  323, 434 

2, 849,  796 

449,  493 

106,  719 

47 

PROGRESS  BETWEEN  1876  AND  1882  (UNITED  STATES  CURRENCY). 


1876  . . 
1882.. 


180 
182 


101,  727  !$5,  802,  061  58  $724,  970  13  $132,  422  72  $636,  034  77 
135,  089  I  7,  997,  704  16  797,  911  18  314,977  29  678,25145 


1238,  996  27  $33,  967  84 
106,  979  33  I  25,  399  12 


49 

47 


finclosure  No.  10.] 

Balance  sheet  of  the  co-operative   loan  and  credit  associations  in  the  consular  di.siricl  of 

Stettin  for  188i.* 


Items. 


Provinces. 


East  and  West 
Prussia. 


Pomerania. 


Number  of  members. 


Money  advanced,  current  account  business  and  sales. 

Money  loaned  on  certain  time  during  year : 

On  advanced  drafts 

On  discounts,  business  drafts 

On  notes 

On  niortfcages 


Total 


Number  of  credits  given 
Current  account  business : 

Moneys  paid  out 

Moneys  received 

Number  of  accounts 


Total  of  all  expenses  during  the  year 

Computation  and  distribution  of  net  profits. 

Business  income: 

Interests,  &c.,  of  indebted  members  still  due  (uni)aid) 

Paid 

Income  for  sales,  &c.,  still  due  (unpaid) 

Paid    

BusineHs  expenses : 

Interest  to  creditors — 

Unpaid 

Paid 


33, 776 


Marks. 

64,  933,  817 

11,  280,  620 

48,  220 

14,  682 


76,  277,  339 


133,  567 


7,  734,  219 
6,  9U6,  021 


111,  983,  706 


182,  280 
627,  867 
The  figures  in  this  table  are  just  as  the  consul  gave  them. 


26,111 

1,  560, 468 

1,430 

35,  406 


14,  401 


Marks. 

36,  037,  705 

5,  785,  886 

2,  600 

15,909 


42,  442,  051 


62,  473 

7,190,842 

7,  246,  341 

528 


77,  344,  931 


20,  802 

803,  431 

1,578 

35,  275 


181,  983 
249,  665 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  523 

Balance  sheet  of  the  co-operative  loan  and  credit  association,  <f-c. — Coufcinued. 


Items. 


Computation  and  distribution  of  net  profits — CoDtinued. 

Business  iucome — Continued. 

Salaries  and  administration  expenses — 

Unpaid 

Paid 

Losses 

Net  profits 


Grand  total 


These  profits  are  turned  over  to — 

Ke-ervef'und  

Dividends  to  members 

For  education  and  other  benevolent  purposes- 
Balance  at  end  of  year: 

Assets  of  the  business — 

On  h^ind  

Cash 

Notes,  drafts,  &c . . 

Outstandiiifis  of  the  business — 

Drafts,  notes,  &c 

Mortiia<res 

Current  accounts •. .. 

At  banks  and  societies. 

Balance  of  income  ol  last  year 

Value  of  inventory  of  business 

Yalue  of  pioperty 


Total  of  assets. 


Debts  of  the  business : 

Bii.siness  shares  of  members 

Reserve  fund 

Moneys  borrowed  by  society: 
From  privates — 

For  three  months  and  longer. 
For  less  than  three  months  . . 

From  banks  and  societies. 

Balance  due  of  hist  year 

Interest  in  advance 

Net  profits  not  divided 


Totalof  debts 

Obligations  by  transfers  (giro)  of  the  society  at  end  of  year. 


Provinces. 


East  and  West 
Prussia. 


Marks. 

86,  528 

228,  227 

44,  436 


478,  534 


74,  502 

386,  587 

7,724 


787,  686 
928,  791 

,  307,  874 
144,  035 
,  076,  '.90 
277,  406 
37,  279 
28,  831 
149,  043 


24,  735,  620 


,  268,  221 
866,  922 


659,  251 
220,  646 
122,  228 
305,  530 
95,  .546 
197,  270 


Pomerania. 


Marks. 

43,  758 

131,  137 

13,924 


201,  901 


40,  039 

174,  309 

1,636 


485,  868 
1,  .591,622 

11,924,803 
75,  850 
1,  499,  670 
232, 496 
24,  108' 
17,312 
34, 150 


15,473,218 


2,  360, 235 
475,  701 


24,  735,  620  i 
151,840 


83.5,  698 
253,  370 

95,  879 
282,  57S 

65,  215 
104,  547 


15,473,218 
211,  473 


[Inclosure  No.  11.] 

List  shoiving  memiers  of  co-operative  credit  and  loan  societies  within  the  consular  district  of 

Stettin  for  1882. 


Items. 


MEMBERSHIP. 

Number  of  members-at  opening  of  year  1882 . . . 
Entered  during  the  year 

Withdrawn  during  the  year : 

By  free  will 

By  death 

By  dismission 

Total 


Provinces. 


East  and 

West 
Prussia. 


29,  689 
3,  229 


Pome- 
rania. 


12,  537 

847 


1,464 

450 
454 

592 
592 
223 

2,368 

1,021 

624  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

List  showing  memhers  of  co-operative  credit  and  loan  societies,  cj-c. — Continued. 


Provinces. 

Items. 

East  and 

West 
Prussia. 

Pome- 
rania. 

Membekship— Continued. 

861 
30,  550 

174 

12,  363 

STANDING  IN  LIFE  OF  MEMUERS. 

Independent  farmers,  {lardencra,  fishers,  and  foresters : 

M.ilo 

11,  8G6 
490 

407 
60 

488 
12 

6,665 
327 

351 
12 

2,510 
188 

103 
5 

1,156 
106 

499 
8 

62 
38 

2,882 
139 

913 
1,263 

2,717 
101 

Helpei  s  ;md  laborers  witli  farmers,  gardeners,  fishers,  and  foresters  : 

kilo 

285 

7 

Manufacturers,  proprietors  of  mines,  and  contractors  : 

Male       .                

314 

7 

Independent  mechanics: 

Male     .         .             

4  080 

102 

Trade. journevmen  and  laborers  in  factories  and  mines:' 

Mai-   ...' 

372 

Independent  merchants  and  dealers : 

]\Ialo 

1,460 

63 

Clerks  :ind  others  employed  by  merchants : 

23 

1 

Carters,  ship  owners,  hotel  and  saloon  keepers  : 

Male 

769 

24 

Letter-carriers,  subaltern  railroad,  telegraph  and  post-office 
laborers  not  independent,  waiters,  and  mariners : 
Male 

employes,  railroad 

146 

1 

Servants  and  expressmen  (porters,  &.C.) : 

Male       . 

32 

2 

cei  s  : 
Male 

state,  and  city  offi- 

780 

30 

Capitalists,  pensioners,  and  other  persons  without  occupation  : 

Male  

629 

418 

Male 

27,  902 
2,048 

11,  607 

756 

flnclosure  No.  12.] 

Balance  sheets  of  182  co-operative  consume  associations  in  the  German  Empire  for  1882. 

Number. 

Societies 182 

Members  at  close  of  year 130,089 

Stores  of  the  society -• 435 

Marks. 

Total  amonnt  of  sales  dnrinnj  tlie  year 33,00:5,799 

Computation  of  the  net  i)rofits: 

Business  income  of  the  stores 4,101,294 

Other  sales,  &c    146,383 

Business  expenses: 

Interest  to  creditors 80,872 

Salaries  and  costs  of  administration 1, 773, 735 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  525 

Computation  of  net  profits — Continued.  Number. 

Exlraontinary  losses 7, 104 

Net  profits : 

Grand  total 2,514,017 

Turned  over  to  members  : 

Interests i:?'},453 

Dividends '2,0o0,88l 

Reserve  fund l:i4,  672 

Fund  at  disposition 2H,  422 


Balance  at  end  of  year. 

ASSETS. 

Marks. 

Cashon  hand 692,103 

Inventory  of  j;oods  on  hand 3,974, 136 

Due  for  floods  sold  to  members  on  credit 106,  719 

Other  claims  of  the  society l,92v!,263 

Inventory  of  business  and  fixtures 414,  714 

Value  of  property 3,110, 138 

Total  amount  of  assets 10, 220,  073 


DEBTS. 

Marks. 

Business  share  of  members 3,  352, 568 

Reserve  fund 1,323,434 

Fund  at  disposal  for  educational  matters 40,  754 

Moneys  borrowed 1,  585, 156 

Debts  or  mortgages 1,264,610 

Checks  in  circulation 195,236 

Debts  of  the  society  for  goods  bought  on  credit 449,  493 

Unpaid  business  expenses  and  undistributed  profits 1,994,708 

Total  amount  of  debts 10  205,989 


[Inclosure  No.  13.] 

List  showing  memhersofWfi  co-operative  consume,  13  co-ojpei'ative  productive,  and  1  co-opera- 
tive buildiny  society  in  the  German  Empire  for  1882. 

MEMBERSHIP. 

Number  of  members  opening  of  year  1882 99,655 

Number  of  members  entered  during  the  year 18, 8£0 

Withdrawn  during  the  year : 

By  free  will 14,154 

By  death 836 

By  dismission 1,647 

Total 16,637 

Increase  of  members  during  year  1882 2, 253 

Number  of  members  at  close  of  year  1882 101,908 

STANDING  IN  LIFE   OF   MEMBERS. 

Independent  farmers,  gardeners,  fishers,  and  foresters  : 

Male 3,513 

Female 269 

Helpers  and  laborers  with  farmers,  gardeners,  fishery,  and  foresters  : 

Male 3,  .517 

Female 441 

Manufacturers,  proprietors  of  mines,  and  contractors: 

Male   1,488 

Female - 88 


526 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Independent  ineclianics : 

Male 

Female 

Tratle  journeyineu  and  laborers  in  factories  and  mines  : 

Maie...\ 

Female 

Indejieiulent  merchants  and  dealers: 
\  Male  

Female 

Clerks  and  others  employed  by  merchants: 

Male 

Female 

Carters,  ship  proprietors,  hotel  and  saloon  keepers: 

Male 

Female  .. 

Letter-carriers,    subaltern   railroad,   telegraph,   and  post-office  employ<Ss, 
railroad  laborers,  and  not  independent  waiters  and  mariners: 

Male 

Female 

Servants  and  expressmen : 

Male 

Female 

Physicians,  druggists,  teachers,  artists,  journalists,  church,  state,  and  city 
officers: 

Male 

Female 

Capitalists,  pensioners,  and  other  persons  without  occupation: 

Male 

Female 

Total  of  all  members  : 

Male 

Female 


14, 679 
86& 

30,  343^ 
1,806- 

3,  531 
554 

1,509- 
102 

2,371 

188 


7,705- 
118 

1,41& 
356 


9,F53 
92& 

3,116 
4,134 

92,  040 
9,868. 


[Inclosure  K'o.  14.1 

Salaries  and  costs  of  administrative  of  126  co-operative  consume  societies  in  the  German 

Enqnre  for  1882. 

SALARIES,  REMUNERATIONS,  AND   SHARES   OF   PROFITS  (TANTII^MEN). 


Salaried  directors  of  the  society  : 

Number 326 

Fixed  salary marks..  77,483 

Share  of  profits do 116, 161 

Storeket  pers ; 

NuMiher do....  313 

Fixed  salary do 152, 597 

Share  of  profits do....  309,889 

Ol her  i)ayment8  made do 16,  136 

Salaries  of  other  society  officers,  clerks,  hired  men,  «tc do 202,  597 

Salary  of  the  superintendent do 31,982 

Expeii.st\s  fur  a  foreign  reviser do 1,  001 

Oilu-r  personal  expenses do 8,  692 

Total  amount do 894,551 

Costs  of  administration  and  other  expenses: 

Rent  for  own  stores <lo 62,  434 

Rt-nt  for  other  stores do 127,  357 

Costs  of  inventory do 51,605 

Costs  (or  re])air8  and  real  estate do 82,  888 

IJooks,  printing,  insurance,  and  other  administrative  costs do 190,869 

Total do 501,337 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

[Inclosuro  No.  15.] 
Talle  showing  the  J:i7id  of  Jwmes  of  uorkingmen  and  rents  paid. 


527 


Sooms. 

Situation  and  con- 
dition of  the  rooms. 

Yearly  rent. 

Let  to  others. 

i.    . 
^  bt 

a. 9 

-S  9 
o  o 

(S 

2 
1  . 

a 
a 

-a 
pq 

2  rooni.s  and  1  hall  in  common  with 
fire-place.* 

Do* 

First  story 

...do 

$53  55 
53  55 
32  13 
57  12 

1  room  to  a  family 

for  $22.85. 
1     room     to    two 
widows  for$27.85. 

7 
6 
3 

9 
6 

7 

2 
5 

7 

3 

8 

2 
5 
3 

3 
3 

$30  70 
25  70 
32  13 

room  under  the  roof  with  open  fire- 
place in  hall.* 

2  room.s  and  1  fire-place  in  common  in 
the  hall.* 

2  rooms  and  a  small  kitchen* 

1  room  in  cellar  with  a  dark  hall  with 

Third  story 

1  room  for  $17.14  .. 

2  beds    to    lock- 
smiths for  $22.85. 

39  98 
41  41 
27  13 

First  story 

Cellar     perfectly 
dark     and    un- 
healthy. 

Parterre 

64  26 
27  13 

open  fire-place.* 

1  room,  1  very  small  room  and  open 
fire-place.* 

2  rooms,  one  of  which  has  a  fire- 
place.* 

2  rooms  and  hall  in  common  with 
others  and  fire-place. f 

2  rooms  (1  very  small)  and  open  fire- 
place in  common  hall.t 

1  room  and  1  tire-place  in  hall  in  com- 
mon, t 

Dot 

32  13 
34  27 

45  70 

27  13 

28  56 

22  85 
25  70 
22  85 

22  85 
32  13 

32  IJ 

25  7a 

34  27 
27  13 

Parterre  perfectly 
damp  and  very 
unhealthy. 

Second  stoiy 

Parertre 

....do 

1  bed  to  a  girl  for 
$8.57. 

Ibed  for  $11.42... 

28  56- 

22  85 
25  7a 

22  85 

....do 

1  room  in  vard  (very  bad  air)t 

....do 

1  room,  1  fire-place;  4  fireplaceson 

First  story 

Second  story 

one  floor,  to  each  one  rooni.t 

Dot 

22  85. 

32  la 

1  room  and  1  open  fire-place  in  hall 
in  common. t 

*  Inhabitants  of  these  rooms  are  mechanics,  locksmiths,  carpenters,  &c.,  employed  in  factories, 
t  Inhabitants  of  these  rooms  are  helpers  and  laborers  employed  in  factorits. 

Number  of  females  engaged  in  industry  in  the  province  of  Pomerania  in  1882. 


Occupations. 

12  to  14 
years. 

14  to  16 
years. 

Over  16 

years. 

Total. 

Stone  and  earth 

3 

49 

771 
40 

82S 
40 

Metal 

Machines  and  instruments 

Chemical 

16 

29 
12 
38 

48 

28 
110 
322 
301 

21 

1 

172 
45 

73 

Textile 

25 
3 

Paper  and  leather 

352 

Wood  and  carving 

<)\ 

Groceries  and  provisions 

30 

2 

21 

18 

358 

Cl'ithing  and  cleaning 

22 

PolyKi-a])hical 

195- 

Other  branches 

9 

72 

Grand  totals 

56 

247 

2,158 

2,461 

528  LABOE  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Number  of  juveniles  engaged  in  indusfry  in  the  province  of  Pomerania  in  1882. 


Occupations. 


Stone  and  earth  industry 

Metal , 

Machines  and  instruments.. 

Chemical 

Heatin'4aud  lightinr; 

Textile ' 

Pai  cr  ami  leather 

Wood  and  carving 

Groeei  it'8  and  provisions. . . . 

Clothin g  and  cleaning 

Poly  graphical , 

Other  branches , 


Twelve  to  fourteen 
years. 


Male.   Female.   Total, 


Grand  totals . 


57 


16 


Fourteen  to  sixteen 
years. 


Male.   Female.  Total 


317 

56 
229 
31 
23 
28 
42 
64 
49 
9 
42 


49 


30 

2 

21 

18 

247 


366 
56 

229 
60 
35 
66 
90 
64 
79 
11 
63 
46 


1,165 


64 


Totals. 


975 


Male. 

Female. 

TotaL 

333 

52 

385 

56 

—  

56 

221 

231 

53 

45 

98 

23 

12 

35 

28 

63 

91 

42 

51 

93 

64 

64 

1,278 


List  of  juvenile  laborers  in  the  province  of  Pomerania  from  1879  to  1882,  inclusive. 


Tear. 

o  « 

Fourteen  to  six- 
teen years. 

Twelve  to  four- 
teen years. 

Total. 

'c3 
1 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

■    § 

1879 

153 
169 
214 
201 

739 
713 
816 
918 

309 
273 

277 
247 

70 
48 
38 
57 

37 

28 

809 

761 

346 
301 
314 
303 

1,155 

1880 

1,062 

1881 

37  I        8.54 
&C             975 

1,  108 

1882 

1,278 

United  States  Consulate, 

Stctim,  July,  1884. 


HERMAN  KIEFER, 

Consul. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


529 


THURINGIA. 

EEPOliT  BY  CONSUL  MOSHER,  01  SONNEBEIiQ. 

Part  I.— Male  Labor. 

THE   RATES   OF  WAGES. 

The  following  tables,  which  have  been  prepared  with  reference  to  ac- 
curacy and  completeness,  will  show  the  present  rates  of  wages  in  the 
Thuringian  states : 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  working  hours  in  Sonneberg  {Thuringia)  and  vicinity. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Bricklayers 

H()(i-carrier.s 
Masons 

Tfuders 

Plasterers 

TenJers 

Slateis 

Roofers    

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants  . . 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

St  nkers 

Bookbinders  

Brickmakers 

Brewers 

Biilcners 

Brass  I'ouuders 

Cabinet-makers 

CoulVctioners 

Ciuar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers. 

Drivers : 

Oiaymen  and  teamsters 

Cab,  carriage,  and  street  railways 

Dyers 

Enirravers 

Fii  liers  

Gardeners 

Hattei  s 

Hiirse-shoers 

Jeweleis 

LalxdHTS,  porters,  &c 

Lithojrrapliers  

Millwriglits 

Nail  makers  (band) 

Potters   

Printers 

Teacliei  s,  public  schools 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Sail- makers 

Stevedores  

Tannoi  8 

Tail.irs 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


$3  33 

"h'n 


3  75 
3  60 


2  85 
2  t5 


2  85 
2  85 


2  38 

1  43 

3  75 

2  14 


2  85 
2  38 
2  50 
2  26 
2  85 


2  14 
2  85 

2  85 
4  28 

3  75 
2  38 
2  85 
2  85 

4  76 


2  14 

4  28 

3  75 
2  85 

2  85 

4  28 
4  28 

3  75 


2  85 
2  38 
2  85 
2  38 
2  38 


$3  57 


7  14 


4  76 

4  85 


3  75 

4  28 


3  09 
3  33 


4  28 
8  09 
4  76 
3  33 


5  71 
3  75 
3  00 

2  62 

3  75 


2  62 

3  75 


3  33 
9  52 

3  00 
9  52 
5  71 

4  28 

3  75 
7  14 
9  52 

4  28 


4  28 

2  85 
4  28 

3  75 
2  85 


$3  40 
2  00 
6  18 
1  75 
4  50 
1  75 


2  90 

3  00 

2  00 

3  50 
3  75 


3  56 
2  70 
2  80 

2  35 

3  15 


2  25 

3  25 
3  30 

5  50 
3  90 

2  75 

3  20 
3  00 

6  "0 
2  75 


3  25 

2  ii* 

3  30 
2  80 
2  50 


02  A— LAB- 


-34 


530 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


FACTORIES  AND   MILLS. 

Wages  paid  per  leeek  of  sixly-six  to  seventy-liro  working  hours  in  factories  and  mills  in  Thu- 

ringia.* 


Occnpations. 


WOOLEN  MllXS.t 

"Wool  sorters  (female) 

Carrting : 

Overseers  (male) 

Washers    

Carders 

Conmiou  hands 

Drawing : 

Overseers 

Drawers 

Spinning: 

Overseers 

Spinners 

Dressing: 

Overseers 

Dressers 

Labor : 

Overseers 

Engineers 

Maclunists 

Watchmen 

Day  laborers 

COTTON  MILL8.{ 

Head  pickers  

Pickers 

Oilers 

Grinders 

Card  sh  ippers 

Roving  hands 

Speeder  girls 

Flyers 

Jaekfraniers 

Doflers 

Mule  spinners 

Pack-boys  § .- 

"Weavers : 

Plain  

Fancy 

Dyers : 

Plain 

Fancy     

Cloth-room  hands 

Spoolei  s 


$1  00 

2  90 
1  90 

1  60 

1  30 

2  80 
2  10 


2  90 

3  00 
2  00 
1  50 
1  75 


2  50 

1  60 

2  00 

2  20 
1  65 
1  20 
1  90 
1  56 
1  00 
1  40 

3  00 

1  00 

2  00 
2  50 

2  30 

3  20 
2  50 
1  98 


$1  33 

5  00 
2  75 
2  10 

2  00 

4  90 

3  40 

4  85 

3  50 

5  20 

4  85 

5  00 
5  50 
3  50 
2  00 
2  60 


3  90 

2  70 

3  00 
2  80 
2  75 
2  00 
2  98 
2  68 
2  66 
2  07 

4  30 
1  40 


$1  15 

4  10 

2  28 
1  95 

1  00 

3  85 

2  75 

3  70 

2  80 

4  40 

3  48 

4  00 
4  25 
2  62 

1  60 

2  00 


3  10 
2  08 
2  30 
2  50 
2  09 

1  50 

2  13 

1  98 

2  05 
1  66 

3  40 

1  05 

2  34 

2  84 

3  00 
3  92 
2  84 
2  23 


*The  wages  are  for  males.     A  fraction  over  one-half  of  the  operatives  are  females,  and  their  wages 
are  fioni  one-third  to  one-half  less  than  those  of  males, 
t  Seventy-two  houTS  per  week. 
ISixty-six  hours  per  week. 
§  Ten  are  under  14  years  of  age. 

FOUNDRIES  AND  MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty-six  working  hours  in  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  iron  tvorka 

in  Thunngia. 


Occnpations. 


FOUNDRIES. 

Casters 

Mold'-rs 

Day  laborens 

MACHINE-HIIOI'S 

Tnmors  and  locksmiths 

Boiler.-niiths 

BlacU.siiiiths 

Wcld.is         

A  ])pi  entices 

Machine  huildeis 

Hosiery  loom  builders  

Joiners 

Engineers  

Firemen 

Day  laborers 


Lowest.     Highest.   Average. 


$2  90 
2  86 
2  20 


50 
40 
85 
85 
78 
90 
2  00 

2  25 

3  20 
3  00 
2  10 


ghest. 

$4  00 

3  94 

2  30 

3  50 

3  45 

3  33 

3  21 

2  50 

3  25 

3  80 

3  50 

4  00 

3  50 

2  25 

$3  40 
3  OO 
2  25 


3  27 
3  15 
3  00 

2  98 

1  98 

3  00 
3  30 

2  85 

3  70 
3  20 
2  20 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


531 


GLASS-WORKERS. 

The  condition  of  the  ^lass- workers  is  an  anomalous  one.  There  are 
several  iini)ortant  factories  in  the  district,  ]>articalarly  those  at  Lau- 
Bcha  and  Steinarh,  but  ihc  ureater  part  of  the  work  is  done  in  private 
houses.  Nearly  every  family  lias  its  ^as  s;enerator  and  blow-pipe,  and 
having  purchased  the  raw  material,  or  else  received  it  from  their  em- 
ployers, they  manufacture  it  into  all  kinds  of  articles,  such  as  beads, 
marbles,  toys,  fruit  and  tlowers,  animals,  Christmas-tree  decorations, 
human  and  animal  eyes,  spun  jilass,  and  that  form  of  glass  by  which 
a  snow-storm  is  represented  on  the  theatrical  stage.  Lauscha  has  the 
reputation  of  producing  the  finest  imitation  of  the  human,  eye  of  anj 
place  in  Geumany. 

Tiie  most  of  the  work  is  piece-work,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  tabu- 
late the  wages  or  the  earnings.  As  a  rule  these  are  small,  and  the  glass- 
workers,  who  are  generally  poor,  live  in  the  plainest  and  severest  man- 
ner. 

Wages  paid  per  iceek  of  nixtij  loorkinfi  hours  to  glass  and  porcelain  ivork&rs  in  Lauscha,. 
Stemacli,  HUttensttinach,  and  vicinity. 


Occupations. 


GLASS-WORKEKS. 

firindera    

Grinders  (female) 

Tubes  (fur  thermometers,  &c.) 

Mavliles,  plain per  M 

Marbles,  with  figures do  . 

Beads  

Toys 

Eves  (for  dolls  and  animals) 

Eyes  (human) 

'      POKCELAIN-WORKERS. 

Modelers , 

Decorators 

Formers  ;tnd  turners 

Formers  and  turners  (female) 

Firemen  

Packers *. 

Day  laborers 

SLATE-WORKERS. 

Slate-pencil  makers  and  slate-workers , 


Lowest. 


$2  50 
1  25 

3  00 


Highest. 


1  25 

2  38 

2  14 

2  86 

2  38 

7  14 

5  00 

4  50 

3  50 

1  80 

3  75 

3  00 

2  25 

2  00 

$5  64 

2  35 
5  95 
4  76 

11  90 

3  57 

4  76 
4  76 
9  52 


13  73 
9  00 
6  00 
a  20 
4  50 
3  75 
6  00 


5  60 


Average* 


$3  90 

1  80 
4  20 

2  39 
4  60 

2  50 

3  40 
3  00 
7  96 


8  00 
6  00 
4  55 

2  50 
4  00 

3  25 
2  90 


3  62 


THE   PORCELAIN    INDUSTRY. 


The  manuf^icture  of  porcelain  and  china  ware  is  an  important  industry 
in  this  district.  One  of  the  most  important  of  the  manufactories  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Soimeberg  is  that  of  the  Schoenan  Brothers 
(Gebriider  Schoenan)  in  Hiittensteinach  ;  400  are  employed  hnre,  of 
which  280  are  males  and  120  are  females.  They  are  divided  as  follows  : 
2  modelers,  (5  moldcrs,  70  turners  (including  ai)prentices),  40  formers 
(all  female),  30  glazers  (all  female),  21  burners,  L55  decorators  (includ- 
ing females  and  ai)prentices),  0  ])rinters  (all  female),  6  enamclers,  4 
grinders,  10  sorters,  17  ])ack»M's  ([)rincipally  girls),  8  mixers,  G  wood- 
men, and  10  day  laborers.  The  turners,  molders,  and  decorators  are 
paid  by  the  pie^e,  and  earn  from  $1.28  to  $5.95  per  week.  Day  laborers 
receive  $2.28  per  week,  working  10  hours  a  day. 


632 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


This  factory  was  established  in  1865,  and  is  unsurpassed  for  the  ex- 
cellence and  beauty  of  its  ware,  which  includes  all  kinds  of  table-serv- 
ice, toilet  articles,  ornamental  plaques  and  vases,  and  artistic  vessels. 
Its  imitation  of  deltt  ware  is  perfect.  The  Schoenau  ware  is  in  demand 
in  America  and  Eiijiland,  where  it  is  by  many  i)rererred  to  the  jieiiuine 
IVIeissen.  It  is  certainly  clearer  and  more  purely  white  than  this  ware. 
Most  of  the  articles  are  made  by  the  hand  and  the  wheel,  instead  of 
beinft-  pressed  by  machinery,  it  being  believed  that  the  former  process 
j)roduces  superior  results. 

MINES   AND   MINING. 

Wages  paid  2)er  week  of  sixty  working  hours  in,  and  in  connection  icilh,  iron  and  coal  minet 

in  Tliuringia. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$3  50 

$4  .'iO 

1  25 

3  50 

1  30 

3  40 

1  20 

3  10 

2  00 

3  95 

1  40 

3  40 

1  75 

3  80 

1  50 

3  40 

2  00 

3  95 

Average. 


Overseers 

Miiiei  s  (coal  and  iron) 

Siiieltcv.s 

Caiti-rs 

En;;iiie  workers  (winders)  ... 

Stokers 

Da,v  lal)iirers  (in  ininea) 

Diiy  laborers  (about  surface). 
Contract  work  (mines) 


$4  10 
2  95 
2  95 

2  00 

3  00 
2  50 

2  ao 

2  30 

3  10 


RAILWAY  EMPLOYl&S. 

Wages  jmid  per  year  to  railway  employes  (those  engaged  almut  stations,  as  well  as  those 
eiigngtd  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  i^c.)  in  Thuringia  (the 
Werra  Railway). 


Occupations. 


GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 


Each  din^ctor 

Siipcrinti'iidi^nt* , 

OiSce  (if  directors: 

Secretary 

Revisoi'  and  registrar  

Giiice  of  i^enoral  ai( ministration: 

Secretaries    

];ecorilei-s  (each) , 

Kxecutivo  ofticcrs 

Messenger  t 

OfiQce  of  traffic  : 

Inspector 

Secretaries 

Assisraiit 

Office  of  tieasurer: 

Bookkeeper 

I'aymiister 

Ttevisors  and  assistants 

Cleiks 

Ticket  printer 

Treasurer 

Teller  t 

M ossenger  \ 

Movements  inspection  : 

Inspector  § 

Secretary  

Assistant  (civil  engineer) . . . 

Recorders 

Messeiiccrs  and  aBsistants.. 

Supplies  oflicer 

TeiegrMpb-inspector 

Car-niastersll 


Whole 
number. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


$645  00 


222  00 


450  00 


300  00 
198  00 


375  00 
182  50 


$693  00 


270  00 


609  00 


525  00 
222  00 


429  00 
228  12J 


Average. 


$375  CO 
1,  716  00 

120  00 
625  00 

669  00 
355  00 
246  00 
225  00 

1, 125  00 
559  50 
300  00 

1, 125  00 
630  00 
375  00 
210  00 
50  00 
750  00 
355  00 
275  00 

1,  275  00 
630  00 
480  00 
41 12  00 
205  31 
500  00 
450  00 
467  00 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Wages  paid  x>er  year  to  railway  employes,  <f-c. — Continued. 


533 


Occupations. 


CONSTRUCTION  DEI'AUTMENT. 


Division  engineers  (civil)* 

Office  clfiks    

Bi'Ction  iiiasterst 

Flagniont 


TRANSPORTATION  DEPARTMENT. 


Depot-mastersTT 

Dei>ot  assistants  J 

Sifrnalmenf 

Porteis:  

Watihiiien  (each)  J    

Telesraphers  (each)  J 

Car-reviseis  (each)  J 

Goods-i  ec^eivei  sir     

Goods-dispatchersTT 

Ba{;;:aj;i'-ljau<llersJ 

Basfliige- masters  t 

Goods  (.nutrollersj 

Weighers  J     

Conducto  s  (superior)  t 

Ciiiiductors  (infeiior,  or  ticket  collectors)  t 

Biakeiiicu  (eaclu  1|    

Engiiieeis  (locomotive)  || 

Firemen  || 

Day  laborers,  at  70  to  75  cents 


MACHINERY  DEPARTMENT. 


Master  machinist^ 

"WorkmasterTT 

Engineer  IT 

Kcgistrar 

Bookkeeper  

Storekeeper 


Whole 
number. 


2 

2 

14 

129 


Lowest, 


Highest. 


$375  00 
:30o  00 

144  00 


375  00 
330  00 
153  00 
1C5  00 


300  00 
300  00 
246  00 
2:{4  00 
255  00 
228  00 
270  00 
183  00 


294  00 
234  00 
210  00 


$';90  00 
441  00 
198  00 


600  00 
390  00 
294  00 
189  00 


525  00 
600  00 
405  00 
261  00 
330  00 
294  00 
318  00 
195  00 


414  00 
264  00 
225  00 


Average. 


$H1G  00 
382  50 
370  00 
162  CO 


450  00 
356  87J 
200  00 
185  00 
1.^0  00 
315  00 
204  00 
375  00 
425  00 
300  00 

243  00 
2KU  00 
250  00 
280  00 
187  .50 
18(1  00 
3:!4  00 

244  00 
215  00 


825  00 
030  00 
412  50 
355  00 
655  00 
630  00 


*  Free  rent  and  fuel. 

t  Free  uniform  and  mileage  (average  not  over  $50). 

t  Free  uniform. 

§  Hiis  free  rent. 

II  Mileage  and  premium  on  saving  of  coal  and  oil  (average  not  over  $50). 

^  Free  rent,  fuel,  and  uniform. 


RAILWAYS. 


The  Werra  Railway,  of  which  the  pay-roll  is  giveu  iu  the  forejjoing 
table,  belongs  to  a  private  company.  It  is  a  single  track,  extending 
from  Ei.senach  southeasterly  to  Cobarg  and  Liclitenfels,  with  a  branch 
track  from  Coburg  to  Sonneberg.  Its  whole  length  is  110  miles.  The 
population  of  all  the  station  towns  along  the  line  is  80,000.  At  Eisenach 
it  connects  with  the  Berlin,  Leipsic  and  Frankfort  on-the-Main  system 
of  railways,  and  at  Lichtenfels  with  the  Bavarian  and  Saxon  State 
Railways.  It  is  the  principal  means  of  communication  between  the 
Saxon  Duchies,  with  a  population  of  1,210,815,  and  the  world  outside 
of  them. 

During  the  last  year  the  company  sold  589,090  civilian  tickets,  of 
which  more  than  three-fourths  were  third  class,  the  receipts  being 
$220,711.47.^  ;  also  30,827  military  tickets,*  the  receipts  being  $5,793.75  ; 
and  carried  2,923  tons  of  luggagef  (receipts,  $10,407),  and  29  tons  of  dogs 
(dogs  go  by  luggage  weight),  the  receipts  being  $255.     Including  extra 

*  Privjite  soldiers,  siibofficers,  and  the  landwehr  are  carried  for  one-third  of  a  thiid- 
•lasH  fare,  and  are  not  allowed  in  first  or  second  class  compartments, 
t  All  luggage  over  50  pounds  is  jiaid  for. 


534  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

trains,  the  total  receipts  iu  the  passenger  department  were  $238,800.58 
for  010,017  tickets. 

In  the  ireight  department,  the  receipts  were,  for  4,205  tons  of  express 
goods,  81 7,40lM)7i  ;  for  450,075  tons  of  ordinary  freight,  $450,070.25; 
for  postal  jiackages,  $1,040. 15  ;  for  244  tons  military  horses, S701. 75  ; 
for  18,830  tons  of  cattle,  $20,412.05;  for  58  tons  of  human  cori)ses,* 
$202.15;  other  receij)ts,  $8,517.50;  making  total  lieight  receipts, 
$400,4(>3.00  for  about  485,000  tons.  Total  in  both  departments, 
$738,273.24. 

On  an  average  each  i^asseuger  was  carried  20  miles,  and  each  ton  of 
freight  42  miles. 

The  total  receipts  have  increased  about  $50,000  yearly  since  1878. 

The  dividends  have  run  as  follows:  1800,15^  per  cent.;  1870,1  per 
cent.;  1871,  3  per  cent.;  1872,  2|  per  cent.;  1873,  I  i)er  cent.;  1874,  0 
per  cent.;  1875,  1  i)er  cent.;  1870,  §  percent.;  1877,  1^  per  cent.;  1878, 
1§  per  cent.;  1870,2  per  cent.;  1880,3  per  cent.;  1881,  3i^  per  cent.; 
1882,  4i  per  cent.  For  the  year  closing  iu  June  (1884),  a  dividend  of  5 
per  cent,  is  anticipated. 

To  run  a  locomotive  1  mile  on  this  road  it  is  estimated  to  cost,  in- 
cluding service,  coal,  oil,  water,  and  ordinary  repairs,  5^  mills,  and  each 
locomotive  has  drawn,  on  an  estimate,  during  the  year,  30.10  axles  with 
50.17  tons  net  load  g  of  a  mile. 

The  station  laborers  are  required  to  be  on  duty  from  5.30  a.  m.  to 
10.30  p.  m.,  seven  days  in  a  week. 

A  system  of  electric-bell  signals  is  used,  by  which  the  departure  of 
everj'  train  is  announced  at  the  succeeding  station,  and  also  at  all  the 
intermediate  crossings,  which  are  banvd  during  the  i)assing  of  trains. 
This  is  true  of  nearly  all  railways  in  the  Empire.  Private  as  well  as 
state  lines  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  national  police,  who  concern 
themselves  especially  with  the  general  security  of  tratiic. 

The  waiting-rooms  in  nearly  all  stations,  private  and  national,  are 
rented  to  be  used  as  restaurants.  Hence  almost  without  exception  the 
"waiting-room  is  a  place  of  beer-drinking  and  smoking.  Consequently, 
the  waiting  rooms  here,  unlike  those  iu  the  United  States,  are  a  source 
of  income  to  the  comi)anies.  The  Werra  Kailway  received  from  this 
source  the  last  year  a  clear  proilt  of  $3,288.25,  and  the  Saxon  State 
Eailway  a  profit  of  $55,000. 

On  an  average  on  German  railways  for  every  first-class  passenger 
there  are  20  second  class  and  70  third  class. 

In  the  principal  centers  regular  barracks  are  provided  for  the  em- 
ployes of  the  State  railways,  and  these  are  comfortable  and  kept  in  good 
order. 

The  service  on  all  railways  in  the  Empire  is  rather  severe,  and  is  not 
especially  well  paid,  but  systems  of  rewards  and  i)rom(jtions  tend  to 
faithfulness  in  service.  Strikes  among  the  employes  are  very  rarely 
known.  """ 

Officers  of  the  roads  and  members  of  the  Keichstag  tiavel  on  free 
passes.  The  case  of  these  latter  causes  some  public  criticism.  As  a 
rule,  the  free-pass  system  is  not  so  conimon  as  in  the  United  States. 

INIost  of  the  country  stations  are  rather  cheerless  ])laces.  The  most 
noticeable  industries  i)racticed  by  their  keepers  to  eke  out  their  salaries 
are  gardening  (limited)  and  bee-kee])ing,  tiie  latter  being  on  some  roads, 
espe(;ially  in  Saxony,  a  source  of  son)e  income. 

Great  econon)y  is  practiced  in  warming  the  cars.     Third-class  com- 

*  Corpses  can  be  carried  only  in  special  freight  cars,  in  which  there  are  no  goods. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY, 


535 


partinents  are  usually  wanned  by  coal  stoves,  and  first  and  second  class 
by  steam.  On  many  roads  no  carriage  is  warmed  after  April  15,  how- 
ever cold  the  weather  may  be. 

STORE  AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Sonneberg  and 

vicinity. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


$375  00 
100  00 
74  25 

214  20 


Dry  gooods : 

Head  clerk  (male) 

Clerks  (male) 

Clerks  (female) 

Fancy  goods : 

Clerks  (niiile) 

Clerks  (female) 

Bookkeeper 357  00 

Crrespondent    428  40 

Procurist  (runner) 714  00 

Book  stoies  : 

Clerks  (male) ■ 

Clerks  (female) 

Groceries : 

Apprentice  (male) : 

First  year 

Second  year '. 

Third  year 

Clerks  (male) 

Clerks  (tVtnale) 

Hardware  (same  as  in  Groceries) 

Apothecaries 


214  20 
95  20 


285  60 


Highest. 


$428  40 

142  80 

99  00 


Average. 


499  80 
714  00 
952  00 

476  00 
142  80 


571  20 
'57i'26 


$400  09 
121  20 
*80  00 

275  00 
142  80 
428  40 
571  20 
750  00 

300  00 
111  06 


85  68 

142  80 
357  00 
*123  76 


380  80 


With  food  and  lodging. 


HOUSEHOLD  WAGES. 

WagKS  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (toivns  and  cities)  in  Sonneberg  and  Coburg. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$42  84 
28  56 
14  28 
90  00 

$59  50 
35  70 
28  56 

125  00 

*$50  00 

Cook                                            

*30  09 

*20  00 

tlOO  00 

*  Gratuity  of  $4.70  to  $11.90  at  Christmas.  t  With  breakfast  and  dinner. 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  vicinity  of  Son- 
neberg. 


Occupat 

ions. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Housekeepers 

per  year.. 

do 

$3.5.  70 
23.80 
11.90 

.166 
.119 
.238 
.166 

$42.  84 
28.56 
19.04 

.238 
.166 
.357 
.238 

*$37.  00 
*25.  00 

do.... 

*14.  00 

Lal)orers: 

Male                                        

per  day.. 

t.20 

do 

t.l43 

do... 

.25 

do.... 

.20 

*  With  food  and  lodging  and  a  trifle  at  Christmas. 

t  And  two  meals  per  day,  eaten  in  the  field.     Hours  of  labor,  12.    In  winter  they  are  paid  from  IJ  to 
2J  cents  per  hour,  and  work  eight  hours.     Wages  do  not  vary  for  planting,  haying,  or  harvest. 


536  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYi^S. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  citij  of  Sonneberg  (9,500  inhaiitants). 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


If  n yor 

As.sistant  mayor  . 
City  treasurer  — 
Cit'v  cleik 


Cliief  of  police 

Poliocnien $166  60 

Gcndaimes  (for  country  towns) '      285  60 

Laborers  (per  day) ] 


Highest,  j  Average. 


$806.  80 
428. 40 
571.  20 
214.20 

1     *2n8. 25 

$193  35  I     tl76.00 

428  40  .      300.  00 

I  .357 


*  And  frpp  dwellins. 

1  Aud  uniform.    Policemen  in  Coljurs,  Meiningen,  &.C.,  receive  nearly  double  these  rates. 

GOVERNMENT    EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  pel'  year  to  employes  in  Gorermnent  deparlmevis  and  offices,  exclusive  of  trades- 
men and  laborers,  in  city  of  Sonneherg  and  Duchy  of  Saxe- Meiningen. 


Occupations. 


Postmaster 

Post  secretary . . 
Post  assistants  . 


NATIONAL  OFFICEUS.* 


STATE  OFFICEUS.  II 

Minister  of  state 

Minister  of  worship  and  public  instruction 

Minister  of  the  interior 

Minister  of  justice,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  attorney-gen- 
eral   each . 

Minister  of  forests 

Four  members  Reichstag 

Director  of  stieets  and  highways 

Director  of  piisons 

Directors  of  mines 

Commissioner  of  agriculture 

President  dueal  court  of  just  ice 

Two  vice-pi-esidents  ducal  court  of  justice each. 

Kin  p  judges  ducal  court  of  justice 

Clerk  of  ilucal  court  of  justice..  

Eleven  local  and  munioipnl  judges 

Fifteen  diocesan  superintendents  (pastors)II each. 

Three  school  inspectors 

Thirteen  bailiff's     

Three  revenue  collectors each. 

Three  appraisers  of  buildings  (for  taxing) 

Appraiser  of  land  (for  taxing) ...   

Seven  deputy  appraisers  (for  taxing) 

Four  forestry  directors 


Lowest.        Highest. 


$309  40 


1, 100  00 


952  00 


571  20 


800  00 
714  00 


800  00 


500  00 
1,  000  00 


$357  00 


1,071  00 

"i,"  300' 60 


952  00 
856  00 


875  00 


600  00 
1, 142  00 


Average. 


;$9.'i2  00 
6571  20 
§325  26 


2,  737  00 
2,  023  00 
1,  904  00 

1,428  00 

1, 142  40 

1, 150  00 

790  00 

1,  ono  00 

952  00 

856  80 

1,  785  00 

1,  428  00 

1,  000  00 

1,  428  00 

925  00 

785  40 

875  00 

775  00 

618  80 

825  00 

900  00 

525  00 

1,  040  00 


*  Only  post  and  military  service  is  paid  by  nation. 
t  Sonneberg,  9,500  inhiibitants. 

I  And  free  dwelling. 

§  And  allowance  of  $.'>:!. 45  for  uniform,  &c. 

II  Saxe-Meiningen,  2tl7,075  inhabitants. 

llPastors  aro  ai)poiutod  by  the  state,  and  are  in  efiect  state  officers. 


GOVERNMENT   OFFICERS  AND   SALARIES. 


Postmasters  usually  have  a  dwelling?  free  of  cost  in  connection  with 
their  offices,  and  are  retaiiuMl  in  office  dnrin^c:  life,  excei)t  for  cause. 
Clerks  are  promoted  tlirou^li  the  several  .grades  to  postmasterships,  so 
that  the  ])ostinaster  of  to-day  was  perhiii)s  an  a])i)reiitice  in  the  same 
office  twenty  years  ajio.     Country  iK)stniasters  are  i)oorly  jiaid. 

The  service's  of  the  local  German  legislator  are  not  always  held  in  high 
esteem.     A  few  months  ago  the  assembly  of  one  of  the  Reuss  principal- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


537 


ities  in  Thuringia  voted  to  dispense  with  the  employment  of  stenogra- 
phers, deeming  a  simple  record  of  the  session  sufficient.  An  orator  of 
the  opposition  remarking  that  the  expense  in  question  was  "hardly 
worth  talking  about,"  a  member  of  the  Government  replied  that  "the 
speeches  are  not  wortli  the  money  si)ent  in  stenographing  them." 

There  are  twenty-tive  different  German  state  parliaments,  and  the 
pay  of  the  delegates  differs  widely.  Prussia  heads  the  list  by  avowing 
her  delegates  $3.57  a  day.  Next  come  Saxony,  Baden,  and  Anhalt^ 
with  $L*.85  ])er  day,  followed  by  Bavaria,  Brunswick,  Coburg-Gotlia. 
and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  with  only  $2.38  a  day.  The  members 
of  the  parliaments  of  Schwarzbnrg-Kudolstadt,  Hesse,  Saxe-Meiningen, 
and  Waldeck  receive  $2.14;  Oldenburg  and  the  two  Eeuss  princii)ali- 
ties  allow  theirs  but  $1.78.^,  and  rich  little  Altenburgand  Schaumburg- 
Lippe  pay  theirs  but  $1.42  a  day.  Wnrtemberg,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and 
Mecklenburg  have  a  great  variety  of  rates.  The  Hanse  towns  (Ham- 
burg, Bremen,  Lubeck)  follow  the  example  set  them  by  the  Empire  in 
allowing  their  representatives  absolutely  nothing,  with  the  difference  in 
favor  of  the  former  that  they  have  free  passes  over  the  railroads,  which 
advantage  is,  of  course,  offset  by  the  high  cost  of  living  in  Berlin. 

BANK   CLERKS. 

In  Thuringian  banks,  to  diverge  slightly,  apprentices  must  serve 
three  and  four  years  without  pay,  providing  for  their  own  living  mean- 
while. The  third  or  fourth  year  they  receive  $142.80,  Clerks,  after 
serving  such  an  apprenticeship,  receive  from  $285.00  to  $714  a  year, 
and  cashiers  from  $571.20  to  $1,190.  Business  hours  are  from  8  a.  m. 
to  7  p.  m.,  excepting  one  hour  at  noon. 

TRADES   IN    GOVERNMENT   EMPLOY. 

Wages  paid  by  the  week  of  sixty  to  ninety  hours  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Government 

employ  in  Saxe-Meiningen. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Averag 

$5  77 

5  77 

4  80 

1  83 

$1  42.  8 

1  25 

2  50 
2  85 
2  40 

$2  14 
3  50 

3  60 
3  70 
3  45 

1  50 

2  95 

Iron-worters : 

3  00 

3  10 

2  96 

printer's  wages. 

statement  showing  the  tvages  paid  per  tveek  of  sixty-sir  hours  to  printers  (conqyosilors,  press, 
men,  proof-readers,  i)'c. )  in  Sonnehtrg. 


Occupations. 


Bditnrs  

Publisliers. .. 
Proof-readeis 
Compositors  . 
Job  i)rlnteis. 
Devil 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$5  47 

$9  20 

3  50 

5  80 

4  28 

7  14  I 

3  57 

4  76 

3  33 

4  28 

1  19 

1  90 

Average. 


$6  71 

4  28 

5  22 
3  96 
2  93 
1  42 


538 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


COST   OF    LIVING    TO    THE   LABORING    CLASSES    AND    COMPARISON   OP 

"WAGES. 

The  following-  table  shows  the  price  of  articles  of  daily  consumption 
in  Sonneberg  and  vicinity;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  only  compara- 
tively few  of  the  articles  enumerated  are  ever  found  upon  the  laborer's 
table.  ^Vhat  these  classes  really  live  ui)on  and  how  they  live  will  be 
described  under  section  9. 

Table  nhowitig  the  retail  prices  nhich  ruled  for  the  articles  mentioned  in  Sonneberg  and 
vicinity  in  1878  {so  far  as  knoiin)  and  in  1884, 


Articles. 


Applf'S: 

Grt-en  (poor) per  peck.. 

Dried per  pouud.. 

BreiKl : 

White  (plain) do 

White  ( t'iincy) do 

Black  (rye)." do 

Butter do 

Cheese  : 

Swiss. do. .. 

^Native    per  piece.. 

Brai  dy,  45  per  cent,  tealles per  quart.. 

Beer do... 

Coflee : 

Kio per  pound.. 

Java do 

Mocha do 

Chi(u)ry  (suhstitute  for  coffee) do 

<jraius: 

Oats per  100  pounds.. 

Barley do 

Rye do  . . 

W'heat do ... . 

Rice per  pound.. 

rioui   do — 

Meal  : 

Kve 

Oat 


.do. 
do. 


Prices. 


1878. 


09 


1  19 

2  15 

3  00 
06 
07 

03 
08 
07 
09 
05 
04 
05 

02 


Potato do 

■Vermicelli do     . 

Peas per  quart.. 

Beans do 

Lentils do 

Fish : 

Herring,  Scotch each. . 

Carp per  pound.. 

Eel    do.... 

Trout do 

Flesh  : 

Beef do... 

Veal , do... 

Pork do. ... 

Mutton do 

Fowl: 

Geese do ! 

I'if^eons per  pair..  21 

Efrt's oach..i  12 

Milk per  quart. .'  04 

Oil: 

Salad  (poppv) per  pound..  21 

Sahid  (olive) do I  31 

liape-seed do  ...  12 

Petroleum do 05 

Potal  oes per  peck . .  06 

Sugar; 

Loaf per  pouud  13 

P<)\v<l<'red do i  12 

Brown do 11 

Salt: 

Coarse do ,  02 

Fine do. 

Starch do....  09 

Soda,  washing do !  03 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  539 

Tahle  showing  retail prive  which  ruhd  for  the  articles  mentioned,  tf-c. — Continued. 


Articles. 


Prices. 


1878.        1884, 


Soap,  wa.shing per  pound..  $0  10  $0  09 

Saueiliiaiit do 03  02 

Candles  : 

Stciuine  do  . .  25  23 

TiiUow do  ...|  14  14 

Vinegar per  quart..!  05  04 

Coal per  ton . . '  6  75  5  71 

Cokes do 5  71 

Wood :  i 

Hard percord.-i  8  17  i  7  91 

Soft do....  6  17  5  83 


By  the  table  above  it  appears  that  the  cost  of  the  articles  eunmerated 
does  not  differ  greatly  from  tliac  of  1S78,  when  the  hist  labor  report  was 
made  from  this  consulate.  At  that  time  food  prices  had  begun  to  ad- 
vance, owing  to  bad  seasons  and  distrust  in  political  and  commercial 
affairs,  and  tbe  advance' continued  until  1881,  when  prices  had  become 
from  30  to  50  per  cent,  higher  than  they  are  at  present. 

During  that  time,  also,  the  rates  of  wages  fell,  so  that  the  day  laborer 
in  1880  and  1881,  earning  on  an  average  1:10  per  cent,  less  than  usual  and 
paying  40  per  cent,  more  for  provisions,  found  his  usually  hard  life 
unusually  severe. 

But  during  the  last  three  years,  thanks  to  better  harvests  and  a  feel- 
ing of  greater  security  in  politics  and  trade,  food  prices  and  wages  have 
about  resumed  their  former  condition.  But  in  1878  all  meat  prices  had 
become  fabulously  high,  for  this  region,  and  still  remain  so. 

An  economist  in  Sonneberg  states  the  ])resent  annual  cost  of  living 
to  the  laboring  classes  for  afamily  of  livei)ersons  (two  adults  and  three 
chiklreu)  as  follows:  Kent,  $14.28;  food,  $71.40 ;  clothing,  $14.28;  to- 
tal, $99.96. 

This  estimate  makes  no  allowance  for  fuel,  taxes,  doctors'  bills  and 
the  unavoidable  incidentals. 

The  conditions  of  labor  are  very  nearly  the  same  that  they  were  six 
years  ago,  excejjting  as  the  toy  industry  is  affected  by  the  altered  tar- 
iff's. Until  the  raising  of  the  duties  in  Germany  in  1879,  the  tariffs  on 
toj'S  in  nearly  all  the  foreign  countries  were  low.  Following  that,  France 
was  the  first  to  increase  the  duty  thereon  from  10  percent,  ad  valorem 
to  $11.58  per  100  kilograms  (200  lbs.),  which,  on  the  inferior  class  of 
these  goods,  was  equal  to  about  100  i)er  cent.  Austria  soon  followed 
with  a  tariff  of  100  florins  ($40.70)  per  100  kilograms,  equal,  as  far  as 
the  cheaper  toys  are  concerned,  to  quite  200  per  cent.  Italy  introduced 
a  rate  of  duty  similar  to  that  of  France ;  Sweden  tripled  her  tariff",  and 
the  course  of  tariff* legislation  in  the  United  States  is  watched  with  great 
anxiety. 

The  consequence  has  been  that  Sonneberg  sends  almost  nothing  to 
Austria,  Italy,  and  Sweden,  and  less  than  half  of  its  former  exports  to 
France.  The  loss  is  estimated  at  rising  $1,190,000,  and  nuiny  skilled 
workmen  are  either  without  employment  or  else  have  sought  occupa- 
tion abroad.  The  trade,  however,  with  England  and  the  United  States 
seems  to  be  but  little  affected. 

It  may  be  said  in  passing  that  the  manufacturers  in  this  vicinity  gen- 
erall;y  disapprove  of  the  exclusion  of  the  American  pig. 


540 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


THE   BEET- SUGAR  INDUSTRY. 

MeanwLile  a  new  industry,  that  of  beet-sugar  making,  has  sprung  up 
in  TliuriDgiii,  and  Las  assumed  remarkable  ])roportious  within  the  last 
two  or  three  years.  Laxt  autumn  no  less  than  twenty-one  rehneries 
were  started,  principally  in  the  vicinity  of  Erfurt,  and  at  the  present 
time  thirty-two  more  are  in  process  of  erection.  This  is  admitted  to  be 
an  abnoi  nial  state  of  things,  and  competition  has  reached  so  high  a 
point  that  a  crisis  is  almost  inevitable. 

In  these  factories  nniles  receive  about  40  cents  a  day,  females  20  cents, 
mechanics  oO  cents,  and  boys  from  14  to  16  years  of  age  23.8  cents,  all 
for  11  hour.s'  work. 

COMPOSITION   OF   THE   POPULATION. 


At  this  point  it  may  be  serviceable  to  glance  at  the  composition  of 
the  ]ioj)n]ation  in  the  district,  and  for  tiiis  purpose  we  will  take  the 
Dukedom  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  since  ofticial  statistics  can  be  consulted. 
The  dukedom  embraces  about  one-sixth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  con- 
sular districts. 


shouhx/  the  popnlalion,  according  1o  calling  and  condition,  in   the  Dulcedom  of 
•iitiingen  for  tlie  years  1871,  1875,  1880,  and  1883;  alw,  the  gain  or  loss  per  cent. 


Statenunf 

Saxe-  Meiiiingen  for  the  yeuic  ^u.  i,  i^iu,  iw._^/,  imn.  i.^w.j,  m-^w,  ■.n  .vm.i  w.  .. 
in  the  condition  of  the  several  callings  in  1863  as  compared  with  that  of  1880. 


Calling. 


Agriculture,  cattle-raising: 

Producers 

Gardening,  forestry,  hunting,  and  fish- 
ing: 

Servants 

Dei)eudi-iit8 

Mining,  fou n d ries,  productive  industries, 
and  buililing  trades : 

Producers 

Servants 

Dependents 

Trade  and  cotiimerce : 

Pn  iducers 

Servants  

Dependents. 

Domestic  service  and  day  labor: 

Prudiiceis 

Servants       

Dependents 

Military,  court,  civil  service,  and  the 
prott  ssiiins  : 

Producers 

Servants 

Dependents 

Without  calling: 

Self-sii])porting  and  members  of  in- 
stitutions   

Servants  

Dependents 

Total  self-supporting 

Total  servants    

Total  dependents 

Total  population 


Population  as  to  calling  and  condition. 


1883. 


37,  014 


352 
34,  566 


36,  47G 

1,198 

55, 133 

5,288 

929 

8,929 

4,434 

5 

5,515 


4,009 
49G 

4,777 


5,293 

3-27 

1,  CIO 


92,  r,u 

3,  307 

110,530 


206,  351 


1880. 


17,  616 


6,159 
31,  554 


33,915 

1.585 

55,  949 

5, 451 

1,359 

10,  838 

8,944 

105 

14,  090 


4,032 

620 

5,276 


4,984 

284 

4,314 


74,  9J2 

10,112 

122,  021 


207,  075 


1875. 


15,  870 


4,  252 
29,  963 


31,  350 

1.509 

53,  948 

4,696 
1,241 
9,065 

9,366 

84 
14,  854 


3,  698 

594 

5,030 


5,  935 

293 

2,746 


70,915 

7,973 

115,506 


194,  494 


1871. 


14,  046 


5,011 
28,  714 


31,019 

1,743 

50,  014 

4,409 
1,221 
8,611 

11,061 

121 

15,329 


3,981 

660 

5,084 


4,733 

2.55 

1,944 


1883  and  1880  com- 
pared. 


Gain. 


Loss. 


Per  cent    Per  cent. 


110.11 


6.19 


69,  250 

9,011 

109,  696 


187,957 


23.44 


3.8 


101. 71 


0.57 


This  table  shows,  first,  a  rapid  gain  in  i)opulati()n  from  1875  to  1880, 
which  had  begun  to  fall  off  in  1883.  The  character  of  their  occupation 
(which  does  not  confine  the  people  to  any  one  location)  and  emigratioa 
account  i)rincipally  for  these  changes. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  541 

Secondly,  as  between  1883  and  1880,  there  was  a  fallinf^  ofif  in  the  con- 
dition of  trade  and  commerce  of  3.8  i)er  cent.,  and  in  the  condition  of 
domestic  and  da.y  hibor  of  101.71  per  cent.  Souneberg  was  the  only 
exception  to  the  decline  in  trade,  which  showed  a  gain  of  5.03  })er 
cent.  Taking  the  dnkedoin  together  there  was  a  gain  in  the  condi- 
tion of  prodnctive  industry  represented  by  23.44  per  cent.  This  allows 
for  those  without  calling  or  profession,  so  far  as  they  consist  of  pris- 
oners, inmates  of  asylums  and  hospitals,  and  confirmed  invalids.  Of 
these  classes  there  are  21  males  and  39  females  who  are  invalids;  110 
males  and  103  females  in  poor-houses,  of  whom  20  are  boys  and  10  are 
girls  under  fonrteen  years  of  age;  170  males  and  144  females  in  infirma- 
ries and  insane  asylums,  and  252  males  and  3  females  in  houses  of  cor- 
rection. 

Of  the  population  in  1883  (206,351),  35,030  males  and  35,417  females 
were  under  fourteen  years  of  age. 

HABITS   OF  THE  WORKING  CLASSES. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  may  be  described  as  plodding. 
They  do  not  work  briskly,  but  they  are,  as  a  rule,  industrious,  and  do 
not  require  watching  to  prevent  idling.  They  are  peaceably  disposed, 
but  they  are  neither  thrifty  nor  enterprising.  Their  indulgence  in  beer 
and  tobacco  is  a  source  of  both  physical  and  financial  weakness  to  tliem, 
and  hinders  the  prosperity  of  most  of  them.  In  politics  they  are  mostly 
Social  Democrats,  but  they  lack  both  the  fire  and  zeal  to  make  their 
opinions  either  ettective  or  dangerous. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYE   AND  EMPLOYER,  AND  THE  ORGANIZED 

CONDITION   OF   LABOR. 

The  feeling  which  prevails  between  the  employes  and  the  employers 
is  pretty  well  indicated  by  the  organized  condition  of  labor.  This  or- 
ganization seems  to  be  based  on  the  theory  that  the  employeis  are 
leagued  against  the  working  people,  and  that  consequently  the  latter 
must  be  united  against  the  former.  So  far  as  the  employers  are  con- 
cerned I  do  not  think  that  this  theory  is  wholly  just.  The  prominent 
characteristic  of  business  in  this  district  is  that  of  intense  comi)etition. 
The  working  people  feel  this  first  of  all  in  reduced  i)ay.  The  result  is 
the  formation  of  laborers'  clubs  for  self  protection,  in  which  nearly  every 
occupation  is  represented,  but  in  which  rarely  more  than  one  occupation 
unites  in  the  same  club.  These  clubs  are  for  the  present  largely  social, 
in  which  much  beer  is  consumed,  and  from  which  more  mischief  is  there- 
fore likely  to  proceed. 

But  contrary  to  natural  inference  the  status  of  the  working  people 
is  outwardly  quiet.  It  is  very  rarely  that  any  open  demonstration  for 
the  improvement  of  their  condition  is  made.  1  assign  this  partly  to 
their  temperament,  and  partly  to  a  feeling  of  hopelessness  of  accom- 
plishing anything  against  united  capital. 

It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  the  situation  is  growing  yearly 
more  imminent.  The  working  people  are  becoming  better  educated. 
Through  intercourse  with  representatives  of  their  own  class  who  have 
improved  their  condition  abroad  they  are  enabled  to  reason  more  intel- 
ligently upon  their  comparative  circumstances  and  the  causes  of  them. 
They  see  that  the  very  wealth  which  they  claim  is  united  against  them 
is  largely  the  product  of  their  own  labor.  They  claim,  also,  that  the 
army,  while  it  is  their  pride  and  the  acknowledged  bulwark  of  the  na- 


642  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

tion,  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  their  own  prosperity.  However  fallacious 
their  reasoning:  may  be,  they  do  not  admit  tlie  fallacy  nor  submit  cheer- 
fully to  the  situation. 

Both  local  and  ijeneral  laws  are  ajiainst  unrestrained  action  on  the 
part  of  these  or.i4aiiizations,  and  they  are  subject  to  police  surveillance  if 
their  sjieech  becomes  too  radical. 

STRIKES  AND   THEIR  EFFECTS. 

Strikes  are  not  frequent  in  this  region.  The  oidy  one  of  any  conse- 
quence the  ])ast  year  lias  been  that  of  the  (>00em])loyes  in  the  iiosiery  fac- 
tory of  Heinrich  Sclioppcr,  in  Zeulenroda.  The  cause  was  a  reduction 
of  wages.     Tlie  pro])iietor  was  uncompromising  and  carried  his  point. 

Arbitration,  as  a  means  of  settlement,  is  not  often  resorted  lo.  The 
employer  usually  bides  his  time,  linowing  that  his  policy  in  the  past  has 
not  enabled  them  to  accumulate  the  means  of  indulging-  in  idleness. 
The  reserve  even  of  black  bread  and  potatoes  is  not  large,  and  if  there 
is  not  a  summary  lockout,  as  in  so  many  cases  in  Saxony  the  past 
winter,  the  operatives  are  made  in  various  ways  to  feel  that  they  must 
return  to  work  at  the  old  rates  or  starve. 

The  effects  of  strikes  on  labor  in  Thuringia  have  not  been  favorable 
to  their  repetition,  either  as  regards  the  emi)loj'er  or  the  emi)loyed.  As 
a  rule  these  latter  have  remained  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in  idleness, 
have  spent  their  reserve,  if  they  had  any,  have  entailed  still  greater 
poverty  and  wretchedness  on  their  families,  and  finally,  most  likely,  re- 
turned to  labor  at  the  em])loyer's  terms,  but  with  such  an  embittered 
feeling"  that  more  than  one  i)roprietor  wishes  that  he  could  consistently 
have  made  a  concession  and  kept  the  former  good  Avill  of  his  workmen. 

CONDITIONS     OF   PrECHASFS   AND   PAYMENT   OF   WAGES. 

Many  employers  keep  stocks  of  goods  on  hand,  principally  the  neces- 
saries of  life,  and  a(;counts  are  o])ened  with  employes,  wliich  are  not 
allowed  to  exceed  the  wages  due,  and  which  are  settled  every  jiay-day. 
Employes  complain  that  tlu^  seller  thus  makes  them  ])ay  a  double  })r<)lit, 
one  on  the  price  of  the  goods  and  another  on  the  wages  at  which  they 
are  employed.  Theoretically  the  workman  is  fiee  to  ])urchase  the  nec- 
essaries of  life  where  he  chooses,  but  i)ractically,  owing"  to  the  jiractice 
mentioned  above,  the  choice  is  a  singularly  constrained  one. 

Day  laborers  are  paid  weekly  and  piece  workmen  fortnightly,  as  a 
rule,  and  in  the  currency  of  the  Emi)ire. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

There  are  in  Germany  various  kinds  of  co-oi)erative  and  economical 
societies,  but  those  wliich  are  founded  upon  tlie  well-known  Schulze- 
Delitzsch  system  have  best  commended  themselves  to  the  wants  of  the 
people.  There  are  about  '^,i'>r){)  of  these  societies  in  the  Kmi)ire,  which 
rei)ort  regularly  to  the  central  oHice,  with  a  membership  of  1,1*00,000. 
Their  business  tiansactions,  so  far  as  they  are  mad(i  public,  amount 
now  to  about  .'j!;100,0()(),0(iO  yearly,  and  their  stock  in  trade,  with  which 
the  business  is  carried  on,  a'mouiits  to  $155,000,000,  of  which  $50,000,000 
may  be  classed  as  reserve  funds,  and  $105,000,000  as  loaned  capital. 

Of  these  co-ojjerative  societies  the  two  most  i)atr()nized  by  the  peo- 
ple are  the  Varschussr^ereinc  (cash-advance  associations,  or  co-operative 
credit  unions),  for  banking  purposes,  and  the  Consumvereine  (provisions 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


543 


unions),  en^aji^ed  in  furnishing;  the  necessaries  of  life.  Of  the  former 
there  are  905  in  Germany,  with  a  membership  of  401,153  (420,140  males 
and  41,013  females),  and  of  the  latter  there  are  G25,  with  a  membership 
of  about  3011,000,  of  whom  about  one  seventh  are  women.  Both  of 
these  societies  are  poinilar  in  Thuringia,  where  there  are  74  of  the 
credit  associations  and  75  provisions  unions.  Membership  is  acquired 
iu  each  by  the  payment  of  a  fee,  which  varies  for  different  localities. 
On  security  furnished  by  the  members  capital  is  borrowed,  or  supplies 
purchased,  and  with  this  capital  or  supi)lies  the  business  is  carried  on. 
Members  share  pro  rata  in  the  dividends,  and  are  also  often  the  lenders 
of  the  capital  to  the  unions. 

Credit  unions. — The  following  table  presents  a  com])arative  view  of 
these  unions  (  VarscJmssi'ereine)  in  Germany  from  187()  to  1882.  In  1859 
there  were  80  of  the  unions,  with  a  membership  of  18,076,  and  their 
funds,  loaned  and  renewed,  amounted  to  $3,(t98,577.  Since  1859  the 
dividends  have  varied  from  3  per  cent,  to  28  per  cent.,  averaging  0^  per 
cent : 


Table  showing  the  condition  of  co-operatire  credit  unio7is  (  Varschussvereine)  in  Germany 

from  1876  to  1H82. 


Tear. 

Number 

of 
unions. 

Mem- 
bers. 

Loaned  funds. 

Own  funds,  in- 
cluding re- 
serves. 

Depcsits. 

Per  cent. 

of    OWBid 

to  other 
luuils. 

Divi- 
dends. 

1876 

806 

431   21fi 

*351    -Ml  304  75 

$?4,  722,  791  50 
27,675,248  25 
29,183,842  25 
29,028,512  50 
29.  606,  857  00 
29,942,541  75 
30, 367, 229  75 

$83,618,145  25 
87,  754,  775  75 
86.  648,  853  25 
86,791,368  75 
91,112,486  25 

93,  574,  603  50 

94,  844,  823  00 

29.57 
31.54 
33.  68 
33.44 
32.  49 
31.99 
32.  01 

Per  cent. 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 

1877 

929  ^468,  <i52  |  387,  600,  620  75 
918    48(',  ,107  1  3fi4,  000,  933  25 
899   459,  ('33  '  349.  530,  207  50 
906    460  fi.'lfi      .-ifil    PSl    ."^79  25 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

902 
9U5 

462,212 
461, 153 

368,  001,  243  50 
375,  591,  858  75 

Provisions  unions. — The  make-up  and  condition  of  the  Sonneberg 
Provisions  Union  [Consumverein)  at  the  end  of  1883  may  be  taken  as  a 
sample  of  these  societies.  Its  membership  consisted  of  302  males  and 
40  females,  divided  as  follows:  Farmers,  gardeners,  and  foresters,  8; 
manufacturers  and  builders,  10;  handworkers,  135  males  and  4  females; 
operatives,  40 ;  merchants,  13  males  and  0  females;  clerks,  17;  inn- 
keepers, 5  males  and  2  females ;  railway,  ])ost,  and  telegraph  officers 
and  railway  laliorers,  10  males  and  1  female;  servants,  3  males  ami  5 
females:  physicians,  teachers,  artists,  state,  church,  and  municipal  of- 
ficers, 47  males  and  7  females ;  renters,  2  males  and  15  females.  During 
the  year  mentioned  20  new  members  were  received  and  18  lost,  by  death, 
removals,  &c.  During  the  last  three  years  the  divideiuls  have  aver- 
aged 20  per  cent.,  and  during  the  ten  years  of  the  union's  existence 
they  have  averaged  15.4  i)er  cent.  At  present  goods  are  sold  only  to 
members,  and  the  rule  is  found  to  work  favorably  in  increasing  the 
membersliip. 

Comparatively  few  los.ses  are  sustained  by  these  organizations,  and  it 
may  be  safely  said  that  they  have  realize<l  the  object  of  their  fouixler, 
particularly  the  provisions  unions,  in  enabling  working  peoiile  to  ])ur- 
chase  the  necessaries  of  life  at  less  cost  than  through  the  regular  busi- 
ness channels. 

Since  they  are  patronized  by  the  more  prudent  and  cash  jiaying 
classes  of  people,  it  follows  that  their  effect  has  been  rather  against 
general  trade,  but  this  effect  is  mainly  theoretical,  and  is  not  such  as 


544  LABOR   IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

can  be  formulated.  In  Meiiiinjjen  at  the  present  time  there  is  a  contest 
between  the  mercljants  and  the  provisions  union  on  the  gronud  that 
the  success  of  the  latter  makes  competition  among  the  former  too  great 
for  fair  ])rofits. 

Besides  the  societies  mentioned,  there  are  numerous  labor  unions  and 
woi Icing-people's  clubs,  wiiose  principles  are  professedly  co  operative, 
but  Avhose  general  theories  are  too  radical  and  their  influence  too  de- 
structive to  have  materially  benelited  either  themselves  or  the  state. 

GrENERAl,   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

The  working  people  are  tenacious  of  land  and  usually  try  to  control 
a  small  piece  for  raising  potatoes.  They  buy  it  if  the^'  are  able  to  do  so, 
but  oftener  they  lent  it,  at  from  $1.19  to  $14.28  per  acre,  the  average 
price  being  about  $5.52. 

Their  houses  are  oftener  of  brick  than  of  wood,  and  contain  on  an 
average  three  rooms :  kitchen,  sleei)ing  room,  and  spare  room.  In  many 
cases  the  cow  is  kei)t  in  an  end  ot  the  same  building,  and  the  manure 
pile  is  in  the  door-yard.     Such  a  house  costs  from  $300  to  $500. 

HOW   AGRICULTURAL  LABORERS   LIVE. 

I  asked  a  member  of  the  local  board  of  agriculture  what  the  laboring 
people  lived  upon  in  this  vicinity.  His  reply  was  "Potatoes,  peas,  len- 
tils, and  bacon,  with  coflee  and  beer."  The  coffee,  I  should  add,  is  chic- 
ory, and  the  beer  is  of  an  inferior  quality.  I  think  he  should  have  in- 
cluded black  bread  (rye),  although  it  is  a  fact  that  they  eat  but  very 
ittle  of  it  in  comparison  with  the  quantity  of  potatoes. 

THE   CASE   OF   A  WOMAN   FIELD   LABORER. 

"May  I  ask  you  some  questions  about  your  work?"  I  inquired  of  a 
woman  whom  I  found  hoeing  in  the  held  a  few  days  ago  in  company 
with  several  others.  "Certainly,"  she  replied,  and  the  following  con- 
versation was  held,  which  I  report  as  faithfully  as  I  can : 

Question.  How  old  are  you? — Answer.  Five  and  sixty. 

Q.  And  how  long  have  you  done  ihis  kind  of  work? — A.  Sixty  years;  only  I  began 
with  pulling  weeds  in  the  potato  tield. 

Q.  Have  you  a  family  ? — A.  Yes;  a  husband  and  three  children. 

Q.  An<l  where  are  they? — A.  My  nuin  is  sick  with  rheumatism,  my  girl  is  in  the 
mill,  and  my  two  boys  are  in  the  army. 

Q.  What  pay  do  you  get  for  this  work? — A.  For  eleven  hours'  work  19  cents,  and 
one  mea'  of  bread  and  meat.  We  begin  work  at  six  in  the  morning,  and  often  have 
Bchnayips  or  coHeo  at  nine. 

Q  How  numy  days  in  the  year  do  you  work? — A.  Every  day.  When  not  em- 
ployed for  pay,  I  gather  wood  in  the  forest  for  my  kitchen,  or  grass,  wherever  I  can 
find  it.  for  my  cow.* 

Q.  And  now  will  you  tell  me  what  your  necessary  expenses  are  ? — A.  That  is  my 
private  nffair. 

Q.  Pardon  me,  ard  so  are  most  of  the  questions  that  you  have  already  answered. — 
A.    Well,  then,  I  pay  for  rent  GO  marks  [$l4.-28].     For  food  I  reckon ■' 

Q.  Please  imagine  that  your  children  are  all  at  home. — A.  Then  let  Ahnah  [her 
companion  in  the  held]  answer.     Her  children  are  all  at  home. 

A.  (Ahnah.)  Yes,  but  I  have  four. 

*  The  forests  here  belong  to  the  ducal  domain,  and  the  poor  people  have  the  priv- 
ilege of  gathering  the  dead  wood,  which  they  l)ear  lunne  in  baskets  on  their  backs. 
With  a  sickle  very  many  of  them  also  gather  hay  enough  to  keep  a  cow  through  the 
winter,  which  is  Ijorne  homo  in  the  same  way.  Ninety-nine  hundredths  of  this  work  ia 
done  by  women. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  545 

Q.  And  what  does  it  cost  you  to  live? — A.  For  food  for  six  persons,  four  of  them 
children,  we  reckon  :550  niaiks  [iJifS.^O].  Clotliing  for  the  family,  70  marks  [$16. (iO]. 
House  rent,  three  rooms,  tiO  nuirks[$14  '28]." 

Q.  That  makes  4'^0  marks  [i|114.'2l],  but  if  you  should  work  every  working  day 
at  tliese  wages  [U)  cents]  yon  would  receive  only  240  marks  [$57]. — A.  But  that  is 
not  all.  Our  taxes  [r<mt  on  a  half  acre  of  land,  on  our  earnings,  on  one  cow,  and  for 
the  two  children  in  school,  are  more  than  30  marks  [iji/.H]. 

Q.  But  the  balance  in  your  statement  is  all  on  the  wrong  side.  Then  there  is 
sickness  to  be  provided  for,  and  fuel,  and  many  necessary  incidental  expenses.  How 
do  you  do  it? — A.  We  don't  indulge  in  incidentals,  and  rarely  call  a  doctor.  We 
peo])le  must  hoe  our  row  if  it  leads  through  tire.  As  for  fuel,  I  and  the  children 
gather  it  in  tlie  forest,  same  as  all  of  my  class  do.  But,  thank  God,  my  nuin  is  handy 
with  tools,  and  he  usually  earns  in  a  year  a  third  more  money  than  I  do.  Then  the 
children  do  ])iece-work  out  of  school  hours  for  the  toy-makers,  enough  to  buy  their 
books  at  least,  and  all  together  we  are  able  to  have  meat  once  a  week,  beer  daily, 
and  cake  at  Christnuts. 

(Another  woman,  interrupting  :)  "Yes,  and  she  has  a  cow  and  can  have  butter  on 
her  bread,  but  the  most  of  us  have  neither  butter  nor  milk,  and  live  on  nothing  but 
potatoes  and  chicory,  with  beer  and  sausage  may  be  on  holidays.  Our  families  are 
as  large  as  hers,  or  larger,  and  our  men  [husbands]  are  uot  handy  with  tools,  either." 

I  thanked  them  for  the  information  they  had  given  me. 

"You  go  to  church  on  Sumlays?"  I  said,  as  I  was  nu)ving  away. 

"If  it  storms,  and  there  is  no  work  to  be  done,"  was  the  reply. 

CONDITION   OF   MECHANICS. 

Workmen  at  trades,  inclutlii)g  those  working  for  tbe  toy  and  other 
manufacturers,  earn,  on  an  average,  under  $200  a  year,  and  their  ex- 
penses, including  taxes,  &c.,  are  a  little  larger  than  those  mentioned 
above. 

Large  families  are  the  rule,  and  each  member  must  contribute  its 
quota  towards  the  expenses  of  living.  One  family  in  Sonneberg  con- 
tains twenty-one  children,  all  by  the  same  parents  The  population  of 
Germany  increases,  notwithstanding  its  immense  emigration. 

I  see  but  little  prospect  of  these  people  bettering  their  condition  in 
this  country.     Emigration  would  be  much  larger  but  for  a  lack  of  means. 

The  men  dress  in  home-made  clothing,  usually  black  and  coarse;  the 
women  in  waist  and  petticoat  (in  summer  neither  shoes,  stockings,  nor 
underclothing),  and  the  children  in  jacket  and  trowsers  of  coarse  stuff. 
The  holiday  dress  for  the  women  is  full,  short  skirts,  with  a  gay  ker- 
chief over  the  head  and  shoulders. 

HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   PEOPLE. 

Morally,  they  are  honest  people,  but  they  are  superstitious,  and  at  the 
same  time  uot  over  religious.  If  they  fail  to  say  "  Gesundheit .'"  (Health !) 
when  a  person  sneezes,  they  confidently  count  on  dying  within  the  year. 

Physically,  they  are  hardy,  but  they  are  not  so  robust  as  the  ideal 
Teuton,  and  are  accustomed  to  exposure. 

Both  morally  and  physically  T  think  they  are  injured  by  the  amount 
of  beer,  tobacco,  and  snuff  that  they  consume,  and  I  think  these  may  be 
salely  mentioned  as  enemies  to  their  progress.  The  beer  habit  is  accom- 
panied by  but  little  intoxication,  but  it  is  attended  by  quite  as  much 
X)overty  and  general  wretchedness  as  is  the  whisky  habit  in  other  coun- 
tries. In  Sonneberg,  with  a  population  of  9,500,  there  is  an  annual  con- 
sumption of  over  2,500,000  quarts  of  beer,  or  more  than  2  quarts  per 
day  for  each  male  person,  including  children. 

Snuff  taking  is  a  very  common  habit,  but  it  is  confined  principally  to 
the  men. 

Six  thousand  million  cigars  were  consumed  in  Germany  in  1883,  weigh- 
ing 37,5C5  tons.  The  total  weight  of  tobacco  consumed  was  74,100  tons. 
92  A — LAB 35 


546  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

Tlinrin^iii  consumed  lier  share.     The  average  cost  of  these  cigars  was 
4^  i)teiiiiige  (9.1)  mills),  or  less  than  one  cent  apiece. 

Ill  beer  saloons,  hotels,  milway-station  waiting-rooms,  and  other 
]inl)lic  j)laces,  boxes  are  exposed  into  which  smokers  are  refinested  to 
throw  their  cigar-stubs  "  in  aid  of  the  jioor."  An  intelligent  German 
assures  me  that  these  are  then  collected  and  converted  into  snutt"  and 
cigaiettes,  but  it  does  not  a])i)ear  what  share  of  the  profits  fall  to  the 
poor. 

SAFETY  OF  EMPLOYES — IN  CASE  OF  ACCIDENT  OR  DISABILITY — THEIR 
MORAL  AND  PHYSICAL  WELFARE — RELATIONS  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER 
AND  EMPLOYED. 

Safety  of  employ h. — As  a  rule,  the  safety  of  the  emjiloye  is  secondary, 
and  depends  mainly  upon  the  means  and  precautions  used  for  the  safety 
of  the  employer's  proi)erty.  lu  nearly  all  factories  and  mills  the  usual 
watchmen  are  emi)loyed,  and  means  more  or  less  efficient  are  generally 
provided  for  the  extinction  of  fire.  Hand  extinguishers  are  quite  com- 
mon. In  the  larger  factories  outside  escapes  are  sometimes  ])rovided, 
but  these  are  not  common.  Mining  is  conducted  on  a  limited  scale 
in  Thuringia,  and  in  so  i)rimitive  a  manner  that  it  caimot  be  said  that 
any  special  nu'ans  are  employed  for  the  safety  of  the  miner.  Ou  rail- 
ways the  means  of  safety  relate  almost  entirely  to  the  i)assenger,  and 
with  this  the  employe  is  constantly  exercised.  In  the  Schoenau  Porcelain 
^^'orks,  at  Hiittensteinach,  each  room  has  a  double  egress,  and  the  inte- 
riors are  all  lighted  by  electricity  from  the  outside.  Each  room  has  also 
its  special  overseer,  charged  not  only  with  the  conduct  of  the  work  in 
it,  but  also  with  the  oversight  of  all  workmen  who  may  be  engaged  in 
work  that  involves  any  special  risk  or  danger. 

In  cane  of  accident  or  disahilify. — No  systematic  or  general  provisions 
are  made  by  the  employers  in  this  district  for  the  aid  of  their  sick  or  dis- 
abled employees.  It  is  only  in  rare  instances  that  asylums  or  hos[)ital8 
are  provided — never,  in  fact,  except  it  may  be  in  connection  with  the 
local  public  almshouse  or  hospital. 

But  there  is  a  method  of  insurance  now  coming  into  use  by  which 
the  workman  may  insure  himself,  or  the  employer  his  em])loyes,  de- 
ducting the  premiums  from  their  daily  wages.  It  is  called  the  Zurich 
Ac(ndent  Assurance  Society,  and  is  strikingly  like  the  system  which 
Prince  Bismarck  has  striven  to  make  obligatory  u|i()n  all  manufact- 
urers. 

The  persons  that  are  insurable  in  this  society  are  divided  into  twelve 
classes,  and  the  i)remiums  vary  according  to  the  supposed  risks  to 
which  the  individuals  of  the  class  aie  exposed.  There  are  also  three 
evehtualities  on  which  insurance  is  effected,  namely,  death,  permanent 
invalidity,  and  temj)<)rary  disability,  and  the  ])remiums  vary  again  in 
ea(;h  of  these  cases.  Policies  are  also  issued  on  the  basis  of  a  stipulated 
sum,  or  ui)on  that  of  the  laborer's  daily  wages,  and  in  this  latter  case 
his  wages  go  on  in  case  of  illness  or  disability. 

I'ersons  under  15  years  of  age  and  over  0.1;  jiersons  suffering  from 
chronic  or  incurable  diseases;  workmen  in  coal  mines,  and  e(|ucstriau 
l)erfornieis.  acrobats,  aeronauts,  tightrope  walkers,  animal  tamers,  and 
the  like,  are  not  admitted  to  its  jtrivileges. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  insurance,  for  present  purposes, 
is  that  which  is  based  upon  the  laborer's  daily  wages.  He  may  be  in- 
sured for  from  one  to  lixc  times  his  <laily  ])ay,  the  calculations  being 
made  upon  the  basis  of  three  hundred  working  days  in  the  year. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


547 


Suppose  ;i  workniiiii  to  receive  62i  cents  a  day.  For  a  year  of  three 
buiulred  woikiiig  days  he  wouhl  receive  $187.50.  By  paying  a  yearly 
preniiuni  his  heirs  may  receive  that  amount  in  case  of  his  <leatl),  or  he 
himself  may  receive  his  daily  wages  in  case  of  a  disabling  accident  dur- 
ing the  disability.  He  may  be  insured  for  one  and  a  halt,  twice, thrice, 
or  Hve  times  his  wages,  and  be  pai<l  accordingly.  If  he  is  a  tanner,  for 
example,  he  will  i)ay  a  yearly  premium  of  $+.50  for  eacii  $1,000  of  single- 
rate  insurance.  If  he  is  insured  for  double  his  daily  wages  the  i)remium 
is  $0,  and  for  three  times  his  wages  the  premium  is  $7. 

Tiie  following  table  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  workmen  are 
divided  into  "  danger  classes,"  and  the  yearly  ])remiums  which  they  must 
pay  on  every  $1,000  to  be  insured  against  all  three  eventualities,  on  the 
basis  of  their  daily  wages  and  the  double  and  treble  thereof: 

Laborers^  wage  insurance. 


Subjects,  such  as — 

Danger  class. 

Single 
preniiam. 

Double  wage 
premium. 

Treble  wage 
premium. 

I 

$3  50 
4  50 

6  00 

7  00 

8  50 
10  50 
12  50 
15  00 
17  50 
19  50 
22  00 
25  50 

$4  50 

6  00 

7  50 
9  00 

11  50 
14  00 
17  00 
20  00 
23  00 
26  00 
29  00 
34  50 

$5  59 
7  00 

ir .-.. 

Ill    

8  70 

IV 

V 

10  50 

13  50 

VI 

17  00 

VII 

20  70 

VIII 

24  00 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

27  CO 

31  00 

34  80 

Conductors  and  brakomen. . . 

41  00 

Insurance  is  effected  on  the  three  eventualities  of  death,  permanent  invaliditj',  and  temporary  dis- 
ability. 

Insurance  against  temporary  disability  alone  is  not  allowed.  By  the  elimination  of  either  one  of 
these  eventualities  the  pieiiiiums  are  diniini.slied  from  30  to  50  per  cent. 

The  premiums  in  the  table  are  for  iuilividual  policies.  If  the  employer  insures  all  his  employSs  col- 
lectively, the  premiums  average  about  two  clas.sos  lower. 

Furthermore,  on  most  of  the  railways  a  system  of  bounties  prevails 
which  affords  some  aid  to  certain  officials  beyond  a  specified  age.  A 
certain  ])ercentage  is  also  deducted  from  the  wages  of  employes,  to  be 
held  in  trust  to  help  form  a  fund  from  which  widows  and  orphans  of 
employes  are  aided.  On  the  Werra  Railway  this  fund  is  formed  from 
such  sources  as  percentage  on  wages,  fees  charged  for  admission  to  the 
pension  class,  by  lines  imposed  for  breach  of  conduct,  &c.  It  now 
amounts  to  about  $25,000.  Last  year  the  pensions  jiaid  to  retired 
officers  amounted  to  $5,000;  to  widows,  $3,000,  and  to  children  $50 ; 
but  they  were  not  all  drawn  from  this  fund. 

The  Schoenau  Brothers  (porcelain  manufacturers)  have  established  a 
fund  which  insures  each  workman  free  medical  care  in  case  of  sickness 
and  a  decent  burial  in  case  of  death. 

Moral  and  physical  wel/\vre  of  employes. — This  firm  (Schoenau  Brothers) 
also  gives  special  attention  to  the  moral  and  physical  as  well  as  profes- 
sional welfare  of  their  employ«is.  Their  work  rooms  are  well  lighted 
and  ventilated,  i)rovided  with  facilities  for  bathing,  and  special  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  modeling,  and  decorating  are  given  to  api)rentices  two 
days  in  each  week,  their  wages  continuing  as  usual.  A  strike  has  never 
occurred  in  this  establishment. 

delations  hetween  employer  and  employed. — Taking  the  district  as  a 
whole  these  relations  are  those  of  master  and  servant  in  the  full  sense 
of  the  terms,  and  in  a  few  cases  they  are  especially  strained,  as  in  that 
of  the  hosiery  operatives  in  Zeulenioda,  already  referred  to.  Generally 
speaking,  there  is  but  little  intercourse  between  master  and  workman, 


548  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

except  that  which  is  involved  in  the  payment  of  the  lowest  possible 
wag^es,  and  insistinj;  on  the  fullest  ])ossible  results  dnring-  the  ten  or 
twelve  hours  of  daily  toil.  The  average  German  workman  in  this  re- 
gion is  a  remarkably  submissive  person. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS — TAXES — TENDENCY   OF   LEGISLATION. 

Folitical  rights. — There  is,  i)erhaps,  no  discrimination  against  work- 
ing people  as  such.  All  males  above  the  age  of  25  can  vote  for 
meuibers  of  the  national  Parliament,  but  in  order  to  vote  on  municipal 
and  local  affairs  one  must  become  a  burgher,  which  involves  the  i)ayment 
of  $7.07*  and  other  conditions  which  poor  i)eople  could  not  meet,  even 
if  they  could  that  of  the  citizenship  fee.  The  acquisition  of  citizenship 
by  the  poorer  classes  is  discouraged  by  the  authorities,  for  the  reason, 
among  others,  that  they  would  then  be  entitled  to  admission  to  the 
community  poor  houses  and  hospitals  in  cases  of  i)Overty  and  dlness. 

Notwithstanding  their  voting  power,  the  working  ])eo[)le  do  not  exert 
a  corresponding  influence  on  legislation.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact 
that  so  few  of  them  are  qualilied  for  seats  in  the  legislative  bodies,  and 
partly  to  the  fact  that  many  questions  that  seriously  affect  their  wel- 
fare are  not  made  subjects  of  legislation.  But  a  still  stronger  reason 
is,  I  think,  that  they  have  learned  to  appreciate  the  full  power  of  the 
ballot.  They  are  also  often  too  much  under  the  influence  of  their  em- 
ployers to  vote  boldly  and  unitedly  in  their  own  interests. 

Taxes. — The  share,  comparatively,  borne  by  the  working  people  in 
local  and  general  taxation  varies  with  the  locality.  The  workman's 
share  in  taxation  will  be  best  understood  by  glancing  at  the  system  on 
which  taxes  are  collected. 

(a)  Income  taxes. — Income  taxes  in  Sonneberg  are  collected  on  na- 
tional, city,  and  church  account.  Each  person,  as  below,  must  pay  the 
national  tax  12  times  a  year  (12  termine),  the  city  tax  11  times  a  year 
(14  termine).  and  the  church  tax  once  a  year  (1  termin),  nmking  together 
27  times  (27  termine)  that  income  taxes  are  collected.  The  same  are  col- 
lected 32  times  in  a  town  three  miles  from  Sonneberg,  and  in  other 
towns  a  still  greater,  and  in  others  a  less,  number  of  times. 

The  basis  of  this  taxation  is  as  follows:  Young  servant  girls,  ap- 
prentices, and  laborers,  who  earn  less  than  $28.50  a  year,  must  pay  2.8 
cents  i)er  termin— that  is,  27x2.8  cents,  which  equals  75.G  cents  a  year. 

Older  servants,  and  companions,  and  laborers,  who  earn  more  than 
$28.50  a  year,  must  i)ay  0  cents  i)er  termin,  or  27 x., 00=$  1.02  a  year. 

Workmen  in  manufactories  must  pay  from  8.8  to  29.7  cents  per 
termin =$2.37f  to  $8.01  per  year. 

Sub-overseers  without  private  means  must  i)ay  11.9  cents  per  termin, 
and  overseers  from  17.8  to  29.7  cents  per  termin  per  year. 

The  income  tax  is,  further,  as  follows: 


Income  tax  per  termin  on  an  income  of— 


$142.  80  to  $171.  36 

171.  :iO 

199  92 

19!l.  92 

242.  70 

242.  76 

285.  60 

2H.''..  60 

357.  00 

3.')7.  00 

4J8.  40 

428  40 

499.  80 

4'J'.).  80 

599.  76 

599.  70 

714.  00 

Cents. 


23.8 
29.7 
35.7 
47.6 
59.5 
71.4 
0.5.2 
$119 
142.8 


''This  is  the  present  fee  in  Sonneberg.     It  was  formerly  much  higher,  and  is  still 
So  in  many  towns.     The  proportion  of  burghers  lo  inhabitants  is  comparatively  small. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  549 

For  example,  a  person  whose  annual  salary  or  income  is  between 
$599.76  and  $714  pays  a  tax  of  $1.42.8  per  termin  =  $1.42.8x27=$38.55|. 

All  incomes  over  $714  pay  ^  per  cent,  of  the  income  per  termin.  Thus 
an  income  of  81,000  pays  a  yearly  tax  of  $07.50. 

(h)  Land  taxes. — Taxes  are  levied  on  land  according  to  its  kind,  vary- 
ing slightly  between  arable,  garden,  meadow,  pasture,  forest,  water- 
course, and  waste  land.  These  various  kinds  of  land  are  divided  into 
grades,  so  that  tirst  or  second  quality  arable  land,  for  example,  pays  a 
higher  tax  than  tliird  or  fourth  quality.  In  waste  land  six  grades  are 
recognized,  in  water  course  or  swamp  land  five  grades,  ami  in  each  of 
the  others  eight  grades. 

The  taxes  are  now  levied  at  1  percent,  and  upwards  of  the  estimated 
income  (not  the  worth)  of  the  land  per  termin,  there  being  from  4J  to  8 
land  termine,  and  the  aggregate  taxes  being  collected  twice,  once  for 
city  and  once  for  national  purposes.  In  Sonneberg  this  tax  is  now  1 
per  cent,  per  termin,  there  being  oHand  termine.  For  example,  the  es- 
timated yearly  income  of  an  acre  of  land  is  $20.  One  i)er  cent,  of  this 
would  be  20  cents,  which  would  be  collected  eleven  times  a  year  (five 
and  a  half  city  and  five  and  a  half  state),  making  the  tax  $2.20.*  The 
land  taxes  may  be  stated  as  averaging  between  9  and  11  per  cent,  an- 
nually. 

(e)  Building  taxes. — On  buildings  the  tax  is  about  2  per  cent,  of  the 
valuation  of  those  used  for  business  purposes,  and  4  per  cent,  on  dwell- 
ings. 

(d)  School  taxes. — In  the  public  schools  there  must  be  paid  for  each 
child  a  yearly  tax  of  $1.43 ;  for  two  children  from  the  same  family,  $1.90, 
and  for  three  or  more  children  from  the  same  family,  $2.38. 

.  (e)  Other  direct  taxes. — All  other  property,  as  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
tools,  &c.,  are  taxed  at  from  1  to  5  per  cent,  of  their  valuation. 

(/)  Indirect  taxes. — The  people  must,  in  effect,  pay  a  tax  on  their  beer, 
for  each  brewer  must  pay  a  national  tax  of  47.6  cents  on  each  hundred- 
weight of  barley-malt  used,  and  a  local  tax  of  21.2  cents  on  each  100 
quarts  of  beer  brewed.  Travelers  on  the  highways  (except  foot  people) 
pay  a  toll  of  about  1  cent  a  mile,  and  a  tax  is  levied  on  salt,  meat,  fowl, 
and  similar  articles  that  are  brought  from  out  of  the  dukedom.  But 
the  meat  and  fowl  tax  is  a  local  matter,  and  is  not  collected  in  every 
town. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  working  people  pay  quite  their  proportion  of 
the  taxes,  both  local  and  general. 

No  discretion  is  allowed  the  tax-gatherer,  and  often  the  very  bed  of 
the  peasant  is  taken  in  satisfaction  of  a  levy. 

Tendency  of  Icfpslaiion. — Ostensibly  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  re- 
gard to  labor  and  the  working  people  is  to  benefit  the  laborer,  but  in 
the  opinion  of  many  it  is  really  to  build  up  and  strengthen  the  military 
system  of  the  Emi)ire  at  the  laborer's  expense.  Many  working  people 
hold  this  opinion  and  cite  in  support  of  it  the  burdensome  taxes  which 
the  military  system  imposes  upon  them,  and  the  fact  that  their  sons  are 
seriously  hindered  from  learning  useful  trades  by  being  obliged  to  give 
the  best  years  of  their  life  to  the  army. 

But  I  believe  that  the  tendency  of  legislation  is  really,  although  al- 
most imperceptibly,  in  favor  of  the  working  people;  not  so  much  be- 
cause their  welfare  is  sought  as  a  paramount  end,  as  because  they  them- 
selves are  yearly  learning  to  exert  better  and  stronger  influences  in  their 
own  favor. 

Even  the  military  discipline  has  its  advantages.  Taking  these  young- 
men  and  putting  them  three  years  in  the  army,  where  they  are  obliged 


5r)0  LABOK  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

to  keep  both  their  persons  and  their  clothing  clean,  their  boots  polished, 
and  themselves  erect  and  civil,  is  a  iK)sitive  benefit  to  them,  whatever 
may  be  its  drawbacks. 

EMIGRATION   AND   ITS   CAUSES. 

Less  than  3,000  persons  are  known  to  have  emigrated  from  this  dis- 
trict duiiiig  the  last  five  years.  About  three  lonrths  of  these  were  agri- 
culturists and  day  laborers  with  small  means,  aud  one-fourth  artisans 
and  skilled  workmen  of  various  sorts. 

The  main  causes  assigned  both  by  those  who  emigrate  and  by  those 
who  wish  to  do  so  are  dissatisfaction  with  the  military  service  and  a 
desire  for  higher  wages.  But  simple  ambition,  and  a  desire  to  better 
their  condition,  and  a  wish  to  see  the  world  and  to  test  other  forms  of 
goveniment,  the  demand  for  more  room  and  less  competition,  are  also 
strong  reasons  with  many  who  make  no  public  expression  of  dissatisfac- 
tion with  any  institution  in  the  Fatherland. 

Part  II.— Female  Labor. 

This  is  the  second  sad  chapter  in  this  report. 

American  readers  will  hardly  understand  liow  it  can  be  that  the 
severest  part  of  existence  in  this  whole  region  falls  to  the  lot  of  woman. 
But  such  is  the  fact.  She  is  the  servant  and  the  burden-bearer.  The 
sentiment  of  chiv^alry  seems  to  be  entirely  wanting,  not  only  in  the 
treatment  which  she  receives,  but  also  in  the  feelings  with  which  she  is 
regarded.  The  position  of  wife  aud  mother  api)ears  to  shield  her  from 
no  hardshij),  nor  the  tact  of  her  sex  to  entitle  her  to  any  noble  consid- 
eration. Thus,  domestic  life,  as  a  rule,  among  the  laboring  classes,  is 
based  on  the  idea  of  mere  utility,  iu  which  the  affections  seem  to  play 
almost  as  little  part  as  they  do  in  the  different  portions  of  a  labor-sav- 
ing machine. 

Her  sex  is  liberally  represented  in  most  of  the  manual-labor  occupa- 
tions of  the  district,  even  to  mining  aud  foundry  work,  but  far  less  lib- 
erally in  any  branch  of  clerical  or  professional  life.  In  a  portion  of  this 
consulate  containing  a  population  of  100,309  males  and  100,042  females, 
I  find  by  the  latest  ofticial  statistics  that  for  euch  woman  who  supi)orts 
herself  in  civil  and  church  service  and  the  so-called  professions,  there 
are  five  and  a  fraction  who  sujjport  themselves  by  trade  and  commerce, 
nine  and  a  fraction  by  housework,  twenty-four  and  a  traction  by  mining, 
foundry,  and  building  work,  and  sixty  three  and  a  fraction  by  agricult- 
ure, cattle-raising,  forestry,  hunting,  and  fishing — proportions  that  only 
faintly  indicate  the  hard  lot  of  the  Thuringian  woman,  and,  I  might 
truthfully  say,  of  most  country  women  throughout  Germany. 

1  find,  moreover,  by  the  same  statistics,  109  women  making  their  liv- 
ing in  the  same  district  by  working  in  (juarries,  37l3  by  various  branches 
of  glass  blowing,  71  by  making  knives,  1  by  making  mathematical  in- 
struments, 1  by  making  musical  instruments,  1  as  a  chemist,  -14  by  mak- 
ing exi)losives,  1,907  as  pa])er-makers,  15  as  tanners,  54  as  bookbinders 
and  box-makers,  2  as  coopers,  35")  as  turners.  753  by  sewing,  3  as  nota- 
ries' clerks,  7G  as  teachers  of  all  kinds  and  grades  (inclnding  those  en- 
gaged in  libraries  and  as  musicians),  07  as  authors  and  writers  of  all 
kinds  (inclnding  copyists  aiul  coricspondcnts),  and  along  with  them  the 
inevitable  sixteen  tluuisand  one  hnndied  and  nine  who  make  their  living 
by  "  agricnltuie,  cattle-raising,  forestry,  hunting,  and  fishing." 

But  this  includes  only  those  described  as  self su])p()rting  in  the 
branches  mentioned.     The  whole  number  of  women  and  children  (girls) 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  551 

fiinployed  in  agricultural  pursuits  is  39,218.  The  corresponding  num- 
ber of  males  is  32,714. 

Thus  it  is  seeii  tliat  the  chief  pursuits  of  women  in  this  district  are  not 
of  a  gentle  or  retining  character.  They  perform  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  all  the  outdoor  manual  service.  The  planting  and  the  sowing,  in- 
cluding the  preparation  of  the  soil  therefor,  is  done  by  them.  I  have 
seen  many  a  woman  in  the  last  few  weeks  holding  the  plow  drawn  by  a 
pair  of  cows,  and  still  more  of  them  "toting"  manure  into  the  fields 
in  baskets  stn>pi)ed  to  their  backs.  They  also  do  the  haying,  includ- 
ing theniowing  and  the  ])itching;  likewise  the  harvesting  ;  after  which 
they  thresh  much  of  the  grain  with  the  old-fashioned  hand  Hail.  They 
accomi)any  the  coal  carts  through  the  city  and  i)ut  the  coal  in  the  cel- 
lars, while  the  male  driver  sits  ui)on  his  seat.  They  carry  on  nearly  all 
the  dairy  business,  and  draw  the  milk  into  town  in  a  hand  cart — a 
woman  and  a  dog  usually  constituting  the  team.  "  I  have  just  written 
to  my  wife,"  said  a  professional  American  gentleman  to  me  a  few  days 
ago,  who  was  traveling  through  this  district,  "that  it  is  a  very  serious 
thing  to  be  a  dog  in  Germany,  or  a  cow,  or  a  woman." 

In  half  a  day's  walk  through  the  country  recently  I  counted  130 
women  hoeing  in  the  fields  and  only  five  men.  "Why  is  it,"  1  asked 
one  of  these  women,  "that  I  see  so  many  of  your  sex  here  and  so  few 
of  the  other?"  "  Ach,  Gott!"  said  she,  "the  military  must  have  gold 
lace  and  corsets."  She  meant,  I  suppose,  that  the  military  system  takes 
away  many  men  from  industrial  pursuits,  and  it  is  a  favorite  jest  with 
the  women  here  that  the  officers  wear  tournures  to  improve  their  forms. 
"What  pay  do  you  receive  for  this  labor!"  I  asked.  "From  50  to  70 
pfennige  [11.0  to  16.6  cents]  a  day,"  she  answered,  "with  schnapi)S  at 
9,  potatoes  and  coffee  at  noon,  and  black  bread  and  beer  at  4."  "How 
long  is  your  day's  workf  "From  6  to  (5,  but  we  often  work  till  9  or 
10  at  10  pfennige  an  hour  for  extra  time" — and  she  left  me,  to  rearrange 
the  bottle  of  goat's  milk  fin-  her  baby,  which  had  awakened  from  its  nap 
in  the  grass  at  the  edge  of  the  field. 

Such  are  the  prominent  and  most  striking  characteristics  of  woman's 
work  in  this  section.  Many  of  the  younger  women  are  employed  in  the 
doll  and  toy  factories  at  about  J  5  cents  a  day,  or  else  in  doing  i)iece 
work  of  the  same  kind  in  their  own  rooms,  at  which  they  earn  perhaps 
20  per  cent,  more  weekly,  but  it  involves  more  hours  of  labor. 

The  women  of  this  class  are  not  comely.  One  sees  but  few  fresh 
and  merry  girls.  Stoo|nng  forms,  worn  and  weary  faces,  brownied  and 
wrinkled  skin,  and  a  kind  of  sad  and  spiritless  movement  characterize 
the  most  of  them.  One  can  trace,  too,  but  little  improvement  in  their 
lot.  From  generation  to  generation  the  ])easant  girl  carries  her  basket 
on  her  back,  till  she  drops  it  from  old  age,  and  her  children  follow  in 
her  footsteps. 

As  to  their  moral  and  physical  condition,  they  are  both  hardy  and 
phlegmatic;  in  other  words,  they  are  i)hysically  strong,  and  do  not  seem 
to  be  so  much  exposed  to  temptation  as  women  of  a  more  nervous  tem- 
perament are. 

On  the  other  hand,  German  newspapers  occasionally  warn  their  read- 
ers that  the  ranks  of  tlu^  licentious  in  Cincinnati  and  other  cities  of  the 
United  States  are  swelled  by  German  girls.  The  Dresdener  Nachrich- 
ten  last  winter  sounded  the  same  alarm  with  reference  to  London,  and 
later  I  found  a  letter  in  the  same  i)aper  from  the  pastor  of  the  German 
Lutheran  church  in  Geneva,  who  says: 

Since  I  have  been  uastor  bore  I  have  frequently  had  to  act  in  behalf  of  unfortunate 
German  girls  who  had  come  here  to  seek  positions  ixs  servants,  but  who,  through  inex- 
perience, indiscretion,  or  enticement,  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  bad  men,  and  have 


552  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

ended  in  bonses  of  ill-repnte.  Geneva  is  unfortunately  overrich  in  such  houses,  and  it 
is  notorious  that  the  greater  part  of  their  occui)auts  are  German  j^iris  from  Havaria,  Wur- 
teiiilx-rjr,  Baden,  and  other  parts  of  the  Fatlicrhmd.  To  such  an  exreut  liad  the  evil 
jjrowu  tliat  several  years  a<;o  the  Church  founded  a  house  of  refuf^e  for  homeless  Ger- 
man girls  who  come  to  the  citv,  &(r. 

The  general  effects  of  sncb  a  life  as  I  have  described  are  not  favora- 
ble to  the  development  of  the  best  domestic  qnalities.  The  housekeep- 
ing of  the  laborin*;"  classes  is  of  the  most  primitive  sort.  The  cooking 
is  wretched.  There  is  but  little  display  of  family  affection,  but  the 
home  feeling  is  very  strong. 

Educationally,  the  women  are  not,  as  a  rule,  equal  to  the  men,  but, 
excei>t  in  the  case  of  the  technical  schools,  to  which  they  are  not  admit- 
ted, they  enjoy  equal  educatioiuil  privileges. 

The  wages  of  women  average  about  half  those  of  men. 

At  the  i)resent  time  there  are  about  G,0()0  more  women  than  men  in 
the  Dukedom  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  with  a  population  of  207,07.5,  and  in 
the  whole  consular  district,  with  a  iK)pulation  of  1,216,815,  there  is  a 
surplus  of  30,()00  women,  Euiigration  a(!<;ounts  largely  for  this  differ- 
ence, since  the  men  can  more  easily  collect  the  means  for  a  change  of 
location  than  the  women  can. 

GEORGE  F.  MOSHER, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Sonneberg,  June  7,  1884. 


W  11  R  T  P:  M  B  E  R  G. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GATLIN. 


The  Kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  with  a  population  of  2,000,000,  and  an 
area  about  etiual  to  that  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  maybe  classed 
as  essentially  an  agricultural  land.  Half  its  population  an;  directly 
or  indirectly  dependent  upon  agricultural  and  kindred  pursuits  (see 
Table  1).  Nearly  two-thirds  of  its  area  consists  of  farms,  pasture-land, 
and  vineyards,  and  it  contains  but  four  cities  with  more  than  20,000 
inhabitants. 

The  distribution  of  so  large  a  proi)ortion  of  the  territory  among  so 
great  a  number  of  i)roi)rieto)s,  and  the  couse(punit  existence  of  so  many 
petty  landowners,  each  working  his  own  small  farm  and  gaining  there- 
from a  livelihood,  such  as  it  is,  for  himself  and  his  family,  greatly  simpli- 
fies the  consideration  of  the  great  question  of  the  relations  of  labor  to 
capital,  and  ])racti(;a]Iy  limits  it,  so  far  as  Wurtemberg  is  concerned,  to 
the  ])opulation  residing  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns. 

There  is,  however,  in  the  (condition  of  the  numerous  agricultural  pop- 
nlation  of  the  King<lom,  mncii  food  for  study  and  oi)servation,  and 
much  that  is  ])ertinent  to  the  subject  of  this  re])ort.  It  is  not  in  this 
cas(;  the  question  of  capitalist  and  laborer,  of  employer  and  em])loye. 
There  are  no  large  farms  such  as  an;  to  be  found  in  our  great  West  or 
plantations  su<;h  as  cover  the  South,  where  the  <;apital,  energy,  and 
genius  of  one  man  directs  the;  labor  of  huiulreds. 

Here  the  owner  of  each  bit  of  soil  is  its  tiller,  and  upon  its  product 
evolved  by  his  own  i)atient  labor  depend  his  hopes  of  sui)port  for  him- 
self and  his  household.  Farm  hands  are  practically  unknown.  The 
land-owner  and  his  wife  plow,  sow,  and  gatlier  side  by  side  in  the  field, 
or  together  trim  their  vines  and  garner  the  grapes,  content  if  the  close 
of  the  harvest  find  their  land  unmortgaged,  aixl  themselves  in  health, 


LABOR  FN  EUROPE GERMANY.  553 

and  clear  of  the  books  at  the  baker's  and  grocer's.  It  will  be  easily 
seen,  therefore,  that  the  question  of  wages,  so  far  as  such  a  population 
goes,  issiiiiply  a  questiou  of  the  crops.  Tlieir  paymaster  is  the  soil  which 
they  till.  If  the  season  prove  unfiivorable  tiieir  wages  are  lower  in  |)ro- 
portion,  but  they  cannot  strike;  if  the  season  prove,  on  the  other  hand, 
propitious,  they  hail  it  with  the  same  joy  tliat  the  mechanii;  or  opera- 
tive experiences  in  obtaining  better  terms  from  his  employer.  This  is 
the  situation  in  regard  to  labor  and  wages  as  pertaining  to  one-iialf  of 
the  population  of  tlie  Kingdom. 

Now,  there  is  a  natural  limit  to  the  ])roductiveness  of  the  soil,  a  largest 
possible  crop  beyond  which  the  cultivator's  hopes  cannot  go.  Granting 
that  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  this  largest  i)0ssil)lc  crop 
cannot  be  looked  for,  save  in  very  exceptional  years  and  at  long  inter- 
vals, granting  also  tliat  on  an  average  crop  the  cultivator  and  those 
dependent  on  him  are  barely  able  to  eke  out  a  comfortable  subsistence, 
the  deduction  is  easy,  that  any  successive  failures  of  crops  involving  a 
yield  perceptibly  less  than  that  average  must  be  attended  with  distress 
and  naturally,  in  consequence,  with  movements  of  some  kind  for  relief. 
To  this  should  be  added  the  important  fact  that,  while  there  is  no  in- 
crease in  cultivable  area,  there  is  all  the  time  going  on  a  steady  increase 
of  more  than  1  ])er  cent.  i)er  annum  (see  Table  II)  in  the  population 
dwelling  on  it,  and  dependent  upon  it  for  the  means  of  living,  a  fact 
which  would  render  the  problem  a  difficult  one,  even  could  a  hxed  av- 
erage crop  be  annually  relie<l  on.  But  when,  as  I  find  to  be  the  case, 
for  live  years  past  tlie  grain  and  wine  crop  shows  a  large  falling  off 
from  the  average  yield,  even  of  the  last  ten  years,  the  simple  deduction 
is,  that  the  farms  and  vineyards  have  ceased  to  furnish  means  of  living 
for  their  iidiabitants,  and  that  therefore  a  certain  surplus  of  the  latter 
must  either  starve  or  seek  their  living  elsewhere.  Hence,  the  heavy 
emigration  of  late  years  to  America  and  the  tendency  to  crowd  into 
the  cities  and  towns  in  search  of  employment,  which  comparatively  few 
obtain.  The  grain  and  wine  crops  of  the  Kingdom,  which  have  aver- 
aged about  $3,750,000  for  the  last  ten  years,  onlv  averaged  during  the 
last  five  years  a  little  over  $2,500,000,  m  ■.ikiug  a  fall i)if/  o/'o/' $(5,000,000 
an<l  nj) wards  in  the  "  wages"  paid  since  1878  by  the  soil  of  Wurtemberg 
to  its  tillers.  Good  years,  better  croi)S,  and  a  higher  average  may  per- 
haps recur,  but  the  deficit  of  five  years,  so  essential  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  agricultural  i^opulation,  is  there,  cannot  be  wiped  out,  and  must 
have  its  effects.  Those  effects  are,  not  only  emigration  and  a  ten- 
dency townward,  as  stated,  but  a  proportional  diminution  of  the  vol- 
ume of  trade  in  all  its  branches. 

I  state  these  facts  as  the  misfortune  of  the  Wurtemberg  peasant,  and 
not  as  his  fault.  He  is  laborious,  patient,  and  thrifty.  He  might  even 
be  called  penurious,  had  not  generations  of  needy  toil  shown  him  that 
the  strictest  economy  is  for  him  a  matter  of  dire  necessity.  Sturdy  and 
strong  of  limb,  reared  to  res])ect  the  law,  religion,  and  the  domestic  tie, 
simi)le  in  his  wants  and  moderate  in  his  habits,  he  is  content  to  work 
uncomplainingly,  or,  rising  before  daylight  and  working  till  sundown, 
asking  no  more  than  that  he  may  derive  a  living  from  his  humble  acre, 
as  })robably  his  father  and  grandfather  have  <lone  before  him,  andsuj)- 
port  and  bring  up  the  children,  wlu)  in  turn  will  care  for  him  in  his  old 
age.  Devoid  of  sreat  ambition,  he  also  lacks  great  cares.  His  industry 
is  his  life,  and  only  ends  with  life.  In  the  great  fusion  of  races  now  go- 
ing on  to  make  up  the  future  population  of  the  North-American  conti- 
nent, and  out  of  which  is  to  spring  that  new  and  clearly  define<l  type 
of  humanity,  the  American  race  of  the  future,  it  is  fortunate  that  we 
are  acquiring  so  large  an  admixture  of  this  honest,  industrious  race  of 


554 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY, 


peasantry  fi  oiii  the  Black  Forest,  from  the  Suabiau  hills,  and  from   the 
valleys  of  the  Upper  Danube  and  the  Neckar. 

LABOR   IN   THE   CITIES   OF  WURTEMBERG. 

Turning  now  from  the  free  o])en  lite  of  the  green  tields  and  vineyards 
to  the  iiaved  streets  and  tliiekly-settled  (juarters  of  tlie  town,  we  find 
that  of  tlie  two  millions  of  people  in  the  Kingdom,  only  11)5,000  or  there- 
abouts are  dwellers  in  cities  of  20.000  inhabitants  or  n[)wards,  and,  of 
these,  117,000  dwell  in  Siittgart,  the  cai)ital  of  the  Kingdom,  a  great 
manufacturing  and  trading  center,  and  a  town  which  will  aptly  serve 
to  be  cited  as  illustrating-  the  various  i)hase8  ot  the  social  and  labor 
questions  as  they  exist  in  South  Germany  at  the  ])resent  time.  The 
other  chief  cities  of  the  Kingdom  are  Ulm  (33,000),  at  the  point  where 
the  great  transcontinental  railway  line  from  J'aris  to  Constantinoi)le 
crosses  the  Danube,  Heilbronn  (24,000),  an  active  ])oint  of  im[)ortatiou 
at  the  head  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Neckar,  and  Esslingen  (20,500), 
10  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  and  largely  engaged  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  locon)otives,  machinery,  and  textile  fabrics.  These  are  the  cities 
of  the  Kingdom,  though  not  by  any  means  com])rising  all  its  manufact- 
uring interests.  In  scores  of  smaller  towns  and  villages,  Aalen,  Heid- 
euheim,  Biberach,  lieutlingen,  Kottweil,  Tuttlingen,  and  Ludwigsburg, 
and  even  sometimes  in  the  open  country,  are  to  be  found  factories, 
large  or  small,  turning  out  a  great  variety  of  wares  both  for  internal 
consum])tion  and  for  export.  I  had  occasion  to  refer  to  several  of  these, 
with  a  descri{)tiou  of  their  extent  and  management,  in  my  report  on  the 
"Cotton  and  woolen  industries  of  Wurtemberg"  (see  No.  23,  Commer- 
cial Reports,  p.  210),  and  1  may  have  occasion  to  refer  to  some  of  them 
also  in  the  course  of  this  reixu't.  But,  for  all  practical  ])ur[)oses,  the 
industries  of  the  four  (iities  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  relations  of  labor 
and  capital  in  this  Kingdom,  and  the  various  questions  incident  thereto. 

For  this  purpose  1  have  prepared  the  following  table,  showing  at  a 
glance  how  the  poj)ulations  of  the  four  cities  uamed  are  distributed 
according'  to  their  several  employments  : 

Dislrihulion  of  the  jjnpulation  of  the  four  principal  citien  of  Wurtemhery  according  to  the 
employmenta  upon  ivhich  they  are  clireMy  or  indirectly  dependent. 


Occupations. 


Stuttgart.' 


Ulm.t 


HeilbroBD.  ti^ssliagen.  ^ 


Agiicultnie  and  kimlrod  i)ur.suit8 

Mines,  fininiliies,  and  .salt  works 

In  stduo  and  eailh   

Mcitals  (except  iron) 

lion      '. 

Mannfactnro of  macliiuery,  iiuplernents,  instiuments, 

and  apparatus    

Chemical    industries,   combustibles,   oils,  varnishes, 

&(■■    

Textile  industries 

Pa])er  and  h-ather 

AVood  and  earvinjl 

Alimentary  products 

Clotliin^  and  dress 

Biiildint:      .        

Clerical  pursuits 

Artistic  pursuits  (except  music,  theater,  and  shows) . 

Trade 

Insurance 

Land  travel 

Water  travel 

InuH,  hotels,  and  restaurants 

House  service,  day  labor,  ifcc 

Government,  township,  and  church  ouiploy 

Ko  omnloyment  given 

Miscellaneous 


5,516 
82 
3,447 
1,615 
3,360 

4,  554 

1,624 
1,  398 
3,  268 
7.748 
.'),  .^Kl 
12,017 
6,408 
3,867 
830 

15,  244 
692 

6,736 

.  1 

4,113 

1,820 

16,  0»0 
13,  371 


1,657 

9 

3.''.2 

3.-)8 

039 

722 

211 

238 

5.')6 

1,373 

2,  288 
3,015 

1,  i)86 
213 

47 

3,  661 

29 

2,  824 

60 

1,412 

412 

8,617 

2,  ir,b 

48 


2,546 


345 

581 
801 

928 

538 

l.'-)3 

1,  4ii2 

1,143 

2,001 

1,863 

1,  593 

212 

130 

3,  305 

30 

1.  335 

33 

697 

478 

1,777 

2,049 


3,783 


80 

412 

1,021 

2,  814 

407 

1,294 
.591 

1,  372 
871 

1,947 

698 

335 

42 

790 

14 

1,  052 

1 

292 

241 

971 

1,420 


►Population,  117.343.        t  Population,  33,162.         +  Population,  23,958.        §  Population,  20.456. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  555 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that  the  pursuits  of  the  pop- 
ulations of  these  cities,  es])ecially  of  Stuttgart,  cover  all  the  necessary 
ground  for  the  discussion  of  tlie  (juestion  in  hand,  in  fact  Stuttgart  and 
Essliugen  alone  will  amply  suffuse,  embracing,  as  they  do,  within  their 
limits  nearly  all  branches  of  industry.  In  pursuing  the  incjuiries  sug- 
gested by  the  Dei>artment's  (circular,  I  have  deemed  it  the  best  plan 
and  tlnit  ])romising  to  atibrd  the  truest  picture  of  the  labor  question  in 
all  its  ])hases,  to  seek  interviews  not  only  with  laborers  and  operatives, 
chosen  here  and  there  at  random,  but  with  leaders,  cai)italists,  manu- 
facturers, and  public  men  of  widely  varying  ideas,  and  in  re(;ording 
these  interviews,  to  set  before  the  l)ei)artment  facts  and  o])inions  far 
more  varied  and  valuable  than  would  be  any  observations  and  views  of 
myself  alone. 

Observing  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Tagblatt  of  this  city  that  a  mass- 
meeting  of  workingmen  on  the  previous  evening  had  been  addressed  by 
one  Mr.  Karl  Kloss,  I  looked  that  gentleman  up,  and,  stating  my  object, 
requested  an  interview.  I  found  him  an  earnest,  intelligent  man,  ap- 
parently well  informed  on  the  labor  question,  and  ready  to  give  me  all 
the  information  1  desired.  He  has  great  readiness  as  a  public  speaker, 
and  large  influence  among  the  working  classes,  and  lam  confident  that 
his  opinions,  as  given  herewith,  will  prove  of  interest.  He  may  be  taken 
as  a  representative  man,  and,  being  himself  a  practical  workman,  a 
joiner  by  trade,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  he  knows  whereof  he  speaks. 

VIEWS   OF   MK.  KAKL   KLOSS. 

Question.  What  are  tlie  preseut  relations  in  Wurteniberj^-  between  labor  and  capi- 
tal f — An.swer.  The  relations  between  labor  and  capital  at  the  preseut  time  are  strained, 
especially  in  the  laijier  niannfactnrin<;  cities. 

Q.  I  notice  that  one-half  of  the  poimlation  of  Wnrtemberg  is  devoted  to,  or  de- 
pendent npon,  ayricaltnral  and  kindred  pnrsnits.  Does  not  this  largely  dinjinish  the 
importance  of  the  social  and  labor  (jiiestion  in  Wurtemberg? — A.  Certainly;  for  the 
reason  that  there  are  too  many  small  land-owners,  allowing  of  no  methodical  system 
of  agriculture,  but  merely  a  small  system  of  hand-labor,  keeping  them  all  poor,  and 
which  cannot  compete  with  a  broad  system  of  agriculture,  such  as  exists  in  North 
Germany  or  Hungary. 

Q.  You  believe,  then,  that  the  agricultural  population,  notwithstanding  their  poor 
condition,  take  but  little  interest  in  social  and  labor  questions  ? — A.  Very  little.  They 
prefer  to  seek  relief  from  their  needs,  or  from  the  failures  of  successive  wine  crops, 
either  by  emigration  or  by  Hocking  to  the  cities  to  look  for  work. 

Q.  When  they  come  to  the  cities  are  they  competent  to  do  work,  and  do  they  find 
it? — A.  They  can  do  work  as  day-laborers  in  digging  and  the  rougher  kiuds  of  work, 
but,  of  conrse,  are  not  skilled  laborers.  About  —  per  cent,  get  work.  It  depends 
somewhat  on  the  season  of  the  year.  The  workmen  who  come  to  town  from  the  coun- 
try are  an  impediment  to  the  city  workmen  in  the  development  of  social  questions, 
owing  to  their  more  limited  experience  and  lack  of  interest  therein. 

Q.  Sni)p(ise  we  reckon  the  population  of  Stuttgart  to-day  at  1'25,000,  how  many 
able-bodied  laborers  are  there  in  the  city  unemployed  ? — A.  Only  about  5  or  6  per  cent, 
of  the  industrial  laborers  are  now  unemployed.  Circumstances  here  in  Wurteraberg 
are  unusually  fav()rable  in  this  regard. 

Q.  Is  the  situation  better  now  than  it  was  about  three  years  ago? — A.  While  the 
prices  of  living  have  not  changed,  wages  have  in  some  instances  decreased. 

Q.  To  what  do  yon  ascribe  this  decrease  ? — A.  To  the  influx  of  laborers  to  the  cities, 
and  to  the  excess  of  jxipnlation  in  the  country  ;  also  to  the  substitution  of  machine 
for  hand  work,  and  to  the  fact  that,  thereby,  the  additional  labor  of  women  and  chil- 
dren is  rendered  available  ;  further  by  the  fact  that  there  is  no  law  for  the  regulation 
of  the  hours  of  labor  and  employers  can  get,  therefore,  three  days'  work  in  two  out  of 
their  emjjloyds.  I  have  seen  a  hundred  girls  and  women,  operatives,  leaving  a  cotton 
factory  in  Esslingen  at  12  o'clock  Saturday  night,  where  they  had  been  working  from 
6  in  the  morning,  with  the  excei)tiou  of  an  hour  at  noon  and  half  an  hour  each  in  the 
morning  and  afternoon,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  had  still  an  hour  or  two  hours' 
walk  liefore  they  reached  their  homes. 

Q.  Do  you  suppose  that  those  hundred  females  were  contented  and  happy,  and  ever 
hoped  for  any  improvement  in  their  situatior  ? — A.  Certainly  not  contented  and  happy; 
but,  in  consequence  of  their  wretched  condition,  they  do  not  allow  themselves  to  think 


556  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

of  any  improvement.  The  wages  paid  in  the  factory  I  speak  of  are  very  poor ;  I  learn 
that  the  averajj^e  do  not  earn  over  10  to  12  marks  (S'-^.-'iO  toS:^)  per  fortnif>;ht. 

Q.  Is  the  "jjcneral  fccliri";-  of  the  workincii  in  the  larj^er  cities  of  Wurtcmnerf:^  one  of 
content,  or  discontcMit? — A.  It  ranuot  be  said  that  tiicy  are  contented;  in  some  ex- 
ceptional cases  they  are,  on  acconnt  of  special  advantaj^es  which  they  enjoy  from 
their  employers;  bnt  the  majority  are  not  contented,  and  only  refrain  from  saying  so 
becanse  they  consider  it  would  be  prejudicial  to  their  interests. 

Q.  This,  then,  I  suppose  brings  ns  to  the  subject  of  ynnr  first  answer,  the  strained 
relations  existing  between  labor  and  cai>ital.  Is  it  this  discontent  which  canses  snch 
relations;  or,  is  the  discontent  only  ;in  outcome  of  those  relations? — A.  It  is  the  dis- 
content which  causes  these  strained  relations. 

Q.  When  you  say  the  relations  are  strained,  what  does  that  imi)ly  ? — A.  That  the 
workmen  are  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  every  o])portnnity  to  obtain  better  terms 
from  their  employers;  for  instance,  in  June  1^8:5,  the  corset-weavers  in  Wurtemberg, 
WO  or  700  in  number,  formed  a  mntnal  ])rote(;tive  association,  not  to  organize  a  strike, 
bnt  to  protect  each  other  in  the  event  of  one,  and  to  employ  eerlain  parties  of  their 
number  to  ])repare  statistics  in  regard  to  labor  and  wages,  which  would  enable  them 
to  act  advisedly  should  occasion  require;  also  to  establisli  a  uniform  tarift' of  wages. 
They  succeeded  in  accomplishing  this,  and  that  without  a  strike.  The  new  uniform 
tariff  is  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  higher  than  the  workmen  received  before. 

Q.  What  is  the  disposition  of  capitalists  towards  the  workiugmen  in  Wurtemberg? 
Are  they  generally  disposed  to  make  concessions?— A.  Asa  general  thing  they  are  not 
disposed  to  concede  much,  as  was  shown  last  year  in  the  joiners'  strike. 

THE   GREAT  JOINER  STRIKE  OF   1883. 

Q.  How  many  workmen  were  out  on  that  strike? — A.  Nearlv  700  men,  employed 
in  seven  large  establishments,  all  in  Stuttgart.  The  strike  began  early  in  July  and 
lasted  nine  weeks.  During  that  period  contributions  amounting  to  15,021.12  marks 
for  the  benefit  of  the  strikers  were  received  from  other  cities;  a  collection  of  (i, 505.97 
marks  was  made  in  Stuttgart,  a  further  sum  of  1,290.13  marks  was  contributed  by 
single  individuals  in  this  city,  making  a  total  of  22,817.27  marks  in  all. 

Q.  Who  contributed  the  most  of  this  money  ? — A.  The  greater  part  of  it  came  from 
industrial  associations  in  other  cities;  not  only  from  associations  of  joinert;  but  from 
hat-makers,  cigar-makers,  turners,  masons,  corset-weavers,  and  a  great  variety  of 
trades,  who  all  rushed  eagerly  and  spontaneously  to  our  assistance.  Contributions 
came  from  Switzerland,  Brussels,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  as  well  as  from  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many.    We  even  received  325  marks  ($80)  from  New  York. 

Q,  What  was  done  with  all  this  money? — A.  Nine-tenths  of  it  (over  20,000  marks) 
was  paid  over  to  the  strikers  individually,  for  the  maintenance  of  themselves  and  their 
families  during  the  strike.  The  remainder  was  used  in  defraying  current  expenses 
for  traveling,  telegraphing,  legal  costs,  printing,  ])ostiige,  &c. 

Q.  What  was  the  dis[)osition  of  the  employers  dui-ing  the  strike  1 — A.  They  endeav- 
ored throughout  to  show  that  our  demands  w<  re  unreasonable.  The  primary  cause 
of  the  strike  was  not  onlv  low  wages,  but  the  additional  fact  that  when  workmen  ap- 
plied for  an  increase,  though  they  were  already  wcuicing  ten  hours  a  day,  the  em- 
ployers would  tell  them  to  come  earlier  and  stay  later  and  then  they  would  make 
more,  inasmuch  as  there  was  no  system  of  day-wages,  but  all  work  was  paid  by  the 
piece.  The  workmen  at  Schoettle's  shojis,  about  120  in  nnmbt;r,  linding  that  they 
wei'c  i)a id  about  15  i)er  cent,  h^ss  than  their  i)rother  joiners  in  the  other  factories, 
united  to  demand  a  tixed  tariff  of  prices  per  piece,  ami  for  over-hours,  fVoui  their  em- 
ployers. The  firm  refused  and  thi;  workiiuMi  struck.  Next  day  there  appeared  in  the 
papers  a  notice  signed,  not  only  by  the  projirietors  of  the  Schoettle  establishment,  but 
also  I»y  those  of  all  the  other  large  joiner  works  in  the  city,  announcing  that,  unless 
the  Sclioettlc!  strikers  returned  to  their  work  in  three  days,  all  th(^  other  establishments 
would  bo  closed,  and  tlu^  whole  force  of  (iOO  or  700  joiners  in  Stuttgart  would  thus 
together  1)(^  thrown  out  of  work. 

Q.  Tuder  these,  (Mrcuinstances,  what  course  did  the  joiners  pursue? — A.  We  had  a 
joiners'  union  of  about  400  members,  of  which  I  was  president,  and  I  called  a  meeting 
at  once,  not  only  of  the  members,  but  of  all  joiners  and  ])iano-makers  in  town,  num- 
bering about  2,000  in  all.  Of  these,  1,200  attended  the  meeting,  whi  h  unanimously 
resolved  to  disregard  the  threats  of  the.  emidoyers,  and  to  sustain  the  workmen  at 
Schoettle's.     Next  day  the  threats  were  carried  out,  and  all  the  factori(!s  were  (do.sed. 

Q.  Were  the  strikers  peaceable,  and  orderly,  ami  what  course  did  they  jjursne? — A. 
All  was  admirably  (pnel  ami  onh'rly,  so  that  it  was  not  even  necessary  for  tlui  police 
to  attend  our  largest  meetings.  The  first  step  which  the  strikers  took  was  to  address 
in  writing  to  their  several  emjtloyers  a  statement  of  the  terms  on  which  they  would, 
on  their  snhi,  be  willing  to  resutm^  work;  some  re(iuested  an  increaseof  Hto  10  ])(;rcent. 
in  the  r.ates  of  payment,  and  there  was  a  general  demand  that  the  workshops  should 
be  ventilated  and  cleaned  every  day  after  working  hours,  instead  of  before,  as  for- 
merly, and  that  the  factory  reguhatious  should  in  all  respects  be  made  to  conform  with 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


557 


tlio  existing  lejijal  ordiiiancos.  To  these  deman<ls  two  firms  teinporiuily  consented, 
hnt  sul)seiiiu'ntly  withdrew  tlieir  consent,  :ind  nnired  with  tiie  other  employers  ii<;uinst 
the etiikf-rs.  For  three  or  f'onr  weeks  matters  remained  in  this  condition.  TIk!  Schoet- 
tle  firm  then  l)ronj;ht  suit  in  tiie  conrts  aj^ainst  rheir  striiiiiifj;  workmen  for  (hnnages, 
for  ha%inj>-  maliciously  left  tlieir  work,  and  to  comptd  them  to  resume.  In  rcjdy  to 
this  the  strikers  from  the  t)ther  factories  brought  suit  against  their  employers  for  dam- 
ages for  loss  of  time  caused  l»y  th*',  closing  of  the  factories.  Tlusso  latter  em]»loyers, 
it  may  here  be  stated,  had  j)re\iously  offered  to  take  tlnnr  workmen  back  on  the  origi- 
nal terms,  but  the  latter  had  refused,  saying  that,  now  they  were  shut  out,  they  would 
strike.  For  this  refusal  to  resume  the  principals  also  brought  suit  against  tlieir 
workmen.  The  Schoettle  suit  njsnlted  in  nineteen  workintm  (the  number  sued)  being 
sentenced  to  resume  work,  and,  on  their  refusal,  to  one  day's  imprisonment  each.  In 
the  other  suits  tin  workmen  won,  and  the  employers  were  compelled  to  reimburse 
them  for  ioss  of  time  and  to  pay,  in  one  case,  the  whole,  in  another  the  half  of  the 
costs. 

Q.  Was  any  attempt  made  to  bring  in  workmen  from  other  cities  to  re{)Iace  the 
strikers  ?— A.  The  greatest  efforts  were  made  in  that  direction,  but  only  15(1  or  there- 
abouts were  brought  in,  of  whom  four-lifths  came  from  Vienna,  the  balance  from 
Switzerland,  Silesia,  and  elsewhere.  They  were  poor  workmen,  and  not  over  five  of 
them  remain  here  to-day.  About  100  more,  apprentices  and  young  workmen,  were 
drummed  up  aiound  in  tlit;  suburi)S,  but  they  caused  more  loss  than  profit  to  their 
employers.  Meanwhile,  half  the  strik(^rs  had  gone  oft"  to  other  cities  and  ])romptIy 
found  work,  thus  greatly  lightening  the  ex|)enses  of  the  relief  committee.  The  greater 
part  of  the  remainder  fecund  other  work  of  various  kinds  here.  The  greatest  suffer- 
ers, therefore,  were  the  employers,  not  the  workmen.  The  cost  of  the  strike  to  the 
former  cannot  have  been  less  than  300,000  marks,  to  the  latter  not  over  .■•iO,000  marks. 

Q.  How  did  it  finally  end? — A.  In  a  victory  for  the  strikers  in  all  except  the 
Sclioettle  factory.  In  the  latter  case  the  terms  asked  were  indeed  to  some  degree 
granted,  but  to  new  workmen,  and  not  to  the  old  ones,  of  whom  only  soum  '2b  out  of 
120  were  taken  back.  This  s-rike  also  resulted  in  the  organization  of  all  the  joiners 
throughout  Germany. 

Q.  I  notice  a  "black  list"  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  strike.  To  what  does 
that  refer  1 — A.  It  was  a  ])rinted  list  of  the  strikers  which  was  sent  by  the  firms  here 
to  other  firms  in  the  same  business  throughout  South  Germany  ;  but,  since  the  ter- 
mination of  the  strike,  it  has  ceased  to  be  of  importance. 

Q.  Were  you  employed  at  the  l)eginniug  of  the  strike  ? — A.  Yes;  as  worknuin  in 
the  piano  factory  of  Krauss  &  Co. 

Q.  Are  you  still  employed  there  ? — A.  No;  inconsequence  of  my  participation  in 
the  strike,  as  president  of  the  Joiners'  Union,  I  lost  uiy  position  five  ilays  afterwards, 
and  since  that  time  have  Ijeen  unable  to  jnocure  another. 

Q.  Are  you  a  Wurtemberger  ? — A.  No  ;  I  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1847,  and  have 
lived  in  Stuttgart  since  1871. 

Q.  In  regard  to  the  price  of  living  here  in  Stuttgart,  upon  how  much,  in  youropin- 
iou,  can  an  average  workingman,  with  a  family  consisting  of  a  wife  and  ■■^ay  three 
children,  get  along  per  annum,  and  keep  clear  of  debt  ? — A.  I  have  here  a  tabic 
"which  I  have  prepared,  and  which  is  Ijased  upon  the  prevailing  ]>rices.  The  various 
items  included  in  it  are  those  actually  taken  from  the  personal  memorandum  of  an- 
nual expenses  kept  by  a  workingman  of  my  acquaintance,  viz  : 

Expenses  of  a  family  consisting  of  father,  mother,  and  three  children  (at  Stuttgart). 


Bread,  24  pounds,  at  11  pfen- 
nifTS 

Butter orlard,  2 pounds,  at; 90 
pfennigs 

Meat,  4  pounds,  at  66  pfen- 
nigs   

Dinner  (vt'cetables,  tiour, 
potatdcs.  salt  and  spire). 

Breakfast  and  supper  (with 
rolls,  HUi:ar,  milk,  &.c) 

Fuel  and  litrhts '.. 

Soap,  tliread,  yarn,  and  san- 
diies ." 

Pocket  money  for  casual  ex- 
penses   

Total  per  week 

Total  per  year 


Weeklv. 


Markg. 
2.64 


1.80 
2.64 


3.50 


3.80 
1.50 


$0  63 


63 


83 


71 


4  66 


242  32 


Rent 

Residence-tax 

Other  taxes 

Dues  to  mutual  aid  society.. . 
Clothing,  shoes,  iind  reji.iirs. . 

BeddinL',  linen,  i^c  

Repair  of   tools  and   houso- 

hold  utensils 

Children's  school  fees 


Yearly. 


Marks. 
250 
4 
6 
18.20 
190.  62 
20.70 

16 
15.36 


Total  per  year '  1,  539.  04 


$59  50 

91 

1  43 

4  33 

45  47 

4  93 

3  71 
3  60 


366  26 


558  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

THE  VIEWS  OF  HERR  DIETZ,  M.  P. 

The  Hon.  J.  H.  W.  Dietz,  who  has  a  i)ub]ishin<i-  and  printino;  estab- 
lislinient.  at  No.  20  Lad\vi<;strasse,  in  this  city,  roi)resents  a  part  of  the 
voters  of  the  city  of  Ilamburii'  in  the  Rerlin  Parliament.  He  belongs  to 
the  Social  Democratic  party,  and  has  been  so  kind  as  to  furnish  me  with 
his  views  in  answer  to  the  various  questions  which  I  have  herewith 
propounded,  viz: 

Question.  In  yonr  opinion,  is  tlie]>resentcoiKlitioni)f  tlio  workingclasses  in  Wnrtom- 
ber<;  ])i-os)ien)ns  or  otherwise? — Answer.  Leavinjjj  ont  of  consideration  the  "rescve 
armt^f,"  the  sit  nation  can  at  present  almost  be  called  a  normal  one.  However,  the  indus- 
trial workinj^men  in  the  fow)i8  fare  far  worse  in  regard  to  the  care  for  tlieir  material  ex- 
istence than  do  those  employed  in  factories,  &c.,  in  the  rural  districts.  The  extraordi- 
narily high  price  of  lodgings  in  town,  as  well  as  the  dearness  of  provisions,  prevent  the 
workman,  even  witii  the  hardest  labor,  from  earning  more  than  half  an  aihMinate  live- 
lihood. The  industrial  workingman  in  the  country,  on  the  othi^r  hand,  has  tins  ad- 
vantage, that  he  frequently  acquires  the  necessary  food  Through  cultivating  a  kitchen 
garden,  tStc,  in  his  leisure  hours,  with  the  lielp  of  his  family,  and  that  he  thus  em- 
ploys the  ready  money  earned  in  the  factory  or  elsewhere  for  defraying  other  wants. 
It  is  here  to  be  remarked  that  those  manufacturers  who  huve  their  factories  in  the 
open  country,  and  employ  of  course  no  strictly  skilled  workmen,  are  thus  enabled  to 
find  workmen  at  incredibly  low  wages,  which  thus  renders  a  successful  competition 
possible. 

Q.  How  does  their  condition  compare  Avith  that  which  existed  in  1878,  and  ■what 
ditfereuce  is  there  between  the  situation  of  affairs  tlicm  and  now  ? — A.  Production  has 
essentially  improved  in  quality  and  quantity.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  in 
general  a  constantly  increasing  incapacity  for  cousnmi)tion  depresses  sales — a  conse- 
quence of  the  rapidly-progressing  impoverishment  of  the  masses.  Without  therefore 
being  a  great  prophet,  one  can  predict  a  reaction  in  production,  which,  perhaps,  may 
end  in  a  crisis  far  greater  than  anything  we  have  ever  hitherto  witnessed.  The  resist- 
ing power  of  manufacturers  and  merchants  has  grown  weaker,  and  with  a  great  many 
the  moral  consciousness  of  responsibility  has  disappeared.  "After  us,  the  deluge,"  is 
the  cry,  not  alone  in  Germany,  but  in  Wurtemberg  as  well. 

Q.  Are  the  working  classes  steady  and  trustworthy  and  frugal;  and  what  inflnences 
can  yon  cite  which  are  favorable  or  adverse  to  their  being  so  ? — A.  The  working  peo- 
ple of  Wurtemberg  can  on  the  whole  be  called  steady.  There  is  no  want  of  diligence 
and  cleverness.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  skilled  workingmen  are  very  much  inter- 
mingled with  the  Nortli  German  element.  The  German  workman  in  general  is  steady 
and  trustworthy,  so  that  the  best  testimonial  can  be  given  him  in  this  respect. 

Q.  What  relations  exist  between  employer  and  employ^},  and  what  effect  have  these 
relations  on  the  prosperity  of  the  community  at  large? — A.  The  relations  in  general 
may  be  called  good  ones.  This  can  be  partly  attributed  to  the  extremely  moderate 
wants  of  the  Wurtemberg  workman,  which,  going  hand  in  hand  witli  a  law-abiding 
spirit,  scarcely  admit  at  all  of  any  strong  reaction  against  the  emi)loj-er.  P<ditical 
iutert^sts  concern  the  workman  onlj^  so  far  as  he,  an  enemy  of  every  innovation,  at- 
tributes the  cause  of  his  frequently  o]ipressive  situation  to  the  new  org mization  of 
the  Empire,  and  makes  the  "  Prussian  "  resi)onsible  foreverything.  In  dtiiiig  so,  he  is 
only  too  much  supported  by  tlie  other  classes  of  his  countrymen.  The  fact  that  the 
economical  develojuuent  of  Germany  is  carrying  the  consequences  of  the  modern  sys- 
tem of  production  into  the  remotest  villages  of  Wurtemberg  will  probably  for  a  long 
time  to  come  remain  to  the  Wurtemberg  workingman  a  closed  book  with  seven  seals. 

Q.  Is  lal)or  organized  ?  If  so,  in  what  way,  and  how  does  siudi  organization  act 
upon  the  laborers'  advancement  and  W(dfMro? — A.  The  organizations  of  workmen  ex- 
feud  ill  fact  only  to  the  cities.  To  a  partial  extent  they  are  feeble  imitations  of  the 
trade-uuions,  but  art!  impeded  in  their  develoiuueiit  through  exceptional  legislation, 
'J"he organizations  an\  however,  confined  principally  fo  "  Kranken-  und  Sterbet-asseu" 
(i-ick  and  burial  funds),  the  etionomieal  importance  of  which  is  generally  known,  so 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  on  them. 

Q.  Is  fheni  any  organization  of  (-apital  to  offset  these  labor  organizations? — A.  Co- 
alitions of  cai)italists  against  the  interests  of  tln^  workingmen  have  been  formed  as  a 
rule  only  in  case  of  strikes,  and  then  were  only  of  pro))ortioniilly  short  duration. 
Comiiel  it  ion  and  eagerness  of  ])rodiictioii  do  not  permit  of  any  ]ierman<-nt  consolida- 
tion of  manufacturers  as  such.  Divers  interests  soon  break  up  such  association. 
These  jieopie,  too,  are  fighting  a  battle  for  existence  and  consider  it  their  business  to 
oven  brow  their  compt^titors. 

Q.  Do  you  consider  that  labor  here  is  adequately  remunerated  ? — A.  Kates  of  com- 
pensation for  labor,  i.  e.  wages,  are  in  the  cities  about  etiual  to  those  gtiuerally  pre- 
vailing in  Germany.     In  the  country,  however,  they  are  probably  much  lower  than 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  559 

they  should  he.  Wii;re.s  are  hy  no  means  adequate,  yet  this  is  not  felt  so  much  by  the 
workman  in  Wurtemberg  as  in  North  Germany.  I  here  refer  to  what  I  said  in  an- 
swer 4. 

Q.  What  are  your  views  in  regard  to  <laily  liours  of  labor  ? — A.  The  day's  work  va- 
ries from  10  to  ].'>  hours.  If  something  is  to  be  done  for  the  iii)i)rov(>iiicnt  of  the  work- 
man's condition  the  introdnclion  ot  a  mnxinium  of  daily  hours  of  ]al)or  iixcid  liy 
law  is  absolutely  recpiired.  Until  this  fardinai  iiui'stion  is  detinit(dy  auswentd  by 
the  Imperial  GovernnuMit — and  this  will  scarcely  be  done  within  ten  years  from  now — 
a  beginning  of  the  solution  of  the  social  question  is  not  to  be  thougiit  of.  In  Wnr- 
teml)erg  tiie  daily  working  hours  are  on  an  average  12  hours,  about  the  same  as  in 
the  Kmi»ire,  while  the  '^  rcfterve  arviee'^  of  workinginen  is  daily  increasing,  even  when 
production  is  normal,  llt've  only  fixed  working  liours  can  be  resortcMl  to  as  a  means 
of  settling  the  matter.  The  manufacturers  ure  rclucfaut  to  grant  them  of  their  own 
accord,  and  the  Government  is  not  ]>o\verful  enougii  to  resist  the  one-sideil  inter- 
ests of  the  manufacturers.  Some  crisis  striking  a  hard  blow  at  industry  will  throw 
an  nnprecedenlt.'dly  large  number  of  men  out  of  emi)loyme?it,  and  that,  too,  in  all 
civili/ed  ctnnmunities — and  what  shall  then  be  done  with  them,  oidy  those  will  know 
who  now  oltNtinately  n^fuse  to  opiMi  tht^  one  and  only  safety  v:ilve  which  can  improve 
matters,  viz,  a  fixed  maximum  of  daily  hours  of  labor.  This  kind  of  labor-legisla- 
tion, however,  can  scarcely  be  carried  out  by  any  one  single  country;  it  must  be  an 
international  matter  and  have  for  its  aim  the  working  day  of  8  hours. 

Q.  What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingmen,  and  what,  are  their  iu- 
tinences,  through  such  rights,  on  legishition  'I — A.  In  W^urtemberg  the  law  provides  a 
direct  general  election  for  members  of  the  town  council  and  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (Landtag).  Conse(iuently  the  workmen  have  succeeded  in  some  commu- 
nities in  electing  their  representatives.  In  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Wurtem- 
berg, however,  the  workmen  are  not  represented,  although  great  efforts  were  made 
on  their  part  in  the  cities.  The  inthience  of  the  workmen  on  legislation  is  therefore 
equal  to  zero.  The  want  of  knowledge  of  economical  matters,  as  well  as  iudifl'ereuce 
to  public  life,  contributes  probably  very  much  to  the  fact  that  the  Wurtemberg 
workingman  is  far  inferior  to  the  North  German,  who  is  fully  conscious  of  his  posi- 
tion as  a  member  of  a  class. 

Q.  To  what  extent  in  return  has  legislation  here  regulated  the  labor  question,  and 
what  is  the  tendency  of  legislation  is  this  regard? — A.  The  Imperial  Government,  in 
order  to  help  the  working  classes,  is  trying  to  inaugurate  a  social  legislation.  They 
began  with  a  ])lan  of  insurance  for  the  sick,  which  now  is  to  be  followed  by  insurance 
against  acciilents,  and  again  by  the  insurance  of  the  disabled.  It  is  commendable 
that  manufacturers  provide  for  those  who  have  met  with  accidents  in  their  service 
and  have  become  disabled  for  work,  even  though  the  workmen  have  to  contribute 
directly  and  indirectly  thereto  ;  but  the  gist  of  the  question,  viz,  lack  of  employment, 
is  not  touched  by  this  social  legislation.  Relief  can  only  be  found  in  international 
action  (as  is  stated  in  my  reply  to  Question  VIII). 

SOME   POINTED   REMARKS  BY   HERR   FALKENSTEIN. 

For  about  twenty  years  past  there  Las  been  in  operation  in  this  city 
a  sort  of  incorporated  intelligence  office,  called  the  "  Bureau  fiir  Arbeits- 
uachweis."  Its  manager,  Mr.  Willielni  Falkenstein,  is  an  unusually 
well-informed  man  on  all  matters  pertaining-  to  the  labor  question,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  man  who  combines  with  wide  experience  extremely 
sensible  and  conservative  views.  The  following  account  of  an  interview 
which  I  have  had  with  him  will  be  found  to  possess  many  points  of  a 
special  interest: 

Question.  What  is  your  name,  age,  and  birthplace? — Answer.  Wilhelm  Falken- 
stein; 49;  Wurtemberg. 

Q.  What  is  your  emj>loynieut  ? — A.  I  am  manager,  since  nineteen  years,  of  the 
"Bureau  fiir  Arbeitsnachvveis,"  at  15  Carlstrasse,  in  this  city. 

Q.  Is  that  a  private  concern  or  a  company  ? — A.  It  is  a  company,  consisting  of  about 
1,0U0  members,  embracing  the  largest  manufacturers  down  to  the  humblest  class  of 
trades-i)eople. 

Q.  For  what  object  is  your  society  organized? — A..  To  furnish  workmen  to  people 
seeking  them,  and  to  liml  emi)Ioyment  for  those  who  apply.  We  are  also  a  charitable 
association,  and  furnish  assistance  to  needy,  unemployed  workingmen  passing  through 
the  city. 

Q.  Referring  to  the  first  part  of  your  last  answer,  waat  was  the  extent  of  the  work 
done  by  your  ofhce  during  last  year? — A.  There  were  registered  :^,i\l).i  ap))lications 
from  employers,  and  employment  was  furnished  to  (5,057  persons,  while  no  less  than. 


560  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

42,482  applications  for  work  were  made  to  us.  Of  those  furnished  with  employment' 
540  were  ]>laced  in  situations  outside  of  Stuttgart,  some  even  so  far  awaj^  as  Russia, 
Italy,  and  France. 

Q.  Has  a  workman  who  applies  to  your  office  for  a  situation  any  fees  to  pay? — A. 
He  pays  2i  cents  when  he  linds  a  situation  ;  otherwise,  nothing. 

Q.  How  long  has  your  society  existed? — A.  Since  lS6r>.  During  that  period  "we 
have  had  l.")!t,844  ajjplicatious  from  employers,  and  have  found  situatious  for  119,389 
workmen  and  ai>prentice8. 

Q.  In  your  opinion,  what  ))ercentage  of  the  working  people  in  Stuttgart — I  mean 
the  people  who  are  dependent  on  their  daily  labor — is  uuemj)h)ycdf — A.  I  cannot  give 
the  per  cent.  ;  but  1  mink  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  at  })resent  there  are  not  over 
200  jiersons  in  Stuttgart  who  are  unemployed. 

Q.  Is  this  an  exceittionally  good  season,  or  would  that  statement  apply  in  general  ? — 
A.  It  is  not  exceptional  ;  even  in  the  worst  times,  as  during  the  wars  of  1866  and 
1870,  There  was  never  much  over  that  number  out  of  (Muployment. 

Q.  Is  the  situation  more  favorable  here  in  Wurteml)erg  in  this  regard  tium  it  is  in 
other  ])arts  of  Germany  ? — A.  We  h;ive  business  relations  with  all  parts  of  Germany, 
and  I  do  not  think  the  situation  differs  much  here  with  that  which  prevails  in  Niirn- 
herg,  Frankfort,  Berlin,  and  the  other  large  cities. 

Q.  Do  yon  think  in  general  workmen  are  ade(|imtely  paid  for  their  labor  under  ex- 
isting rates  of  wages? — A.  I  am  of  opinion  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  work- 
men who  are  ])aid  a  great  deal  higher  wages  than  they  really  earn.  Some  are  paid  as 
high  as  8  marks  a  day.  The  general  theory  of  the  German  workiugmen,  viz,  that 
the  inferior  classes  of  workmen  are  underpaid,  is  a  false  one,  because  there  should  be 
a  discrimination  in  the  capacity  of  the  workmen,  and  good  wages  should  only  be  paid 
for  good  work. 

C^.  Do  you  think  that  there  is  much  distress  atnong  the  working  people  ;  are  they 
contented  ? — A.  There  is  no  great  distress  among  them,  but  great  discontent.  A  good 
workman  here  need  never  be  out  of  employment  upon  which  he  can  support  himself 
comfortably. 

Q.  Does  this  same  rule  ai)ply  to  operatives  in  factories? — A.  Yes.  Corset- weavers, 
spinners,  and  those  engaged  in  similar  pursuits  can  all  earn  12  to  14  marks  a  week, 
which  am{)ly  suffices  for  their  wants. 

Q.  What  feeling  generally  exists  between  employers  and  employes  in  Stuttgart  ? — 
A.  In  general,  a  very  unfriendly  one,  and  this  causes  a  general  feeling  of  uncertainty 
in  the  business  world,  inasmuch  as  no  manufacturer  can  feel  sure  of  the  future  so 
long  as  he  is  not  certain  of  his  workmen. 

Q.  Are  the  working  classes  steady,  trustworthy,  and  frugal? — A.  In  general  they 
are. 

Q.  You  spoke  of  your  society  also  being  a  charitable  one  ? — A.  Yes,  we  assisted  last 
year  626  poor  workmen  passing  through  Stuttgart,  and  have  during  the  i)ast  nineteen 
years  assisted,  in  all,  61,625  workmen  in  a  similar  manner. 

Q.  In  what  does  this  assistance  consist? — A.  In  gifts  of  money,  ranging  from  50 
pfennigs  to  6  marks. 

Q,  How  is  this  money  provided  ? — A.  By  voluntary  subscriptions  from  master  work- 
men in  the  various  trades  here. 

Q.  Wei-e  not  these  same  poor  workmen  entitled  to  receive  aid  from  the  city  as  they 
passed  through  ? — A.  Yes. 

Q.  Were  ihcre  not  also  gifts  of  money,  food,  or  clothing  which  they  could  obtain 
from  other  charitable  sources? — A.  Yes;  there  is  a  Volkskiicbe  (public  kitchen), 
whore  they  could  got  a  good  dinner  for  little  or  nothing,  and  from  the  city  almshouse 
they  are  provided  with  clothing  and  sliues  when  necessary.  There  is  also  an  asylum 
for  the  homeless,  where  they  may  obtain  for  two  days  free  lodging  and  breakfast  and 
sui>per ///Y(//.s. 

Q.  Is  it  only  in  Stuttgart  that  such  a  paradise  for  Journeymen  laborers  exists? — A. 
No;  it  is  so  all  over  Germany.  A  workman  who  is  naturally  lazy  but  clever,  can,  by 
traveling  constantly  from  ])laco  to  place,  keep  himself  well  fed,  clothed,  and  lodged 
without  doing  a  day's  work.  I  have  known  fellows  to  stay  around  for  three  weeks  in 
this  way  within  a  circuit  of  five  hours'  walk  doing  no  work  and  yet  well  cared  for  all 
the  time. 

Q.  What  remedy  would  you  suggest  for  this  excessive  charity  ? — A.  The  concentra- 
tion of  the  charities  into  the  largei- cities  which  are  removed  some  distance  from  each 
other;  further,  that  no  relief  be  given  exc(4)t  to  workmen  who  can  show  that  they 
are  willing  to  work  but  unable  to  obtaiu  em[)loymeut; 

THE  TRAMP   QUESTION. 

I  am  as.sured  on  very  reliable  authority  that  this  tramp  qtiestion,  as 
alluded  to  so  ijointedly  by  Mr.  Palkenstein,  is  not  alone  applicable  to 
Wurtemberg,  but  equally  so  to  all  parts  of  Germany.     The  provision 


LABOR  IN  EUPOPE GERMANY.  581 

made  by  botli  i)iil)lic  and  private  (charity  Ibr  the  relief  of  i)Oor  travelers 
is,  by  iiiany  tlunking-  people,  considered  as  doiiio-  more  credit  to  the 
hearts  than  to  tl)e  heads  of  tlie  givers.  One  man  whom  I  have  talked 
with  openly  inveighs  against  the  present  distribution  of  alms  as  a 
"premium  on  idleness."  How  numerous  these  vagaboiuls  and  needy 
rovers  are  in  this  section  at  least — for  1  cauuot  speak  for  others — may 
be  inferred  from  the  following  extracts  recently  cut  at  random  from  the 
Stuttgart  papers,  viz  : 

Schorndorf,  April  5. — Duriup;  the  past  niontli  Htitt  trarn|iN  (arwi  reisende)  were  given 
relief  in  this  district  with  the  snm  of  *218  marks  from  the  county  fiiuds.  As  the  ex- 
penses are  constantly  increasing  in  this  regard,  this  system  of  almsgiving  will  have 
to  be  abolished. 

yeckarsiilm,  April  21. — Since  November,  1883,  relief  to  tramps  by  public  almsgiving 
has  been  in  operation  in  five  stations  of  this  district,  the  cost  thereof  amounting  to 
about  '2,870  marks  u]>  to  the  end  of  March.  This  system  of  n-licf  will  be  continued 
dm-ing  the  fiscal  year  l!584-'8.">,  the  expense  to  the  county  therefor  footing  up  to  40,000 
marks. 

Gviiivd.  April  22. — By  vote  of  the  county  meeting,  a  system  of  public  almsgiving  is 
to  go  into  ett'ect  in  this  district  on  the  1st  of  May  next  for  the  assistance  of  needy 
strangers,  and  as  a  means  of  resistance  against  vagabondage. 

I  might  add  a  dozen  more  such  paragraphs,  but  the  foregoing  suffice 
to  show  how  generally  recognized  is  the  system  of  rendering  assistance 
to  tramps  out  of  the  public  funds  of  the  different  counties.  Take,  again, 
for  instance,  the  city  of  Stuttgart.  The  amount  which  was  disbursed 
to  poor  travelers  last  year  out  of  the  city  treasury  will  be  found  stated 
elsewhere  (see  interview  with  police  president  Schmidhauser),  but  its 
generous  provision  for  its  resident  poor,  sick,  and  infirm  amounts  for 
the  year  ISS-A-'So  to  381,089.32  marks.  This  tramp  question,  in  fact,  is 
exciting  widespread  attention  and  evoking  a  general  demand  for  its 
solution.  Many  of  these  vagabonds  are  fellows  who  live  by  their  wits, 
who  are  more  or  less  imbued  with  the  rudiments  of  Socialistic  ideas  and, 
it  is  to  be  feared,  would  not  hesitate  at  criminal  acts  were  an  opportu- 
nity offered.  Not  long  ago  a  banker's  office  in  this  city  was  entered 
about  dusk  by  four  men,  who  leveled  the  banker  and  a  friend  who  was 
with  him  to  the  ground,  emptied  the  safe,  and  disappeared.  One  of  the 
four  was  captured  a  few  hours  later,  alighting  from  a  train  at  Pforzheim, 
in  Baden,  but  before  the  police  could  remove  him  to  the  jail  he  threw 
two  bombs,  with  which  he  had  provided  himself,  a  shower  of  bullets 
followed,  and  several  persons,  including  the  prisoner,  were  wounded. 
On  being  brought  to  Stuttgart  and  examined  before  a  magistrate,  he 
boldly  proclaimed  himself  an  Anarchist.  His  three  companicns  in  crime 
have  not  yet  been  captured.  All  four,  it  appeared,  came  from  other  cities, 
more  or  less  lemote,  and  the  one  arrested  from  some  point  in  Eastern 
Germany  or  Austria,  though  he  had  also  been  employed  at  Zurich  and 
St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland. 

I  do  not  quote  this  incident  as  giving  a  type  of  the  average  unem- 
ployed workingman,  traveling  from  place  to  place,  for  I  believe,  on 
general  i)rincii)les,  that  no  man  who  is  willing  to  do  honest  labor  can  be 
classed  as  a  bad  man,  and  I  l»elieve,  furthermore,  that  the  majority  of 
these  poor  travelers  are  willing  to  do  work  if  they  can  find  it.  But 
there  is  a  bad  element  among  them,  consisting  of  men  who  consider 
themselves  the  apostles  sent  to  preach  the  gospel  of  a  new  and  remod- 
eled societ}'.     And  this  leads  me  to  say  a  word  in  relation  to — 

WORKINGMEN'S   COLONIES. 

During  the  past  year  a  number  of  philanthropic  citizens  of  Wurtem 
berg,  having  at  heart  the  interest  and  reclamation  of  such  workingoiea 
92  A— LAB 36 


562  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

as,  having  been  long  out  of  employment,  miolit  have  fallen  into  idle^ 
unthrifty,  and  dissohite  habits,  organized  themselves  together  for  the 
founding  of  what  is  known  as  an  "Arbeitercolonie."  On  the  11th  of 
Sei)tember,  1883,  they  adopted  statutes  (a  copy  of  which  I  forward 
witli  tliis  re])ort)  and  gave  a  substantial  i)roof  of  their  pliilanthropy  by 
purchasing  on  the  same  day,  for  50,000  marks,  a  farm  of  about  200 
acres,  near  the  village  of  Dornaliof,  in  the  southeasterly  section  of  the 
Kingdom.  Upon  tliisfarm  accommodations  and  work  are  provided,  or 
to  be  provided,  for  100  inmates,  who  can  be  admitted  on  their  own  aj)- 
plication  and  who  are  free  to  withdraw  when  they  desire.  The  enterprise 
is  to  be  maintained  atfirstby  voluntary  charitable  subscriptions,  a-^sisted, 
so  far  as  possible,  by  tlie  proceeds  of  the  labor  of  the  inmates,  who  are 
to  do  farm  labor  or  such  other  pro])er  work  as  can  be  found  for  them  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  colony.  It  may  be  stated  that  it  is  not  ex- 
pected by  the  managers  that  the  colony  will  ever  prove  entirely  self- 
sustaining,  but  the  annual  deficit,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  small  and  quite 
within  the  reach  of  moderate  charity.  It  is  too  early,  as  yet,  to  give  a 
definite  report  of  the  success  of  the  undertaking,  but  its  excellent  aim 
commends  it  to  the  imitation  of  other  communities,  and  to  the  good 
wishes  of  all. 

OFFICIAL   INFORMATION  FROM   POLICE   SOURCES. 

I  am  indebted  to  Herr  Schmidhauser,  president  of  the  board  of  police 
of  thiis  city,  an  experienced  and  trusted  official,  for  the  interesting  and 
valuable  information,  otherwise  unobtaiiiable,  comprised  in  the  follow- 
ing answers  to  my  questions,  viz: 

Question.  How  many  poor  travelers  were  provided  for  by  tlie  city  of  Stuttgart  dur- 
iii"'  tlie  year  1881?? — Answer.  Ten  tliousaud  one  lumdrcd  and  sixty.- 

Q.  Were  most  of  them  natives  of  Wurtemberg,  or  of  other  pai'ts  of  Germany? — 
A.  There  were  G,50ri  of  them  who  were  natives  of  Wurtemberg ;  it  is  not  recorded 
where  the  others  belonged. 

Q.  Who  defrays  the  expense  of  providing  for  those  poor  travelers,  and  is  there  a 
limited  or  unlimited  fund  for  it  ? — A.  The  city  pays  the  actual  expenses;  there  is  no 
.-special  fund  for  the  purpose. 

Q.  Ill  what  does  the  aid  rendered  them  consist? — A.  In  lodging  over  night,  and  a 
liter  of  soup  in  the  evening,  and  again  in  the  morning,  for  which,  as  a  rule,  work  is 
done  to  the  value  of  .''^  or  10  pfennigs. 

Q.  What  is  about  the  number  of  such  persons  provided  for  annually  ? — A.  The  law 
authorizing  such  provision  was  only  enacted  in  November,  1877.  Since  that  time  the 
number  annually  assisted  has  been  1878,  1,356;  1879,  11,5159;  1880,  15,132;  1881, 
13,245;  1882,  9,403;  1--83,  10,160. 

Q.  How  many  opei-atives  are  there  emj)loyed  in  Stuttgart? — A.  On  an  average  16,960,. 
of  whom  only  3,503  are  females. 

Q.  How  many  of  these  dwell  in  Stuttgart? — A.  About  91.5  per  cent.,  or  16,960  in  all. 

Q.  How  many  live  within  a  distance  of  two  hours  from  the  town? — A.  Fifteen 
hundred,  or  about  8.5  per  cent. 

Q.  What  is  the  proportion  of  unemployed  op(>ratives  among  the  whole  number ; 
and  is  such  jtroportion  largtsr  or  smallt^r  now  than  the  average  during  the  last  ten 
years? — A.  There  is  no  basis  upon  which  to  forui  an  estimate  of  the  proportion  now 
unemployed,  not  even  an  ap])roximate  one.  It  is,  however,  not  considerable,  and 
probably  has  not  varied  much,  as  the  uuusnally  large  number  of  operatives  in  the 
years  1870  to  1873  has  now  been  abo\it  otfset  by  tiu^  increase  of  population  since  that 
time. 

Q.  How  many  females  are  euiploy(>d  in  Stuttgart  in  factories,  shops,  as  servants, 
&c.,  ami  how  many  of  them  are  under  lifteen  years  of  age? — A.  There  are  12,724  fe- 
male em])l()y(^s,  but  the  exact  number  under  iifteen  cannot  be  stated.  It  is,  however, 
comparatively  small. 

Q.  What  provisions  are  there  for  female  employi^s  in  case  of  illness? — A.  Th<^y  are 
set  forth  in  the  accomi)anying  pamphlet  containing  the  regulations  of  the  "  Krank- 
heits-Kosten-Versicherungs-Austalt"  of  the  city  hospital,  [rumphlet  forwarded 
herewith.] 


T.AliOK.    IN"    EUROPE — -GERMANy.  5G3 

'Q.  'Wkw.t  iiro  in  <;o«vral  the  liabit.s  of  tlii^  wnrkinji  cbisseH  in  Stnf  tcjnrt  ?  An,'  they 
:-6tetfi(iy,  Mnifty,:uul  onlf rly,  and  what  iiitiuciiccs  cxiist  to  render  timir  hahit.s  better 
•  or  w^irs*:""  Are  they  in<'line<l  to  treciueiit  |iu))lie  h<nises  ? — A.  Tlieir  liahits  are  in  .e;en- 
entl  ordraly,  tlionifli  they  ini<>ht  be  a  little  more  thrifty.  The  only  bad  habit  whieh 
may  liave  inliuence  on  their  mode  of  livinjj;  is  that  the  workinjiimen  fie<|neut  public 
liounes'tiiiore  than  is  new^isary  or  desirable.  The  new  Imperial  laws,  providing  for 
theiinRHiraiiee  of  workiiigmen  a<;ainst  sickness  and  accident,  will,  no  donbt,  exercise 
a  vi?ry  favorable  infiiiencf  on  the  condition  of  the,  working  classes. 

Q.  i]fr»w  many  public  Louses  are  there  in  Stuttgart? — A.  Five  hundred  and  seveiity- 
live.' 

INSURANCE   AGAINST   ILLNESS   AND   ACCIDENT. 

A«  will  have  been  seen  by  reading  the  statements  of  the  various 
workiBg"  people  and  others  interviewed  in  the  preparation  of  this  re- 
port, the  existence  of  relief  societies  among  the  working  (Masses  here  is 
almost  universal.  They  consist,  however,  as  a  general  thing,  of  small 
unions  organized  among  the  operatives  in  each  factory  by  themselves, 
or  in  organizations  among  the  individual  trades.  It  is  the  object  of  the 
new  Jaw  alhtded  to  by  President  Schmidhauser,  and  now  under  consid- 
eration before  the  Berlin  Reichstag,  to  rephu.'e  all  these  smaller  organ- 
izatioiKs  l>y  one  general  system  framed  in  accordance  with  carefully 
specified  legal  provisions.  As  the  measure  lias  not  yet  become  a  law, 
I  merely  allude  to  it  briefly  here,  but  the  itidications  are  tliat  it  will  be 
adqpteil  and  carried  into  effect,  and  if  so,  that  it  will  prove  a  wise  and 
beneficent  measure.  I  forward  with  this  report  a  printed  copy  of  it 
.and. a  summary  of  its  x>i'Ovisions. 

AN  ITALIAN  INVASION. 

The  importation  of  large  gangs  of  laborers  from  Northern  Italy  into 
Crerm&ny  and  Austria  from  time  to  time,  as  occasion  requires,  is  now  a 
reco^ynizcd  phase  of  the  labor  question  in  this  section  of  Europe.  These 
imported  hands  are  available  only  for  the  rougher  kind  of  work,  viz, 
*liggin^-.  blasting,  and  railroad  building,  but  /or  that  kind  of  work  uoiie 
are  sui>erior  to  them  in  oi'ganization  and  elticiency.  They  do  not  settle 
down  when  they  come;  they  are  simply  hired  for  a  specified  time  to  do 
certain  work;  railroad  travel  is  cheap,  and  when  tlieir  work  is  done 
they  return  home  to  their  families  with  their  foreign  wages  in  their 
pockets.  The  system  is  now  so  well  organized  that  5,000  or  10,000  Ital- 
ian woi;-kinen,  trained  and  equipped,  can  be  thrown  into  any  given  work- 
ing point  in  South  Germany  at  a  week's  or  ten  days'  notice,  and,  from  all 
accounts^  too  much  cannot  be  said  in  praise  of  the  })romptitude  and 
thoroughness  with  which  they  do  their  work.  I  quote  an  article  recently 
Itubli.shed  on  this  sul>ject  in  theSocial-Correspondenz,  showingthe  atten- 
tion which  it  has  already  commenced  to  attract: 

Like  the  birds  of  i>assage,  there  are  other  flocks  which  swarm  into  Germany  at  the 
beginning  of  every  spring,  tlie  rail svay  cominuniciations  rendering  a  lively  interna- 
tional traffic  possil)le.  We  refer  to  the  numerous  troops  of  Italian  laborers  who  come 
to  seek  and  to  lind  what  they  fail  to  obtain  adeciuately  at  home — work.  According 
to  reports  froni  Udine  up  to  the  end  of  February,  the  ]ti-efecture  there  had  during 
the  first  two  months  of  this  year  issued  ten  thousand  passports  for  mechanics  and 
operatives,  who  .vent  to  Germany  a:id  Austria  to  l)e  on  hand  in  season  for  the  resnm])tiou 
of  the  building  work.  In  their  special  branches,  especially  in  earth  and  rock  work,  the 
Italian  oi)eratives  are  sui»erior  to  the  (Germans,  and  that  for  three  reason  :  Firstly,  they 
are  more  j)ersevering,  more  moderate,  and  nu)re  industrious;  secondly,  they  know 
Jietter  how  to  profit  by  the  principle  of  division  of  labor  ;  and  thirdly,  they  are  far 
more  judiciously  organized.  Supjjose,  for  instance,  that  the  proposals  of  a  Vienna 
contractor  for  boring  a  tunnel  have  just  been  accei)ted,  and  that,  in  consideration  of 

'According  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  rejiort  for  1883,  there  were  consumed  dur- 
ing that  year  261  liters  of  beer  per  capita  of  population. 


564  LABOR  IX  EUROPE GERMANY. 

a  premium^for  the  early  completion  of  the  work,  it  is  important  to  commence  it  at 
once  ;  what  does  he  do  in  order  to  procure  100  or  10,000  experienced,  punctual,  and 
stoady  workmen,  without  dclii\- ;'  He  calls  on  one  of  the  well-known  a^^enls  I'oi'  Ital- 
ian workmen  in  Vienna,  and  obtains,  so  to  speak,  immediately  what  lie  could  other- 
wise scarcely  procure  even  at  extraordinary  expenditure  of  trouble  and  time,  viz,  a 
ready  army  ot  competent  workmen. 

Three  days  after  the  work  at.  the  Arlberg  tunnel  had  been  ii  warded,  hundreds  of 
workmen  from  the  Italian  Tyrol  had  already  arrived  on  the  <Trouud,  and  in  one  week 
the  work  wasbejrun.  Most  of  thi'.  skilled  Italian  workmtni  come  from  the  Piedmont, 
Trient.  and  L"'riaul,  regions  where,  in  a  constant  struggle  with  rocks  and  mountains, 
they  had  had  occasion  in  building  roads  and  tunnels,  to  become  tinally  excellent 
stone- workers.  In  those  regions  the  number  of  temporary  emigrants  amounts,  accord- 
ing to  official  statements,  to  from  4  to  6  per  cent.  In  each  place  there  is  a  chief  (c«j)o) 
who  in  turn  is  in  constant  communication  with  all  the  agents  abroad,  and  knows  the 
number  of  hands  available  in  his  locality.  lu  case  of  a  demand  everything  is  regu- 
lated as  if  it  were  a  movlment  of  troops.  Each  one  knows  his  place  and  his  duties 
beforehand,  and  each  finds  in  this  organization  the  tirm  foundation  of  his  econouucal 
existence,  the  sure  guarantee  for  the  best  realization  of  his  work.  For  a  number  of 
decades  past,  since  the  middle  of  the  "forties,"  when  Italian  workmen  first  came  to 
Germany,  to  be  employed  at  first  in  railway  building  in  Baden  and  Wurtemburg, 
this  organization  lias  proved  satisfactory  both  to  employer  and  laborer,  and  it  would, 
be  indeed  worth  while  for  German  workmen  to  endeavor  to  learn  something  about  it 
from  their  foreign  colleagiies. 

Commeuting  upon  the  foregoiiig  article  tlie  Schwabische  Wochen- 
blatt  of  this  city  says  : 

The  above  is  from  the  Social-Correspondenz,  a  journal  calling  itself  the  "organ 
of  the  Central  Union,  for  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes."  The  Italian  workmen 
are  here  put  forward  as  an  examj)le  to  the  German.  This  shows  the  criterion  by  which 
the  paper  in  question  judges.  The  lower  the  workman's  grade,  the  more  capable  does 
he  appear  in  its  eyes.  This  explains  why  thousands  of  laborers  from  Italy,  Bohemia, 
East  and  West  Prussia,  Posen,  and  Silesia  are  in  demand  throughout  Southern  and 
Western  Germany.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  that  in  America  Chinese  are  i)referred 
to  American  workmen,  but  it  is  significant  enough  that  a  journal  which  is  constantly 
talking  about  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes,  should  openly  assume  such  a  posi- 
tion as  this. 

That  which  is  recommended  as  an  especially  good  systtmi,  and  which  has  proved 
"satisfactory  both  to  employer  and  laborer,"  is  the  English  "gan^  system."  Its 
character  has  been  properly  described  by  Marx.  The  moral  effect  of  these  migratione 
can  readily  be  imagined,  and  it  is  cnrious  that  a  paper  which  is  wont  to  commend  the 
plan  of  workmen  settling  down  in  some  particular  place,  should  now  find  this  migra- 
tory system  worthy  of  imitation.  We  scarcely  think  it  would  have  any  attractiveness 
for  German  workingmen.  The  German  laborer,  being  accustomed  to  a  better  way  of 
living,  does  not  yearn  for  the  enviable  lot  of  these  wandering  bands  of  Italians  and 
Poles,  and  there  is  reason  to  doubt  the  patriotism  of  many  of  those  Social  Politiker 
who,  while  they  cannot  boast  enough  about  their  national  pride,  are  yet  not  aware 
how  they  disown  it,  in  endeavoring  to  place  Gernmn  workingmen  on  a  par  with  those 
of  other  nationalities  of  a  lower  degree  of  culture. 

THE   LABOR   QUESTION  AND   MARRIAGE. 

An  important  and  interesting  phase  of  this  labor  question  is  to  note 
the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the  subject  of  the  marriage  relation  in  the 
community.  Low  wages  necessarily  deter  workmen  from  taking  wives 
and  incurring  the  consequent  support  of  a  family.  The  result  is,  tliat 
here  most  of  the  marriages  occur  between  the  ages  of  30  and  40,  simply 
for  the  reason  that  at  the  usual  age  for  marrying  (20-30)  men  are  unable  to 
take  t  he  responsibility.  In  tlie  end,  the  pro})ortion  of  people  who  n)arry 
here  is  probably  about  the  same  as  elsewhere  ;  for  instance  in  Massachu- 
setts the  proportion  of  married  peo])le  to  the  whole  population,  is  44 ; 
in  Wurtemberg  not  quite  40,  an  unappreciable  diifereuce.  Here  they 
marry  later,  that  is  all,  and  simply  because  they  have  to  work  longer 
into  their  life-time  before  arriving  at  the  point  where  the  responsibility 
can  be  assumed.  For  marriages  here,  and  especially  early  marriages, 
as  a  rule,  are  not  entered  ui^ou  thoughtlessly  and  with  a  blind  trust  in 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


565 


the  fortunes  of  the  future.  Hence,  the  exceptionally  large  number  of 
the  population  between  the  ages  of  20  and  30  who  are  unmarried. 
Now  I  hnd,  for  instance,  that  in  no  bakery  or  butcher's  establishment 
in  this  city,  is  a  married  workman  employed  ;  moreover,  the  bakers  em- 
ploy none  older  than  35,  the  butchers  none  older  than  30,  and  it  is  to 
be  presumed  that  the  samb  proscriptive  conditions  prevail  in  the  selec- 
tion of  workmen  in  many  of  the  other  similar  branches  of  business. 
The  evident  object  is  to  secure  thereby  men  who,  having  only  them- 
selves to  support,  can  afford  to  take  lower  wages  than  would  men  with 
families,  and  it  goes  a  long  way  toward  explaining  why  the  majority  of 
marriages  are  deferred  until  after  the  age  of  30. 

When,  however,  we  come  to  consider  the  further  effects  of  this  question 
as  relating  to  the  number  of  births  and  the  increase  of  the  population, 
we  tind  that  the  lateness  of  marriage  produces  no  appreciable  effect. 
The  })opulation  of  the  Kingdom  goes  on  increasing,  as  before  stated,  at 
the  rate  of  more  than  1  per  cent,  per  annum.  In  1882  there  were  21,885 
more  births  than  deaths  in  Wurtemberg,  in  a  population  a  little  less 
than  two  millions.  During  that  year  the  total  number  of  children  born 
was  78,427,  of  whom  G,986  were  born  out  of  wedlock,  or  a  i)roportiou  of 
8.01  per  cent,  as  compared  with  9.3  per  cent,  for  the  whole  Grerman 
Empire.  In  respect  to  marriages,  too,  the  statistics  of  Wurtemberg 
are  even  more  favorable  than  those  of  the  German  Empire,  for,  while 
the  ratio  of  population  is  22.9  per  cent.,  the  ratio  of  married  people  is 
27.0  per  cent.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  (see  Table  III),  that,  while  the 
population  of  Germany  has  increased  over  4,200,000  since  1873,  there 
were  05,000  fewer  marriages  in  1882  than  there  were  in  1873,  while  the 
number  of  births  was  over  50,000  greater. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  at  a  cflniHe  the  distribution  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  Kingdom  as  regards  the  single  or  married  state,  viz : 


Age. 


Under  15  years 

15  to  20  years 

20  to  30  years 

30  to  40  years 

40  to  SO  years 

50  to  60  years 

60  to  70  years 

70  years  aud  upwards  . 


Minors, 

siu)jle  and 
divorced. 


700,  587 
181,  7.54 
188,  304 
49,  944 
27,  993 
20,  061 
12,  916 
6,  327 


Totals  Wurtemberg  (census  1880). 
Massachusetts  (census  1875) 


1,187,886 
*912,  516 


Married. 


426 

77,  Oil 

204,  644 

179,  950 

115,430 

63,  538 

19,  556 


660,  555 
645,  245 


Widowed. 


Total. 


3 

725 
4,937 
11,837 
22,  505 
34,  595 
34,  426 


109,  028 
94, 151 


700,  587 
182, 183 
206,  040 
259,  525 
219,  780 
157,  996 
111,049 
60,  309 


1,  957,  469 
1,  651,  912 


*  Including  2,307  unknown. 

In  order  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  life  of  an  average  married  work- 
ingman  here  in  Stuttgart,  I  requested  a  worthy  man,  a  potter  by  trade, 
living  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  consulate,  to  appear  before  me  and 
answer,  so  far  as  he  felt  disposed,  such  questions  as  should  be  ])ut  to 
him  in  regard  to  the  products  of  his  labor,  and  also  the  manner  and  cost 
of  his  living.     His  short  and  simple  story  is  given  herewith  : 

WHAT   POTTER   SCHWEIGERT,  OF   STUTTGART,  SAYS. 


I  am  tliirty-foiir  years  olil ;  born  in  Baden;  married,  witliont  children,  and  have 
lived  in  Stnttsjart  since  1876.  I  served  a  three  years'  apprenticeship  in  Cailsruhe, 
worked  at  my  trade  for  two  years  at  Blanbenron,  Wurtember<i^ ;  then  tried  it  for  three 
or  four  niontlis  in  Barmen,  Prnssia ;  then  came  back  to  VViirtember<;j,  aud  worked  for 


o66 


-LABOU    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


half  a  year  at  Iloillji'oiui,  another  half  year  at  Elhvaugeii,  Iheu  abonjf  nitieownt'lbs  at 
Calw,  after  which  I  came  to  this  city,  wiiere  I  worked  for  four  yeara^iii  thetHtijiliwy  of 
others,  and  in  188"J  I  hej^an  business  for  myself.  I.  married  a  yeai  after  I  oaiu*  to 
■Stutt^nrt.  My  father  was  a  master  mason  in  Baden,  and  liad  fiva  ohildr'^^ii,.  tVar  of 
"whoiii  were  sons,  1  being  the  fonrth.  I  had  to  learn  some  trade,  sah\  I;clK/m«  thiat  of 
a  potter.  As  1  entered  my  sixteenth  year  I  V»e>jau  my 'prentice=»lliy».  M,v  enitrance 
fee  amonnted  to  80  jfulden  [$3:5],  one-half  of  which  had  to  be  cashdowai,*iie  remain- 
der at  the  middle  of  my  three  years'  service.  My  father  jiave  niftilio  nioiiny.  As  ap- 
prentice I  got  my  hoard  and  lodging  free,  bnt  no  wages.  Having  drawn  ii  hicky  nnm- 
ber,  I  was  a  military  supemnmerary,  classed  with  the  reserve,  aTiditlieref>i;i'eiiiot  liable 
to  active  service.  I  remained  with  my  employer  at  Carlsrnhe  1jiil, I;  waii.  tiwe-uty  lour, 
•and  then  traveled,  as  above  stated,  finally  settling  here. 

My  business  is  that  of  a  potter.  It  consists  in  pnvting  up  aoidprepariuw  sfone  and] 
irouoveus  and  stoves.  I  generally  employ  one  workman  in  winter,  aiid  for  the  rest 
•of  the  year  manage  my  business  alone,  thei  e  being  in  snmmeTnmcll  less  totJo.  I  earn, , 
on  an  average,  from  $1  to$l.''25  jier  day  the  year  round,  over  aanl.above.  tbe  tsxjienses  and . 
-outlays  of  my  bns'iness.  On  that  income  I  support  myselt  and  wife'  and  keep  clear- 
of  debt,  bnt  can  lay  by  little  or  nothing.  Whatever  could  bn  saveri  iiHUst  go  for  clbthT. 
ing  ami  such  things.  I  manage  to  liv^e  on  this  income,  because  3  must.  I  occupy-, a. 
ground-floor  apartment,  consisting  of  two  small  rooms  aJids a  kitehien,  with  also>soui«. 
little  additional  room  in  the  basement  and  cellar.  I  ha-v'«t!;is.ap>;i'rtiuent  free  of  rent 
in  consideration  of  my  services  in  looking  after  the  res.t  ofitlie  b»ust^,  Avhich  i^a  t.>vo-^. 
■story  one,  occupied  by  other  parties.  My  duty  is  to  i:.eep,thi6  premises  cleaaapd:  ini 
•order. 

We  breakfast  at  about  6  on  cotfce  and  rolls;  dine  a.!)  l'2&n  .<«>np,  sonp-m&at',  a,headl 
■of  salad  or  some  other  kind  of  vegetable,  and  breart;-  awl  our  evening  uxesji  generfvll^- 
ijousists  of  what  remains  over  from  dinner,  with  ^rhaps  a  .'wiusage,  or  so>it:thing  )iik«« 
that,  added.  Besides  these  meals  we  generally  tJtice  a  bit  oi'  bread  and  a  *tvink  nf  hn&v 
or  cider  in  the  middle  of  the  morning  and  abcut  4  in  the  afternoon.  We  em,,>ioy  no 
servant.  I  have  to  buy  four  or  five  pairs  of  bxxjts.  or  shoos  every  year.,  And  the  ii,aitwro 
of  my  business  compels  me  to  incur  more  ex,peuse  for  clothing  than  tl^.  a»vera.g«^  work- 
man."   My -expenses  may  be  summed  up  aa.iioll«wa: 


Rent 

rood,  at  '2.75  marks  per  day 

Fuel  and  lights 

Resid©nc«  tax -. 

Dues  to  mechanics'  aid  society  ,,,-.. 

For  iiiioome  tax , . 

For  clothing  for  self  and  wifb 

fxvaving  for  midcenaneous  expenses 

365  days,  at  4.50  marks  per  day 


Msalka. 


Dollars. 


Free. 

990  00 

235  82 

102  00 

24  27 

4  00 

95 

1-2  00 

2  85 

9  00 

2  14 

350  00 

83  30 

175  50 

41  77 

1,  642  30 

390  90 

My  wife  and  I  generally  go  out  walking  on  Sunday  afternoons,  and  usually  stop  in  at 
some  Wirthschaft,  whc^re  we  spend  from  1  to  2  marks  for  beer  and  other  refreshments. 
This  ontlaj"  of  course  comes  out  of  the  balance  above  included  under  the  head  of  mis^ 
cellaneous  expenses.  I  work  hard  from  6  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m.  for  six  days  in  the  week, 
and  feel  that  I  must  have  a  little  change  on  Sundays.  The  prices  of  bread  and  meat 
have  risen  during  the  last  six  years.  For  three  pounds  of  i)read  I  now  pay  5  pfen^ 
nigs  (IJ  cents)  more,  and  for  a  pound  of  meat  10  pfennigs  ('2|  cents)  more  than  I  did  in 
1876.  I  am  a  member  of  no  organization  except  of  the  Mechanics'  Aid  Society. 
Times  are  not  so  good  in  our  ])nHiaess  as  in  1*^78;  there  is  not  so  n^uch  denumd  for 
labor.  A  good^harvest  in  the  country  would  r(<vive  business  of  every  kind.  I  have 
no  provision  against  need  or  old  ago  except  the  sum  of  l.HO  nnirka  (44  cents)  per  day 
from  the  Mechanics'  Aid  Society  irt  case  I  fall  ill.  Provided,  tiiU^^-!^  gi""^^'  '1^  worge,  I 
am  contented  with  my  lot. 


MACHINIST  BEH,  OF  ESSLINGEN,  SPEAKS. 

Question.  What  is  your  age,  where  do  you  live,  and  what  is  your  occupation? — 
Answer.  lam  (ifty-four  years  old  ;  I  live  at  E.sslingen,  and  I  am  employed  in  the  ma- 
chin(^  works  at  that  place.     I  have  worked  there  for  twenty-four  years  past. 

Q.  In  which  department  of  the  machine  works  are  you  employed,  and  as  what  ? — A. 
In  the  locomotive  works,  as  a  mechanic. 

Q.  How  many  o])eratives  are  employed  in  the  works  ? — A.  Between  1,400  and  1,500 
men,  working  ten  hours  a  day,  and  sometimes  more,  for  which  they  are  paid  extra. 


LABOR    IN    ETTROPE GERMANY.  567 

Q.  Who  are  the  proprietors  of  the  works  ? — A.  A  comi)aiiy  composed  of  various 
heavy  capitalists. 

Q.  How  many  locomotives  do  the  works  turn  out  in  the  course  of  a  year? — A.  Last 
year  50  or  (iO,  but  it  was  not  aj^ood  year;  during  the  year  before  we  turned  out  80, 
and  there  have  been  •i,U'JO  <lelivered  since;  the  works  were  founded  in  1848.  We  ship 
to  Spain,  Italy,  Austria,  Russia,  and  even  to  South  America  and  Australia. 

Q.  What  other  class  of  machinery,  Ac,  do  your  works  turn  out? — A.  We  manu- 
facture lailway  cars  and  agricultural  machinery. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive  for  a  working  day  of  10  hours? — A.  I  am  pair!  by 
the  piece,  and  I  earn  an  average  of  4  marks  i>er  day  the  year  round. 

Q.  Ls  that  nu)n;  than  the  average  earn  ? — A.  My  earnings  are  a  little  higher  than 
the  average,  which  may  be  stated  at  3. 60  marks  to  3.80  marks  per  day.  The  lowest 
paid  earn  "2. "20  marks  per  day  ;  the  highest — as,  for  instance,  the  men  who  w>)rk  the 
steam  hammer  and  the  men  who  put  the  locomotives  together — 5  marks  per  day. 

Q.  Your  income,  then,  amounts  to  about  1,500  marks  per  year,  I  should  say? — A. 
Yes,  about  that  amount.  I  could  not  well  get  along  on  less  and  support  myself  and 
family.  I  have  three  children,  one  a  married  daughter,  living  in  Bavari?  ;  the  second 
a  son,  tweuty-five  years  old,  and  an  engraver  by  trade;  the  third  also  a  sou,  twenty 
years  ohl,  and  eujployed  as  a  watchmaker.  Only  the  latter  is  to  auy  extent  depend- 
ent on  me. 

Q.  Would  you  object  to  giving  me  a  general  detailed  statement  of  how  your  1,500 
marks  income  is  distributed  ? — A.  Certainly  not.     I  pay — 


Marks. 


Dollars. 


For  rent  (2  rooms,  kitchen,  cellar,  and  garret) . 

For  food,  2  marks  per  day 

For  fuel  and  ligbt 

For  clothing,  shoes,  &c 

For  taxes  and  relief  fund 

For  tools,  utensils,  i  epairs,  &c 

For  outlay  for  son  (apprentice) 

For  beer,  self  and  wife 

For  miscellaneous  and  casual  expenses 


200 

47  60 

730 

173  74 

60 

14  28 

130 

30  94 

36 

8  57 

50 

11  90 

40 

9  52 

120 

28  56 

134 

31  89 

Total 1,500       357  00 


Q.  Do  you  belong  to  any  relief  society ? — A.  Yes;  we  have  an  aid  association  to 
which  all  the  workmen  in  the  machine  works  belong.  I  pay  1.50  marks  every  month  ; 
^nd  then,  if  I  am  taken  sick,  the  association  pays  me  1.20  marks  per  day  as  long  as  I 
am  unable  to  work. 

Q.  Do  you  belong  to  any  workiu^inen's  union  ? — A.  No ;  I  belong  to  no  society 
whatever. 

Q.  Are  the  workmen,  whom  you  know,  generally  contented  and  happy  ? — A.  Yes, 
:as  long  as  they  get  regular  work. 

Q.  Are  times  better  in  your  trr.de  now,  or  worse,  than  they  were  six  years  ago  I — 
A.  Much  worse,  on  account  of  increased  competition  from  all  sides. 

THE   STUTTGART   CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETY. 

While  these  societies  are  organized  for  the  purpose  of  fiirnishiug  to 
members  jfood  aud  genuine  articles  for  cash  and  at  current  prices,  they, 
at  the  s;ime  time,  aim,  through  wholesale  transactions,  at  realizing 
profits  wkicli  are  put  to  the  members' credit.  To  this  end  the  co-operative 
society  in  Stuttgart,  after  which  the  others  now  existing  in  Wurtemberg 
have  bec'j  modeled,  has  in  operation  eleven  different  stores,  and  also  keeps 
a  large  f^torehouse  from  which  the  goods  are  furnished  as  required.  It 
has  alfo  contracts  with  variou*  tradesmen  and  merchants,  whereby  they 
bind  themselves  to  pay  a  certain  discount,  amounting  to  about  8  per 
oeiit,,  to  the  society  on  all  goods  sold  to  members.  All  accounts  are 
set'led  quarterly-,  and,  an  inventory  having  been  taken,  a  balance  is 
stvuck  according  to  the  usual  method  of  commercial  bookkeeping.  One- 
half  per  cent,  is  deducted  quarterly  from  the  value  of  the  immovable, 
and  15 J  i)er  cent,  from  that  of  the  movable,  assets;  about  5  per  ctMit.  of  the 
profits  are  transferred  to  the  reserve  fund,  and  the  remainder  is  distributed 


568  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

quarterly  among  the  members  pro  rata,  according  to  the  amonnt  drawn 
in  counters  by  each  from  the  society  during  the^quarter.  The  govern- 
ment of  tlie  society  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  meeting  every  quar- 
ter, in  a  board  of  audit  meeting  at  least  once  a  month,  and  in  the  director. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  l)oard  of  audit  to  supervise  the  action  of  thedirector 
and  of  the  employes,  and  to  see  that  everything'  is  conducted  in  conform- 
ity with  the  statutes,  and  with  the  resolutions  of  the  general  assenddy. 
The  board  is  subdivided  into  committees  on  revision,  on  piirchase,  and  on 
storage,  each  to  serve  for  one  year.  The  supervision  of  each  shop  is 
intrusted  to  one  member  of  the  board,  who  sees  that  goods  are  proj)erly 
looked  after,  and  that  the  shop  is  kept  clean,  examines  the  scales  and 
weights,  and  verities  the  inventory. 

The  duty  of  the  committee  on  revision  consists  in  a  thorough  exami- 
nation of  fc:ll  books  of  the  cash  account  and  of  the  balance  sheet,  and 
the  committoe  is  required  at  least  once  a  month  to  make  an  unannounced 
examination  of  the  cash  balance. 

The  committee  on  ])urchase  meets  weekly  to  determine  what  pur- 
chases of  goods  are  to  be  made,  to  examine  the  purchased  goods  as  re- 
gards quality  and  cost,  and  to  control  the  selling  prices  as  tixed  by  the 
director. 

The  committee  on  storage  sees  that  the  principal  store-house  and  the 
cellars  are  kept  in  good  order,  tliat  there  is  always  a  sutiticient  amount 
of  goods  on  baud,  and  ihat  they  are  of  a  proper  quality,  and  protected 
from  damage  and  spoiling. 

The  financial  results  hKve  been  so  satisfactory'  that  the  society  has- 
been  able,  after  deducting  the  percentages  above  mentioned,  to  declare 
a  dividend  of  not  less  than  t  per  cent.,  while  similar  organizations,  in 
smaller  cities,  have  often  been  able  to  declare  even  a  higlier  one  still. 

The  failure  of  the  Stuttgart  Yolksbank  in  1882,  followed  shortly  after- 
ward by  the  voluntary  liquidatio.n  of  the  Ilandwerkerbank,  tended  to 
shake  the  confidence  previously  exiKting,  in  many  quarters,  in  the  solidity 
of  incorporated  associations  and  tbeir  capacity  for  self-maintenance. 
The  opponents  of  the  co-operative  system,  especially  dealers  in  colonial 
produce,  have  made  strenuous  eftbrts  lo  strengthen  the  prejudu^e  en- 
gendered by  these  occurrences,  chiefly  by  pointing  out  constantly  the 
dangers  incident  to  the  mutual-guaranteo  system..  As  a  result,  the 
society's  membership  has  gradually  de(;reased  from  about  3,800  to 2,700,  of 
whom  one-fourth  are  mechanics  and  factory  operatives  ;  another  fourth 
physicians,  chemists,  teachers,  artists,  authors,  employ(Ss,  and  military 
men;  the  remaining  half  consisting  of  various  porsons  with  or  without 
a  regular  occupation.  It  is  believed  that  the  membership  has  now 
touched  its  lowest  limit,  and  that  the  opposition  of  its  rivals  will  not 
succeed  in  doing  it  any  further  injury. 

The  co-operative  system  aims  only  at  furnishing  good  wares  for  ready- 
money,  and  the  merits  of  such  an  object  as  this  have  never  been  <pies- 
tioned  in  any  quarter.  As  an  instance  showing  its  intluence  upon  gen- 
eral trad(%  the  fact  may  be  mentioned  that  some  years  ago  the  socnety, 
being  in  j)ossession  of  a  large  stock  of  petroleum,  managed  to  ii(^ad  off 
a  speculation  organized  to  effect  a  considerable  rise  in  the  market.  Nor 
is  the  importance  of  another  fact  to  be  underrated,  viz,  that,  as  the  so- 
ciety sells  only  for  cash,  it  thereby  imposes  upon  its  members  a  general 
system  of  economy. 

LODGINGS,   FUEL,   AND   LIGHT. 

There  has  been  a  complaint  of  late  years  that  the  price  of  lodgings  in 
Stuttgart  has  gone  up.     It  is  certainly  higher  here  than  in  the  smaller 


LABOR    IN    EUKOPK GKKMA.NY. 


569 


cities  of  the  Kiugdoin,  but  even  that  fact  does  not  indicate  an  abnormal 
condition  ofjirices,  as  Stuttgart  has  a  larger  transient  poi)ulation,  and 
tlie  demand  is  consequently  greater.  1  subjoin  a  table  showing  prevail- 
ing rates  of  rent,  fuel,  and  lights,  viz : 


Lodging  per 
mou^h. 

Family  dwelling 
sistin 

permonth,  con- 

gof- 

Fael. 

■ 

Light. 

Locality. 

Half-bed. 

One  bed. 

One  room. 

Two  rooms. 

Outs   room,  with 
kitchen,  cellar, 
servant's  room, 
and  wood  shod. 

Two  rooms,  with 
same. 

Hard  coal. 

"Wood. 

Peat. 

• 

o 

•3 
o 
O 

ca 

Stuttgart $0  71 

Cannstatt 71 

<$1  19 
i    2  38 

1  19 

1  19 

1  07 

|$2  38 

<    1  43 

\    2  14 

1  43 

^    1  43 

C$2  62 
\    5  95 
3  57 
3  81 
2  38 
2  38 

^$4  28 
3  57 

$5  95 

I    A.  7R 

100 
pounds. 

$0  60 

Cubic 
meter. 
K  $2  02 
\    2  86 

100 
pounds. 

J  $0  57 

Liter. 
$0  06 

Kilo- 
meter. 

$0  05 

Esslingen 71 

Ludwigsburg 

3  81     i    "  "" 
2  38         3  33 

2  38  1       2  38 

65 
J       60 

2  38 
2  17 

57 
57 

07 

07 

05 
05 

)    1  90 

3  33          ■  "" 

4  vu 

THE   COST   OF   LIVING. 

I  do  not  think  that  there  has  been  any  appreciable  change  during  the 
last  five  or  six  years  in  the  prices  charged  and  paid  for  the  ordinary 
necessaries  of  life,  such  as  are  daily  used  by  the  working  classes.  Their 
diet  is  simple  and  plain,  and  is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  paid  for  in  cash  when 
purchased.  The  principal  articles  of  daily  consumption  and  their  prices- 
in  this  city  and  at  three  other  neighboring  points  will  be  found  set  forth 
in  the  following  table,  which,  having  been  prepared  under  the  auspices, 
of  the  Stuttgart  Chamber  of  Commerce,  may  be  relied  upon  as  accurate : 


Article. 


Bread,  ordinarj' per  pound.. 

Bread,  black do 

Flour,  rye  do 

Flour,  wheat do 

Butter do 

Milk per  liter.. 

Eggs per  dozen . . 

Potatoes  per  100  pounds.. 

Beef per  pound.. 

Pork do 

Mutton do 

Bacon do . . . 

Beer per  liter.. 


Stuttgart. 


$0  03i 


04i 
05i 
26    I 
29    i 
04 

lU 

95    ? 
1  19    J 
16i 
16i^ 
14i 
19    ? 
21    S 
06 


Cannstatt. 


Esslingen.        Ludwigsburg. 


$0  031 


034 

04i 

24 

04 

20 

1  19 

16i 

16i 

14i 

20 

06 


$0  03J 
01  i 
04| 
05 

25 

04 
18i 

20  : 

71 

16i 

15i 

14i 

20 

21 

06 


$0  03$ 
02i 
03| 
05 

24 

m. 

21 

1  l» 

15 
15 

14J 

24 
06 


Everywhere  throughout  this  section  of  Germany  the  working  people 
are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wherever  they  choose  and 
wherever  they  best  can  do  so.  Employers  impose  no  conditions  in  this- 
regard,  for  such  Imposition  would  be  contrary  to  the  S])irit  of  an  exist- 
ing law  which  recpiires  that  all  operatives  and  working  people  shall  re- 
ceive their  wages  in  hard  cash.  The  working  people  in  turn  rarely 
make  book  accounts  or  bills,  generally  paying  cash  down  for  their  i)ur- 
chases,  and  feeling  that  in  doing  so  they  are  purchasing  cheaper.     As 


'oTO 


LABOR  IX  EUROPE — GERMANY. 


:a  general  thing  employes  are  paid  off  weekly  on  Saturdays,  altbough  in 
«oine  cases  the  pay-day  comes  only  fortiiiglitly.  As  will  be  observed 
by  frequent  references  to  the  subject  occurring  in  this  report,  it  is  ha- 
bitual with  most  operatives  on  receiving  their  ])ay  to  deposit  a  saiall 
portion  of  it,  representing  their  week's  savings,  in  some  savings  bank 
or  other  similar  depository.  This  feeling  is  encoura.aed  l)y  eiii])loyers, 
who,  for  the  most  part,  L  believe,  jne  prompted  b,y  beuehcent  motives  in 
doing  so.  Their  disposition  to  farther  in  other  ways  the  welfare  of  their 
liandf>  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  many  instances  where  factories  exist 
in  the  country  districts  the  proprietors  liave  caused  the  erection  of  com- 
modious dwellings  for  those  of  their  operatives  who  wish  to  occupy 
them  at  moderate  prices.  The  quarters  of  the  working  peoi)le  in  this 
<3ity  are,  as  a  general  thing,  better,  I  think,  than  those  occupied  by  the 
similar  class  of  i)o[)ulation  in  New  York,  and  they  are  constantly  im- 
proving. 

THE   GROWTH   OF   STUTTGART. 

The  activity  here  in  building  is  steady ;  not  so  great  necessarily  as 
during  the  great  s])eculative  period  after  the  war  with  France  (lS73-'74), 
but  a  continuous,  healthy  growth,  resulting  in  the  constant  opening  of 
new  streets  and  the  extension  of  old  ones,  carrying  the  city  each  year 
further  and  further  up  the  slopes  of  the  hills  surrounding  its  original 
limits.  The  buildings  erected  are  mostly  of  stone,  with  four  or  five 
floors ;  solid  in  appearance,  and  generally  very  tasteful  in  architecture. 
It  is  this  steady  growth  and  consequent  demand  for  labor  which  ex- 
plains to  a  great  extent  the  fact  that  so  few  unemployed  workmen  are 
to  be  found  in  the  city. 

The  following  is  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  number  of  buildings  an- 
nually erected  since  1873.  It  will  be  notic'ed  that  there  is  a  great  in- 
crease since  1878-79,  when  the  lowest  ebb  appears  to  have  been  reached : 


Tear. 

Dwellings. 

other 

Number. 

Stories. 

buililings. 

1883 

51 
50 
45 

50 
28 
30 
31 
65 
67 
146 
250 

193 
189 
168 
194 
101 
109 
109i 
210 
258 
590 
1,015 

48 

1882 

20 

1881                   .                                                  .     .                                   

48 

1880 

50 

1879 

51 

1878 

37 

1877 

47 

1876 

50 

1875    

19 

1874    

13 

1873    

25 

Total 

813 

3, 136J 

417 

A  LEADING  EDITOR'S  VIEWS. 


I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Edward  Elben,  editor  of  the  Schwabische  Mer- 
kur,  one  of  the  leading  daily  ])a]>ers  of  this  city,  for  the  following  in- 
teresting expression  of  his  views  on  various  to})ics  i)rominently  identified 
with  the  subject  of  labor  : 

Quoslion.  In  your  ojiiiiion  is  the  prescTit  condition  of  the  working  claHsc8  in  Wnrtem- 
berg  favorable  or  not? — Answer.  It  is  not  nnfavorable. 

Q.  What  is  their  condition  as  compared  witlithat  wliich  existed  iii  1878,  and  what 
difterence  is  there  between  the  bnsiness  sitnatiou  then  and  now  ? — A.  The  sitnatioa 
Las  somewhat  improved. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  571 

Q.  Are  the  working  classes  orderly,  triistworUiy,  anil  thrifty;  and  what  favorable 
inflneiu'es  do  ynu  kno\v  of  which  conduce  to  their  wi'lfare,  or  what  nnfavoi-ahle  in- 
fluences exer(;isin<j  a  contrary  effect? — A.  Those  workmen  who  are  J^()V(^rned  liy  ndifr- 
ious  i)rincii)les  are  generally  steady  and  frugal.  The  work  of  the  church  and  of  the 
free  Christian  associiations  has  an  improving  etiCect  on  them.  On  the  other  hand,  in- 
jurious clfects  result  from  the  irrcat  numhci-  of  public  liouses, which  are  too  much  fre- 
quented, as  well  as  from  the  dissemination  of  socialistic  doctrines,  inasmuch  as  they 
preach  the  overthrow  of  all  existing  institutions. 

Q.  What  are  the  relations  existing  hetween  employers  and  employed;  and  w^hat 
effect  have  these  relations  u])on  ;he  gen«n'al  prosperity? — A.  Only  too  frequently  do 
the  'workingmen,  und<'r  the  inlluence  of  the  instigation  of  socialistic  leaders,  evince 
mistrust  toward  their  employers,  therebj'  impeding  and  hindering  the  endeavors  to 
improve  their  condition. 

Q.  Are  the  workingmen  organized  ;  and  if  so,  what  is  the  nature  of  their  organiza- 
tion, and  its  effect  on  the  advancement  and  welfare  of  the  laborers? — A.  A  great  num- 
ber of  them  arc  members  of  industrial  relief  associations,  as,  for  instance,  the  printers. 
The  effects  of  such  organizations  must  be  recognized  as  beueticial  with  these  trades. 

Q.  Is  such  organization  offset  by  any  counter  organization  of  capital  ? — A.  No  ;  with 
the  exception  of  some  temporary  associations. 

Q.  In  your  opinion  is  labor  here  a<lequately  remunerated? — A.  This  question  might 
be  answered  in  the  athrmative  so  far  as  the  larger  industries,  and  jjroltably  also  the 
building  trade,  are  concerniMl.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earnings  in  many  small  trades, 
notably  in  the  case  of  tailors  and  shoemakers,  are  inadequate. 

Q.  What  political  rights  do  workingmen  enjoy;  and  what  are  their  influences, 
through  such  rights,  on  legislation? — A.  We  have  general  elections  by  direct  vote,  and 
the  workingmen  regularly  avail  themseh^es  of  the  i)rivilege,  especially  in  the  larger 
districts,  like  .Stuttgart,  by  nominating  special  candidates  of  their  own. 

Q.  How  far,  on  the  other  hand,  has  legislation  regulated  the  labor  question  here, 
and  wliat  is  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  this  regard? — A.  A  liegiuning  was  madein 
this  direction  l)y  the  enactment  of  the  law  providing  for  those  who  ai'e  sick  ;  at  pres- 
ent the  law  relating  to  insurance  against  accidents  is  under  discussion  in  the  Berlin 
Parliament,  and  further  future  legislation  is  contemplated  in  regard  to  the  questions 
of  pension  and  invalid  funds. 

THE   SAFETY   AND   HEALTH   OF   EMPLOYES. 

Under  the  laws  of  Wurtembers'  tliere  are  appointed  two  insi>ectors 
of  factories,  wbo  are  charged  witli  the  duty  of  visiting  and  inspecting 
industrial  establishments  whenever  they  may  deem  necessary,  and  of 
seeing  that  all  needful  precautions  are  taken  for  the  safety  and  health 
of  tliose  who  are  employed  therein.  As  regards  ])recautions  against  tire, 
the  details  are  left  to  the  individual  i)roprietors,  with,  of  course,  the 
provision  that  general  safety  exists,  and  that  any  serious  source  of 
■danger,  if  it  exists,  will  be  promi)tly  removed  by  order  of  the  inspector. 
A  matter  which  occupies  a  more  important  place  in  the  inspector's 
rounds  is  the  question  of  the  sanitary  condition  existing  in  the  crowded 
factories.  1  quote  from  the  interesting  report  for  1882  of  Oberregier- 
ungsrath  Diefeubach,  one  of  the  two  royal  inspectors  for  Wurtem berg, 
the  following  extract: 

As  the  system  of  inspection  of  factories  has  only  been  a  few  years  in  vogue,  the  in- 
spector can  only  accom])lish  his  purpose  by  ffrst  of  all  assuring  himself  of  the  good 
will  of  the  manufacturer;  he  will  next  sim])ly  mention  what  his  wishes  are,  and  en- 
deavor to  show  the  manufacturer  that  the  safety  of  his  establishment  is  a  matter  of 
his  own  interest.  Only  in  a  minority  of  cases  where  a  danger  is  obvious  and  its  re- 
moval to  be  acconi])lished  by  moderate  measures,  can  the  inspector  count  upon  the 
immediate  ai)]>lication  of  means  for  protection  against  it.  But  there  are  many  cases 
where  he  is  answered,  "This  has  been  so  for  twenty  years  past,  and  there  has  been  no 
accident."  There  are  many  cases,  too,  where  the  addition  of  new  rooms  or  buildings 
and  the  transfer  of  the  machinery  are  required  to  improve  the  surroundings,  and. 
where  beforehand  a  careful  study  of  all  the  special  details  of  the  entire  undertaking 
is  necessary  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  clear  understanding  how  the  matter  can  be  best 
remedied.  In  such  cases  an  immediate  compliance  cannot  be  relied  on,  and  the  assur- 
ance of  a  willingness  to  comply  has  to«ufifice.  In  such  case,  improvements  can  only 
be  produced  slowly. 

There  have  been  brought  to  my  notice  no  great  number  of  marked  cases  resulting 
from  want  of  proper  sanitary  precautions.     The  white-lead  factories  in  my  district 


572  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

are  not  actively  at  work,  and  the  nnmher  of  persons  emitloyod  in  them  is  incousider 
able.  In  this  kind  of  work,  where  most  are  liable  to  inhale  the  white-lead  dust,  th 
"workmen  make  use  of  mouth-sponges  for  their  protection  against  it;  moreover,  at 
this  work  the  operatives  are  fre(iueutly  changed;  many  constitutious  are  very  sensi- 
tive to  the  effects  of  tliis  dust,  while  others  possess  great  power  of  resistance  against 
it.  I  have  never  lost  an  o})portunity  to  advise  measures  for  the  protection  of  the 
workmen's  eyesight,  whether  by  the  use  of  goggles,  a  proper  placing  of  the  work- 
tables  as  regards  the  light,  or  improvement  of  the  workmen's  attitude  while  at  labor. 
Any  bettering  in  this  regard  can  of  course  only  be  accomplished  with  the  constant 
vigilance  of  the  overseer. 

Experience  shows  that  in  many  cases  the  workmen  themselves  object  to  a  proper 
airing  of  the  work-rooms,  because,  being  often  badly  clad,  warmth  is  more  important 
to  them  than  a  better  air,  and  their  lusty  lungs  scirrcely  feel  the  slow-working,  hurt 
ful  effects  of  a  bad  atmosphere.     In  some  glass-factories  ventilating  apparatus  have 
been  put  up,  which  ca  rry  off  the  dust  and  have  thereby  attracted  favoral)le  attention. 

In  one  establishmen  t  for  cleaning  bed-feathers  the  workmen  have  been  rejieatedly 
attacked  with  small-p  ox,  the  origin  of  which  the  county  physician  has  ascribed  to 
bales  of  feathers  impo  rted  from  various  countries. 

Funds  to  cousiderab  le  amounts  have  been  set  apart  by  several  of  the  larger  manu- 
facturers for  the  benefi  t  of  their  workmen.  The  owner  of  a  large  factory  at  Heilbronn 
has  set  aside  a  capital  of  30,000  marks,  the  interest  of  which  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
relief  of  his  operatives  of  both  sexes,  as  well  as  those  dependent  on  them,  in  cases 
not  provided  for  in  the  regulations  of  the  mutual  aid  society  already  existing  among 
them.  Another  _exten  si ve  manufacturer,  on  the  occasion  of  his  golden  wedding,  de- 
posited a  large  sum  in  the  neighboring  county  savings-bank  for  a  similar  object. 

A  SAMPLE  OF  THE  REGULATIONS  IN  VOGUE. 

The  following  are  the  rules  adopted  by  Messrs.  Krauth  &  Co.,  of  the 
Eothenberg  Saw  Works,  at  Hofeii,  for  the  protection  of  their  employes  in 
the  fa  ctory,  viz  : 

1.  Repairs  to'the  beltings  while  on  the  pulleys  are  most  strictly  forbidden  ;  when 
such  repairs  are  needed  the  saddler  must  be  sent  for.  The  masters  in  charge  of  th© 
various  divisions,  the  master  joiner,  master  sawyer,  and  master  planer,  or  their  rep- 
resentatives, are  respectively  charged  with  the  duty  of  seeing  that  the  beltings  are 
put  in  place  again  under  their  immediate  supervision  by  experienced  workmen,  and 
that  the  necessary  precautions  are  at  the  same  time  taken.  While  the  repairs  are 
iuiprogress  the  workmen  are  to  remain  at  a  safe  distance. 

2.  The  taking  down  and  putting  up  of  beltings  over  30  millimeters  wide,  while  in 
motion  and  with  unprotected  hand,  is  forbidden. 

3.  Apprentices  and  employes  under  16  years  old  are  not  to  handle  the  belting. 

4.  While  the  machinery  is  at  rest  no  master  or  workmen  connected  with  transmis- 
sion machinery,  or  such  as  receives  its  motive  ijower  direct,  shall  undertake  any  kind 
of  repairs  or  Avork  whatsoever  without  first  giving  notice  to  the  engineer  and  to  the 
wheel-keeper.  The  two  latter,  as  well  as  the  masters  and  workmen  concerned,  are 
then  to  take  care  that  no  accident  occurs  through  the  machinery  being  prematurely 
set  in  motion  again.  In  the  case  of  lesser  repairs,  requiring  only  a  few  hours'  time, 
the  workniau  must  remain  by  his  machine. 

5.  The  motors  should  only  Ik^  set  going  by  the  wheel-keeper,  or,  in  his  absence,  by 
his  substitute.  In  case  of  any  unusual  interruption,  he  is  to  notify  the  engineer,  or 
his  substitute,  before  the  commencement  of  work. 

6.  All  workmen  employed  either  upon  or  near  machinery  must  wear  tight-fitting 
clotliing;  aprons  must  be  tied  around  at  the  bottom  with  a  string. 

7.  The  use  of  the  elevator  for  traveling  up  and  down  is  forbidden. 

8.  The  oiling  of  machinery  in  nuition  from  an  unsafe  standpoint,  as  well  as  the 
cleaning,  rubbing,  and  oiling  of  dangerous  ])arts  while  in  motion,  is  forbidden. 

9.  In  the  boiler-house  the  regnlations  of  the  Wurteniberg  Dampfkessel-Kevisions- 
verein  are  in  force.  Entrance  without  leave  into  the  boiler,  steam-engine,  and  tur- 
bine rooms  is  forbidden  under  penalty.  The  wheel-keeper  is  required  to  keep  th© 
■wheel-house  closed. 

I  quote  the  following  interesting  facts  from  the  report  for  1882  of 
Eegierungsrath  Gartner,  the  other  inspector  of  factories  for  this  King- 
dom.    He  says : 

In  many  factories  there  exists  a  system  of  premiums,  whereby  the  workman  is  paid 
not  only  according  to  (juantity,  but  also  to  quality  of  work  done.  In  a  silk-twisting 
mill,  for  instance,  an  industrious  girl  can,  besides  her  daily  wages  of  80  or  90  pfen- 
nige  earn  also  10  to  12  pfennige  more  as  a  premium  on  the  quality  of  her  work. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY.  573 

lu  two  of  the.  I'acloi'ics  wbicli  1  vi.sit(!(l  1  Ibuiid  in  force  new  r(!<j;iihiti()n.s,  iu  wliich, 
besides  tlioso  leferrinij;  to  the  disciiiliue  of  the  employees,  were  .added  otlier.s  fianu'dto 
insure  the  protection  of  the  vrorkinen  Ironi  danger,  together  with  instructions  for  the 
serving  of  dangerous  uuichiuery  and  apparatus. 

In  advising  tlio  use  of  goggles,  one  always  meets  with  great  ()i)i)ositiou  from  the 
woi'lonen.  Most  people  will  admit  that  this  means  of  protection  against  injury  to  the 
eyes  is,  though  not  absolutely  certain,  yet  a  very  efitieieut  one.  On  the  other  hand, 
objection  is  made  to  all  sorts  of  these  glasses  on  the  ground  that  they  heat  the  eyes, 
cause  perspiration,  and  stop  the  circulation  of  air ;  that  they  soon  become  damp  and 
soiled,  and  that  they  injure  the  eyesight  of  the  workman,  and  in  the  end  his  powers 
of  seeing. 

»  *  «  #  »  #  It  ' 

In  the  corset-weaving  establishments  one  hears  everywhere  complaints  of  low 
wages,  and  comparisons  with  those  paid  when  business  was  so  lively  between  18(j5 
and  1870,  when  the  average  price  obtained  for  making  a  corset  was  60  pfenuige, 
whereas  now,  for  the  same  kind,  27  pfenuige  are  paid. 

Iu  the  white  fancy-work  establishments  the  workmen  invariably  answer  when 
asked  how  high  wages  they  get  for  the  work  they  are  doing,  "  I  don't  know  ;  for  the 
last  job  I  got  so  and  so  much  ;  the  master  makes  out  the  wages."  The  workmen  in 
this  branch  have  to  put  up  with  frequent  deductions  from  their  pay  on  account  of 
faulty  work,  which  would  ])erhaps  not  occur  as  often  as  it  does  if  employers  and  em- 
ployed could  be  brought  in  direct  dealings  Avith  each  other. 

In  one  weekly  delivery  of  work,  consisting  of  tifty-two  pieces,  at  93  marks  wages, 
there  occurred  fifteen  cases  where  a  one-fourthdeduction  was  made  ;  in  several  cases 
there  is  written  on  the  list  the  simple  remark,  "No  pay  on  account  of  bad  work." 

In  one  embroidery  factory,  equip])ed  with  the  Heilman  machinery,  the  overster  is 
paid  25  marks  wages  for  fourteen  days'  work.  The  workman  is  paid  for  every  100 
stitches,  on  a  machine  of  218  needles  breadth,  according  to  pattern,  from  12  to 
15  pfenuige,  or,  on  a  machine  of  178  needles  in  breadth,  from  10  to  13  pfennio-e. 
He  can  make  between  2,400  and  2,500  stitches  daily,  the  material  all  beino-  fur- 
nished ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  to  pay  the  threaders  and  the  tinishers'';  the 
former  (generally  children,  or  his  wife)  are  paid  under  agreement  with  the  embroid- 
erer, receiving  on  an  average  50  pfennige  a  day ;  the  latter  are  paid  about  U  pfenuio's 
for  100  stitches.  " 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1882  the  co-operative  society,  which  had  been  in  existence 
for  seventeen  years  in  one  of  the  principal  centers  of  industry  in  the  Black  Forest 
and  85  per  cent,  of  the  members  of  which  consisted  of  workmen  in  the  various  fac- 
tories there,  was  obliged  to  go  into  liquidation.  Many  causes  combined  to  bring  this 
about,  viz,  the  absolute  unritness  of  the  management,  their  ignorance  of  legal  pro- 
visions, want  of  any  control,  an  eagerness  for  dividends,  and  the  application  of  the 
reserve  fund  towards  a  declaration  of  a  dividend  which  had  not  been  earned,  business 
undertakings  entirely  without  the  sphere  of  the  association,  an  overvaluation  of 
assets,  defective  bonds  on  the  part  of  the  storekeepers,  &c.,  all  of  them  mistakes  which 
make  one  wonder  that  the  collapse  had  not  arrived  much  sooner.  The  failure  of  two 
large  manufacturers  in  the  same  village  appears  finally  to  have  brought  the  matter 
to  a  climax.  "  g 

In  addition  to  the  forty  mntiial  relief  associations  previously  known  to  me  iu  mv 
district,  three  new  ones  have  been  organized.  In  a  certain  woodenware  factory- 
where  the  membership  of  all  the  employes  in  the  relief  association  is  made  compul- 
sory, the  men  pay  25  pfennige,  the  women  10  pfennige,  as  their  weekly  dues.  Those 
who  have  paid  dues  for  four  weeks  and  upwards  are  entitled  to  relief  from  the 
third  day  of  illness.  A  workman  receives  daily  85  pfennige,  and  a  workwoman  40 
pfennige  for  a  maximum  period  of  forty  days  before  six  months'  membershij).  In  case 
of  death  the  sum  of  20  marks  is  paid  in  addition  to  the  expenses  of  interment. 

Iu  another  relief  association  (in  a  sheet-iron  factory),  where  the  membership  of  all 
employ(5s  is  also  compulsory,  each  member  pays  iu  20  jjfennige  dues  on  every  weekly 
pay-day.  In  case  of  illness  irom  the  third  day  on,  up  to  a  period  of  three  months,  relief 
to  the  amount  of  2  marks  is  allowed  daily,  Sundays  included,  and  the  expenses  of 
the  physician  and  ajioihecary  are  also  defrayed. 

Still  another  relief  fund  for  sick  and  infirm  workmen  has  been  founded  in  a  metal- 
ware  fixctory,  the  members  consisting  of  workiugmen  who  have  been  employed  there 
for  a  year  or  more.  All  members,  sick  or  well,  ])ay  in  10  ])fennige  dues  weeklv. 
The  right  to  claim  relief  only  begins  ninety  days  after  becoming  a  member  ;  fm-  tlie 
first  half  year  of  sickness  relief  to  the  amount  of  6  marks  weekly  is  allowed,  for  the 
following  eighteen  months  4  marks  weekly,  and  for  a  longer  period  nothing.  '  In  case 
the  member  falls  ill  a  second  time,  relief  is  only  allowed  from  the  nin'etieth  day 
after  recovery  from  the  previous  illness. 

In  a  certain  paper  factory,  a  savings  bank  is  organized,  under  the  followino-  con- 


574  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

ditions:  Deposits  can  be  made  every  pay-day  in  aiiioniits  as  desired.  Interest  is^ 
allowed  monthly  at  the  rate  of  4  pfeunige  on  10  marks  or  at  the  rate  of  4.8  per  ceut. 
per  auniini.  But  such  interest  can  only  b*  eoUeeted  in  cases  where  deposits  hive  been 
made  to  the  amount  of  3,")  marks  or  upwards,  and  onl^'  then  where  the  acconnts  have 
been  rnnninsj;  three  months. 

In  a  cerrain  silk-twistinu'  n)ill,  thert;  has  been  a  savings  bank  in  o])eration  for  tif- 
teeu  mcmtlis  past  on  the  foliowiui;'  plan:  Participation  is  vohintary  with  the  excep- 
tion of  this  condition,  that  the  temale  operatives   must  deposit  therein  the  half  of" 
their  extra  wages,  of  which  the  more  industrious  can  earn  daily,  in  addition  to  their" 
regnhir  pay,  from  10  to  12  pfennige.     At  the  end  of  every  minith  these  deposits  are 
handed  over  by  the  managers  with  whom  thej'  have  been  left,  to  the  resident  agent 
of  the     Wurteinberg  Sparcasse,   and    receipts  therefor  are  handed   the  operatives. 
The  disposition  to  save  must  at  first  be  carefully  inculcated  by  the   manager;  many 
of  the  girls  thought  that  they  made  these  deposits  only  to  please  their  employer.. 
At  tirst  the  total  of   deposits,  made  on   a  fortnightly    pay-day,   by  115  operatives, 
amounted  from  50  to  80  marks,  but  of  late  the  amount  has  increased  considerably. 
The  severe  hail-storm  which  visited  that  section  on  the  Kith  of  July,  1882,  contrib- 
uted notably  to  this  increase.     On  the  tirst  pay-day  after  the  catastrophe  in  question 
the  deposit  made  by  40  operatives  amounted  to  150  marks,  and  it  has  since  remained 
at  about  the  same  fignro. 

Mention  may  here  also  be  made  of  a  penny  savings  bank,  which   was  founded  six 
mouths  ago  for  the  working  classes,  children,  and  servants,  by  several  manufacturers 
and  merchants  in  Balingen.     On  the  plan  of   the  Penny  savings-bank  at  Bremen^ 
there  are  in  Balingen  six  shops  where  savings-counters  can  be  bought  at  10  pfennigs.- 
These  are  drojjped  in  a  savings-box  by  the  purchaser,  and  when  the  amount  of  coun- 
ters reaches  the  value  of  two  marks,  the  county  savings  bank  will  give   a  receipt 
therefor.     For  amounts  under  two  marks  the  founders  of  the  plan  guarantee  pay- 
ment.    During  the  lirst  half  year  the  deposits  amounted  to  2,017  mai'ks,  20  pfennige,. 
of  which  1,973  marks  were  handed  over  to  the  county  savings  bank." 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

The  employnieiit  of  female  labor  in  Wurteraberg  is  more  general  in 
the  agricultural  districts  than  in  the  cities.  In  the  former^  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  women  depend  npon  their  daily  labor  for  their  daily 
bread.  Many  of  them  work  in  the  ftelds,  doing  almost  a  man's  work, 
many  others  are  employed  in  the  small  shops  in  which  each  village 
abounds,  and,  finally,  numbers  of  young  girls  daily  work  for  10  hours 
in  factories  of  one  kind  or  another,  perhaps  2  or  3  miles  distant  from 
their  homes.  In  Stuttgart  it  is  different.  In  a  po[)nlation  of  1-J0,U00 
there  are  registered  15,512  women  as  earning  their  own  living  by  labor, 
and,  of  these,  7,1'44  live  as  servants  in  families,  and  the  remainder  are 
enga.ntd  in  business  or  other  pursuits. 

Among  tlie  firms  emi)loying  the  largest  number  of  female  operatives 
in  this  city  may  be  mentioned  Messrs.  I.  M.  Ottenheimer  &  Sons,  manu- 
facturers of  corsets,  an  enterjnising  house  having  extensive  business 
relations  with  the  United  States.  In  reply  to  a  series  of  questions  Mr. 
Adolf  Ottenheimer,  the  senior  member  of  the  firm,  has  kindly  favored 
me  witli  the  following  replies: 

Question.  How  many  jicrsons  do  you  em))loyof  both  sexes? — Ansiwer.  Nine  hundred 
male  and  1,100  female'hand.s,  or  ablmt  2,000  in  all 

Q.  Are  these  all  employed  in  the  factory  ?  If  not,  lu)w  many  are  and  where  do  the 
rest  do  their  work? — A.  In  the  factory  1520  are  emjtloyed.  The  rest  work  in  the 
connlry,  some  in  branch  factories,  some  in  the  houses  where  they  resi(l(\ 

Q.  \\'hat  are  the  lowi'st,  highest,  an<l  average  wages  j)aid  to  women  and  gii'ls  in 
your  timpioy  ? — A.  'J'lie  lowest  wages  are  1.20  marks  a  day;  the  higliest,  3.50  marks; 
the  aveiage,  1.80  marks. 

Q.  What  are  the  hours  of  labor  and  tin;  various  distances  .at  which  tiie  operatives 
live  from  the  factory  '! — A.  Ten  hours  of  labor.  The  distance  varies  from  I  to  5  kilo- 
meters. 

Q.  Whiit  is  the  general  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  female  o])eratives  whom 
you  emnloy  1" — A.   Oood. 

Q.  Has  there  been  any  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the  wages  paid  to 
women  ? — A.  Yes,  an  increase  of  about  10  per  cent. 


I.AHOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY.  575 

Q.  What  are  the  effects  of  the  employinciit  of  women  upon  the  wages  paid  to  men,, 
and  u[)on  general  social  and  industrial  conditions? — A.  None  in  our  experience. 

Q.  Wliatdegree  of  ('ducatiouexistsuniong  your  female  operatives  and  their  children  ;. 
and  how,  in  your  opinion,  does  the  fact  of  the  moth(!r'semph)yincnt  alfect  her  domestic 
life  and  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  her  children? — A.  All  have  fair  school- 
ing. In  our  opinion  the  fact  of  the  mother's  employment  does  not  injuriously  affect 
the  domestic  life.  The  children  are  generally  taken  care  of  by  relatives  during  the 
mother's  absence. 

Q.  Are  the  working  classes  in  your  opinion  steady,  trustworthy,  and  frugal? — A. 
Yes. 

Q.  What  feeling  generally  exists  in  Wurtemberg  between  employer  and  (iuiployef 
— A.  A  very  satisfactory  one. 

A  mill-woman's  story. 

Question.  Where  do  you  live,  and  what  is  yonr  employment  ?— Answer.  I  live.in 
Essiiugeu  and  am  einployed  as  a  jenny-hand  in  Markel  &  Wolf's  woolen-yarn  factory. 

Q.  Are  you  married  or  single  ? — A.  I  was  married  last  February.  lam  thirty  year* 
old.     I  have  been  employed  seven  years  where  I  now  am.  ' 

Q.  How  many  women  and  girls  altogether  ai"e  employed  in  your  factory  ? — A.  About 
700,  the  majority  of  them  unmarried. 

Q.  I  suppose  that  many  of  the  married  ones  have  children.  What  do  they  do  with 
the  children  while  they  are  at  work  ? — A.  They  leave  the  children  either  with  elderly 
relations  or  with  elderly  people  in  the  houses  of  friends ;  in  the  latter  case  they  pay 
10  to  1.'")  marks  a  month  for  the  child's  full  board. 

Q.  What  are  the  daily  working  hours? — A.  From  6  a.  m.  till  7  p.  m.,  with  twenty 
minutes  rest  in  the  morning,  one  hour  at  noon,  and  twenty  minutes  in  the  afternoon  ; 
that  is  over  eleven  hours. 

Q.  If  you  work  over  that  time  do  you  get  extra  pay  for  it  ? — A.  Certainly,  as  I  am 
paid  by  the  amount  of  work  I  do. 

Q.  Are  all  the  hands  paid  in  that  way,  or  do  some  get  n  tixed  price  per  day  ? — A. 
Some  receive  a  tixed  price,  as,  for  instance,  the  wool  washers,  pickers,  and  sorters, 
who  are  paid  from  1.20  to  1.50  marks  per  day.  The  majority  are  paid,  as  I  am,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  work  done. 

Q.  About  how  much  do  you  earn  on  an  average  per  day  the  year  round  ? — A.  Some- 
times I  earn  2  marks  a  day,  sometimes  only  1.50  marks.  On  the  year  round  I  earn  an 
average  of  1.70  marks  daily. 

Q.  Are  you  often  called  on  for  extra  work  ? — A.  Very  seldom.     Formerly  we  were. 

Q.  Do  most  of  the  female  operatives  in  your  mill  live  in  Esslingen  ? — A.  No;  some 
live  so  far  away  that  they  have  to  walk  one  and  a  half  hmirs  each  way  going  to  and 
returning  from  their  work.  TIjey  have  to  leave  home  at  half  past  four  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  do  not  reach  home  again  until  half  past  eight  at  night.  Women  from  the 
diiferent  villages  come  at  noon  with  the  dinners  for  the  operatives  from  their  respec- 
tive localities. 

Q.  What  do  the  younger  unmarried  female  operatives  do  with  their  wages? — A.. 
Those  who  have  parents  contribute  it  to  their  support,  those  who  have  not  s]>end  it 
for  their  own  maintenance.  They  cannot  save  much  unless  they  stint  themselves  in 
their  food. 

Q.  Can  these  girls  save  anything  for  marriage? — A.  Very  little,  and  that  only  by 
hard  denial. 

Q.  Did  you  save  np  anything  before  your  marriage? — A.  Yes,  about  500  marks 
($125),  but  that  was  because  I  was  forewoman,  worked  over-huurs,  and  underwent 
great  denials. 

Q.  Are  most  of  the  girls  industrious  and  saving  ? — A.  Some  are,  some  are  not. 

Q.  Are  the  most  of  them  good  girls  ? — A.  They  vary,  like  all  other  people. 

Q.  Are  they  generally  strong  and  healthy? — A.  Yes,  in  general. 

Q.  Do  the  most  of  them  marry  sooner  or  later  ? — A.  Yes,  sooner  or  later;  as  soon  a» 
they  are  in  circumstances  to  do  so. 

Q.  Are  wages  higher  or  lower  now  than  they  were  five  years  ago? — A.  The  fixed 
day-wages  were  about  the  same,  hut  the  rates  of  paynu'ut  according  to  the  amount  of 
work  done  were  20  per  cent,  higher  five  years  ago,  while  the  cost  of  living  remains 
about  the  same. 

Q.  What  education  had  you  had  hefore  you  hegan  to  work  in  the  mill  ? — A.  I  had 
poor  parents;  I  went  to  the  public  school  f^rom  the  time  I  was  seven  years  old  until 
I  was  fourteen.  Then  I  was  three  years  in  service,  with  a  family  in  the  country; 
then  I  went  to  Augsburg  and  worked  for  two  years  in  a  woolen-mill ;  then  two  years 
in  Geislingen'in  another  mill ;  then  one  year  in  a  mill  near  Cologne  ;  then  two  years 
more  near  Winterthur,  in  Switzerland ;  and  finally  I  came  to  Esslingen,  where  I  now 
am. 


576  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

Q.  Sni>])ose  a  fire  broke  out  in  your  mill  iluriujij  the  daytime,  are  there  means  of 
escape  provided  for  all  of  you  ? — A.  Yes;  the  new  jiortiou  of  the  mill  is  one-storied, 
but  the  older  portion  of  it  has  three  floors,  and  there  most  of  the  operatives  are.  It 
is  amply  provide<l  with  hose,  ladders,  and  buckets,  and  there  would  be  no  danj^er 
whatever. 

Q.  Suppose  you  were  to  fall  sick,  and  were  unable  to  work  for  a  fortnight,  what 
would  you  have  to  depend  upon  ? — A.  We  have  a  relief  fund  to  which  all  of  the  em- 
ploy^s.in  the  mill  contril)nte  40  i)fennige  each  per  month.  Single  operatives  are  sent 
to  the  hoK}iital,  and  are  cared  for  gratis,  besides  leceiving  on  their  discharge  from 
the  hos])ital,  '2")  i)tVnuige  ])er  day  for  the  jieriod  of  their  illness.  Those  who  have 
parents  or  husbands  are  allowed  to  remaiti  at  home,  and  are  paid  "lO  pfonnige  per  day. 

Q.  Do  you  keep  house? — A.  Yes;  I  and  my  husband  hire  a  part  of  a  second  floor. 
We  have  two  rooms  and  apart  of  a  kitchen,  for  which  we  pay  (iO  marks  a  year.  We 
breakfast  together  at  half  past  five  on  cofiee  and  bread.  When  my  husband  is  able 
to  work  we  get  our  dinner  at  a  liouse  near  where  live,  and  pay  ;}5  pfennige  (about 
8  cents)  apiece  for  it.  We  get  soup,  boiled  meat,  and  some  vegetable.  We  take  our 
evening  meal  about  7.:W  or  8  o'clock.  I  prepare  it  myself — a  cup  of  cofiee,  perhaps  a 
-little  beer  and  bread,  and  a  sausage  or  so.  We  earn  together  about  100  marks 
[$23.80]  per  month,  and  with  economy  we  manage  to  get  along  ou  that. 

Q.  Do  you  think  that  most  of  the  female  operatives  are  contented? — A.  Yes;  they 
do  not  complain  of  their  lot,  because  they  are  accustomed  to  it. 

A  FEW  WORDS  MORE  FROM  MR.  KARL  KLOSS. 

In  reisrard  to  the  subject  of  female  labor,  Mr.  Kloss  favors  me  with  a 
few  additional  observations.  He  says  that  women  weavers  are  paid 
from  1.10  to  3.30  marks  per  day;  bookbinders,  1.20  to  3.60;  compositors, 
1.60  to  4.80;  wood- workers,  1.90  to  2.70;  and  then  he  goes  on  to  inquire 
how  the  deficit  in  these  women's  means  of  livolihood  is  to  be  made  good. 
He  answers  the  question  himself,  and  thus: 

(1.)  At  a  sacrifice  of  health  and  longevity,  owing  to  in.i^b^'iuate  sustenance, "un- 
healthy lodgings,  and  excessive  work,  i.  e.,  on  Sundays  and  o\    r-'ours. 

(*2.)  At  a  sacrifice  of  domestic  happiness,  and  of  the  educatitui  of  their  children  ; 
while  the  mothers  are  compelled  to  go  to  the  factories,  the  children  are  left  to  them- 
selves, and  they,  as  well  as  the  household,  are  neglected. 

(3.)  At  the  sacrifice  of  morality;  single  women  are  obliged  to  look  out  for  other 
sources  of  income. 

(4.)  At  a  sacrifice  of  the  value  of  m.ale  labor,  which  becomes  depreciated  by  com- 
])etition  witli  that  of  women  and  children. 

THE   CONDITION   OF  WOMEN   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

Referring  again  to  the  interesting  reports  of  the  two  inspectors  of  fac- 
tories, previously  quoted  from,  I  make  the  further  following  extracts,  viz : 
Inspector  v.  Diefenbach  says: 

In  a  cigar  factory  in  the  country  I  found  over  200  persons  and  work-wonu^i  in  one 
room,  which,  it  is  true,  was  large,  but  the  operatives  were  so  crowded  together  that 
they  hardly  had  room  to  move.  The  clothing  of  all  these  people  was  hung  on  the 
pillars  about  the  room.  In  rainy  weather  this  clothing  was  wet  through,  and  it  can 
ije  imagined  what  an  atmos])her(>.  there  was  in  the  room,  lacking,  as  it  did,  proper 
means  of  ventilation.  The  putting  up  of  a  ventilating  ai)paralus  .and  enlargement  of 
the  work-room,  and  the  establishment  of  a  separate  room  as  a  wardrobe  were  prom- 
ised me.  In  cas(!s  where  there  is  nothing  to  bo  done  in  the  way  of  improvements  in 
the  factory,  and  where  it  is  only  a  question  of  shortening  the  hours  of  labor,  I  have 
found  in  many  cases  that  an  arrangement  exists  when^by  the  women  leave  work  an 
hour  before  noon-time  to  cook  the  midday  Tneal  for  thcMr  families.  I  was  assured 
that  only  such  women  w(!re  emjtloyed  in  the  factory  as  wove  childless,  or  had  an  aged 
motlier  to  look  after  their  children  and  take  care  of  their  houses.  Further  restrictions 
upon  female  labor  do  not  seem  to  me  d(>sirable  ;  in  many  families  blessed  with  numer- 
ous children,  and  in  tliickly  settled  neighborhoods,  circumstances  are  such  that  the 
wife — and  this  seems  so  generally  a>  subject  for  regret — must  contribute  an  essential 
part  of  the  su))]K)rt  of  the  entire  family,  which  at  least  renders  possible  better  nourish- 
ment for  the  children.  In  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  find  remnnerati  ve  work  to  do 
at  home,  while  there  is  a  chance  to  earn  something  in  the  factories.  In  many  quart- 
ers it  is  stated  that  girls  are  rendered  thoughtless  and  pleasure-loving  by  working  in 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


577 


the  factories,  and  that  so  they  bcconic  unfit  for  hoiischoUl  duties;  in  the  case  of  female 
operatives  nut  livinj;  with  their  families,  this  may  be,  in  many  cases,  true,  bnt  it  ia 
less  proliabie  wht-rc;  a  f^iri  lives  with  her  family,  has  their  shelter  and  care,  partici- 
pates in  tli(!  liousciiold  duties,  and  so  contributes  to  increase  the  family  receipts,  or, 
herself,  endeavors  to  save  up  a  sum  of  money  to  start  a  home  of  her  own. 

Inspector  Gartner  says : 

lu  a  certain  spinninjj-mill  I  found  that  the  comfortable  three-story  building,  which 
is  se'  aside  as  a  dwelling  for  fifty  female  operatives,  was  scarcely  half  occuj)ied,  not- 
withstanding the  cleanliness  of  the  premises  and  the  cheapness  of  the  accommodations 
offered,  viz:  i)  ])fennige  for  a  bed;  coffee  and  bread,  (i  pfennige;  dinner,  17  pfennige; 
8ni)per,  11  ]ifennige,  or  a  total  of  4:^  ]»ffnnige  per  day.  On  inquiring  the  cause,  the 
manager  answt'red  me  that  the  girls  felt  themselves  placed  under  restraint  in  conse- 
quence of  the  house  regulations,  and  especially  of  the  provision  that  all  living  in  the 
Louse  should  be  at  home  by  \)-k  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  would  not  be  admitted 
later.  It  consequently  lia])pens  th;it  some  of  the  female  inmates  do  not  come  home  at 
night  at  all,  and,  when  they  are  it'proached  with  the  fact,  they  give  notice  that  they 
"will  remove  elsewhere.  In  tlie  neighlioring  town  there  are  houses  where  they  say 
they  can  obiaiii  all  necessary  aeconunoilations,  even  though  it  costs  a  little  more  ;  but 
in  such  a  casf^  the  i)rice  is  no  object.  Each  loom  is  arranged  for  two  girls,  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  beds,  contains  also  a  chest,  with  locks  and  a  table.  The  almost  entire 
lack  of  any  reading  matter  in  Their  rooms  was  strikingly  noticeable.  In  one  case  a 
"  Country  Almanach,"  in  another  the  "  Story  of  Hiesel,  of  Bavaria,"  were  the  only 
pieces  of  i)rinted  matter  to  be  found  in  all  the  rooms  in  the  whole  of  that  large  house. 

In  one  of  the  larger  districts,  with  extensive  manufacturing  interests,  the  small 
number  of  older  female  operatives  was  again  remarked.  It  is  a  custom  among  the  fe- 
male working  population  for  the  girls,  after  they  have  worked  in  the  factory  from  the 
age  of  14  up  to  18  or  20,  and  have  saved  up  a  little  money,  to  go  away  to  the  cities  to 
obtain  situations  as  servant  gills,  and  so  acquire  the  necessary  experience  for  their 
future  duties  as  wives. 

JUVENILE   LABOR. 

At  tlie  close  of  tlie  year  1882*  there  were  employed  in  Wurtemberfj, 
in  717  factories,  5,G8()  children  nnder  16  years  of  a<>e,  the  number  being 
about  equally  divided  as  re^jards  the  sexes.  The  followiugf  table, taken 
from  Inspector  Gartner's  report,  shows  the  steady  increase  during  the 
last  4  years  in  ^he  employment  of  children  in  factories,  viz  : 


Tear. 


1879. 
1H80 
18H1 
1882 


613 

«7.> 
717 


Between  14  and 
16  years. 


1,087 
2,019 
•>,  367 
•-',  569 


2,363 
2,  .597 
2,  961 
2,  889 


Between  12  and 
14  years. 


4,050  I  70 

4,616  191 

.5,  .328  156 

5,  458  I  114 


214 
172 
126 
108 


284 
363 

282 
222 


Total  under  16. 


1,857  2.577 
2,210  2,769 
2,  5-.'3  |3.  0^7 
2,683    2,997 


4.434 
4,979 
5,610 
5,680 


Under  the  laws  governingjuvenile  labor  no  child  under  12  years  can 
be  employed,  and  those  between  12  and  14  years  of  age  can  onlj-  work 
for  G  hours  a  day.  Careful  attention  to  these  prov'isions  is  given  by  the 
inspectors,  and  no  deviation  is  allowed  therefrom  save  in  exceptional 
cases  such  as  the  two  following,  which  I  take  from  Inspector  Gartner's 
report,  viz : 

(I.)  On  the  request  of  the  proprietors  of  the  flax-mill  at  Urach,  permission  was  ac- 
corded them  by  the  royal  county  authorities  to  let  their  juvenile  liands — 3  male.'^,  24 
femah  8,  or  27  iu  all — work  from  5  instead  of  5.30  in  the  morning  until  6  in  the  even- 

*  Statistics  tor  1883  not  yet  published. 
92  A— LAB 37 


578  LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 

ing,  for  a  period  of  4  weeks,  with,  of  course,  the  customary  hours  of  recess.  The  re- 
quest was  based  upon  the  fact  that  the  water  was  so  low  at  that  time  that  only  the 
half  of  the  factory  could  he  kept  going  ;  the  older  workmen,  therelore,  workt-d  at 
night,  and,  in  ordir  to  spare  these,  and  enable  them  to  leave  sooner,  it  was  thought 
to  have  the  day-work  begin  half  an  hour  earlier.  It  involved  simi)ly  a  question,  there- 
fore, of  a  deviation  IVomthe  provisions  of  i-ection  ]Mi  of  the  iudu.-tiial  law  with  refer- 
ence to  the  hours  of  beginning  labor.  The  daily  working  period  for  the  juvenile 
hands  remained,  as  before,  11  hours  long,  and  the  children  were  all  provided  with 
medical  certiticates. 

(2.)  The  county  authorities  at  Horb  allowed  the  mechanical  twist-mill  at  Miihlen 
on  the  Neckar,  in  consequence  of  the  interru])tion  caused  to  their  work  by  inunda- 
tion, to  emploj^  14  young  peoide — 2  males  and  12  females — for  12  hours  daily  during 
the  hours  of  daylight  for  4  weeks,  with  of  course  the  customary  hours  of  recess. 

Inspector  v.  Diefeiibach  remarks  on  this  subject: 

The  work-cards  and  work-books,  the  placards  containing  the  regulations  in  regard 
to  juvenile  laborers,  and  the  tables  bearing  their  names  are,  I  Irnd,  being  constantly 
better  kept.  I  have  not  discovered  any  violations  of  the  law  prohibiting  the  em- 
ployment of  children  under  12  years  ot  age  i  >  the  factories,  altliono;h  some  cases  of 
employment  of  children  at  night,  or  for  a  longer  period  than  is  lawtul,  and  of  a  cur- 
tailing of  the  hours  of  recess  have  occurred,  and  have  been  fined  by  the  courts. 

Juvenile  hands  between  14  and  16  years  old  are  specially  numerous  in  the  rag- 
assorting  rooms  of  wool  factories,  in  cigar  factories,  in  the  woolen  and  cottou  mills, 
and  in  the  silk-twisting  establishments. 

•  «««»*'* 

Repeated  complaints  have  reached  my  ears,  as  well  from  parents  as  from  employers, 
that  the  young  cannot  receive  a  work-book  and  go  to  work  in  a  factory  at  once  on 
leaving  school,  which,  in  many  cases,  occurs  when  they  are  13^  years  old,  but  that 
they  must  wait  until  they  have  completed  their  fourteenth  year.  Experience  teaches 
that  such  children,  who  are  only  lawfully  entitled  to  work  for  6  hours  a  day,  find 
difficulty  in  obtaining  employment  anyhow,  and  so  are  neglected  and.  left  to  look 
after  themselves. 

CONCLUSION. 

This  labor  question,  with  all  its  varied  phases,  is  the  great  problem 
now  undergoing"  solution  throughout  the  German  Einpiie.  Conserva- 
tism and  Socialism  are  prei)aring  for  their  death  grapple  ;  the  one,  deep- 
rooted  in  the  traditions  of  the  past  and  encumbered  with  «lifficulties 
from  which  it  cannot  fi"ee  itself  even  if  it  will ;  the  other,  rearing  tho 
standard  of  a  universal  disenthrallnient  from  all  existing  social  ties,  and 
the  construction  of  a  new  and  ciiiaierical  fabric  upon  their  ruins. 
Could  but  the  middle  ground  be  found  between  the  two,  could  those  so 
tenacious  of  the  titles  and  traditions  which  have  come  down  from  feu- 
dal times  but  be  brought  to  see  that  an  eidarged  freedom  for  all  men  is 
the  lesson  of  the  time;  could,  on  the  other  hand,  those  who  are  clamor- 
ing so  madly  for  that  enlarged  freedom  be  brought  to  realize  that 
they  must  first  be  educated  to  a  proper  use  of  that  which  they  demand^ 
it  might  then  be  hoped  that  the  struggle  would  find  a  prompt  and 
peaceful  solution.  But  where  concessions,  claimed  as  such,  by  the  one 
are  received  by  scorn  and  ridicule  by  the  other,  and  where,  in  turn,  the 
persistent  demands  for  increased  political  rights  and  a  l)roader  recogni- 
tion of  the  dignity  of  labor  are  const lued  as  presumptuous  or  even  ])er- 
haps  as  seditious,  no  man  can  tell  wiiat  the  outcome  will  be.  It  is  a 
struggle  which  commands  the  attention  and  study  of  all  thinking  men^ 
and  ui)on  the  solution  of  which  depends  the  future  of  society. 

GEORGE  L.  CATLIN, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Stuttgart,  May  14, 1884. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


579 


Tablk  I. — DiniribulioN  of  the  populut'ton  of  the  Kiiir/dom  of  Wnrtemberd  according  to  the 
pursuits  or  arocatious  upon  ichicli  they  are  directly  or  indirectly  dependent. 


Pereons  directly  engaged: 

Males  , 

Females  

Total 

HouseboUl  servants  attached 
to  those  directly  engaged : 

Males 

Females 

Total 

Dependent  members  of  the 
families   of  those  directly 
engajred : 
Under  14  years  of  age  : 

Males    

Females 

Total 

Over  14  years  of  age  : 

Males 

Females 

Total.  

Total: 

Males   

Females 

Total 


s  a 

p  M 

.2.9 
^2 


m 


279. 182  ! «  218, 167 
114, 276  I  44,  891 
393,  458       263,  058 


179 
15,  037 
15,  216 


160 
15,  207 
15,  367 


Grand  total : 
Males  .  -. 
Females. 

Total.... 


162,691  i  121,465 
167,651  1  125.723 
330,342   247,188 


7,011 
196,  897 
203,  908 

169, 702 
364,  548 
534,  250 


449,  063 
493,  861 


942,  924 


3,179 
145,  288 
148,  467 

124, 644 
271,011 
395,  655 


342,  971 
331, 109 


674,  080 


36,  339 
13,  344 
49,  683 


190 

9,832 

10,  022 


24,  462 
26,167 
50,  629 

1,109 
31,815 
32,  924 

25,  571 

57,  982 
83,  553 


62, 100 
81, 158 


143,  258 


W  «i 


2,376 
3,516 
5,892 


1,739 
1,816 
3,555 

29 
1,702 
1,791 

1,768 
3,578 
5,346 


4,144 
7,110 


11,  254 


38,417 

4,381 

42,  798 


125 
7,087 
7,212 


12,827 
12,915 

25,  742 

859 
19, 103 
19, 962 

13,  686 
32,018 
45,  704 


26,  643 
33,  677 
60,  320 


239 
5,678 
5,917 


4,104  I 

4,630 

8,734 

602 

14,  666 

15,  268 

4,706 
19,  296 
24,  002 


52,  228 
43,  486 


31,  588 
58,  651 


95,714    90,239 


601, 124 
214,  085 
815,  209 


893 

52,  857 

53,  750 


327,  288 
338,  902 
666, 190 

12,  789 
409,  531 
422,  320 

340,  077 

748,  433 

1,  088,  510 


942,  094 
1,  015,  375 


1,  957, 469 


Table  II. — Table  showing  vital  and  natal  statistics  of  the  German  Empire  and  of  the  King- 
dom of  Wurtemlerg,  in  the  year  1882. 

VITAL  STATISTICS. 


German    Em- 
pire (including 
Wurtemberg). 

Wurtemberg. 

350,  457 

911,372 

858,128 

12  S'S 

Births: 

40,  471 
37  956 

Total             

1,769,501 

78, 427 

Deaths  (including  stillborn) : 

648,  296 
59  J,  708 

29,  053 

27  489 

Total         

1,  244, 006 

56,  543 

Excess  of  births  over  deaths : 

263,  076 
26-.',  420 

11,418 
10,  467 

Total                  

525,  495 

21  885 

45, 149, 172 

1  970  132 

580 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE GERMANY. 


Vital  and  natal  statistics  of  the  German  Empire,  ^-c— Coutimied. 
NATAL  STATISTICS. 


Legitimate  births : 

Males 

Feiijalea 

Total 

IlloKitimate  births: 

Mali-s 

Females 

Total 

Total: 

Males 

Females 

Total 


German  Em- 
pire (inclnding    Wnrtemherg. 
Wuitemberg). 


826,646  ;                   36.9.32 
778.397                      34,509 

1,605,043                      71,441 

84,  726 
79,731 

3.  539 
3,447 

164,457  1                     6,986 

9n,372                      40.471 
858,128                      37,9.:6 

1,  769,  500 


78,427 


Table  III. — Table  of  vital  statistics  of  the  German  Empire,  hy  years,  from  1873  to  1882. 


Tear. 


Estimated 
population. 


1873    41,532,000 

1874 I  41,98:i,0i)0 

1875 4-2.510.(100 

1876 '  43,  057,  000 

1877      '  43,608,000 

1878    44,  127.000 

1879 :  44.  0:!!l.  000 

18S0 45,039,000 

1881      j  45,442,000 

1882 45,  767,  Old 


Marriages. 


416.049 
400,  282 
3h6,  7-16 
36ii,  912 
347,  SIO 
340,016 
33:.,  11.1 
3:i7,  342 
338,  909 
350,  457 


Births. 


Deaths. 


Excess  of 

births  over 

deaths. 


1,241, 
1,191, 
1, 246, 
1.  207, 
1,223. 
1.  228, 
1,214, 
1,241, 
1,  222, 
1,  244, 


473,  824 
561,044 
5.52,019 
624.  074 
594,  858 
556,  473 
592,  098 
522,  970 
525,  758 
525, 495 


Ille<:iti- 
D>ate      Stillborn, 
births. 


1.58,  268 
152,015 
155,  573 

158,  300 
157.  369 
154.  629 

159,  821 
158,709 
158,4,54 
164,  457 


67,166 

69,  536 
74,  179 
73,  517 
71,  157 
70,647 

70,  870 
67,  921 
66.  537 
67, 153 


GENERAL   TRADES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  {of  various  hours)  in  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING  TEADK8. 


Bricklayers 

Iloii  carriers 
Mason.s   

Tenders 

Plasteier.s 

Tenders 

Slaters 

Ko.f.rs    

Tenders 

Plumbers 

AHsistants  .. 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 


OTHEU  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths. 

Strikers  . 

Bookl)indeis 

Brickniakcrs 

Brewers 


Hours 
per  day. 


Lowest. 


Butchers 

Brass-founders 
Cabinet-milkers. 


Confectinners 

Ciizar-niake  s 

Co()i)erM  (per  month)  . 
Cutlers  (i)or  iiMintli)  .. 
Distillers  (per  monih) . 


11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 

n 

11 
11 
11 


Vil 

12 
12 
11 
12 

nil 

1.51 

lOi 
10 

11 

12 
11 
11 


$4  57 

3  14 

4  85 
3  14 

5  43 

3  57 

6  00 

5  71 

4  00 

6  43 
4  28 

4  28 

5  71 


71 

2  38 

1  90 

3  57 

2  14 

2  38 

1  64 

4  26 

2  88 

4  26 

3  72 

5  70 
1  44 
5  70 


Highest.   Average 


$5  43 
3  71 
5  43 


5  71 
8  57 


3  57 

3  57 

2  86 
5  71 

3  33 

3  57 

3  57 
8  58 

7  14 

5  70 

4  86 
11  40 

2  40 

8  58 


$4  67 
3  57 

5  14 
3  71 

6  43 

3  71 
6  85 

6  57 

4  28 

7  42 

4  57 

5  14 
7  99 


2  14 

2  86 
2  38 
4  28 
2  62 


3  36 
5  70 

4  26 

4  98 
4  26 
8  58 
1  98 
7  14 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 
Wages  paid  per  iveek  (of  various  liours)  in  Slutlgart — Continued. 


581 


Occupations. 


Other  tradks— Continued. 
Drivers : 

Uniymen  and  teamsters 

Call,  cai-riaue,  &c 

Street  railway  s 

Dyers 

Ell  gr.i  vers 

Fun  ii'vs 

Garileuers 

Hatters    

Horseshoers 

Jewelers,  

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lit  ho;:ra  pliers 

Mill  wri  fill  ts 

Nail-makers,  hand 

Potters    

Printers 

Teachers,  public  schonla 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanners 

Tailors      

Telesrajdi  operators 

Tiusmitlis  

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Hours 
per  day. 


11 
11 
11 
5 
11 
10 
11 

8i 

10 
12 


Lowest. 


$5  70 
8  3:i 

4  20 
1  98 

5  70 
3  00 
3  fiO 

1  08 

2  8fi 
5  70 

3  36 
8  58 

5  70 
1  44 
1  14 

6  54 

7  78 
5  70 
1   14 

3  60 

4  97 
1  44 

60 


Highest. '  Average. 


$8  58 

10  01 
4  20 

2  88 
14  28 

7  14 

4  26 

3  12 
3  57 

11  40 

5  53 
11  40 
17  16 

1  74 
1  44 

8  58 
19  22 
14  28 

1  74 

5  70 

10  99 

1  98 

84 


.$7  14 
9  17 
4  20 
2  58 


8  58 
4  69 

10  02 

11  40 
1  56 
1  26 
7  14 

12  50 
7  14 
1  44 
4  26 
7  98 
1  74 

72 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  day  in  factories  or  mills  in  the  consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


Working 
hours. 


Furniture  factories : 

Joiners    

Wooil-carvers  

Floin-mills :  Foremen 

Coiset  fMCtiirii  s:  fem:ile  hands 

Woven  goods  factories:  female  hands 

Confectiouery  factories  :  female  hands  '  i 

Soap  factories : 

Female  hands 

Male  hands    

Cigar  fiicti tries: 

Female  hands 

Male  hands 

Sugar  factoiics: 

Coppersmiths 

Workmen .■ 

Engine  factories: 

Machinists 

Smiths  

Jewelry  factories: 

Cabinet-masters 

Goldsmiths 

Female  hands 


Lowest.  1  Hifihest. 


$0  48 
71 
95 
24 
24 

24 

36 

48 

29 
62 

83 
29 

67 
62 

1  43 
71 
36 


$1  19 

1  43 

2  8(i 
60 
48 

48 


1  00 
60 


Average. 


$0  83 

95 

1  90 

29 

26 


83  I 


1  90 

1  19 

52 


38 

76 
71 

67 
95 
43 


FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  day  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in  the  consular  district  of 

Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


Lowest, 


Average. 


Iron  foundries : 

Chiseler.s  (ten  hours) 

Founders  (eleven  hours) 


$1  19 
71 


For  further  information,  see  Table  V. 


582  LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

GLASS  WORKS. 

Wages  paid  per  iceek  of  sixty  hours  to  glass-worlcers  in  the  consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

In  Zufifeiihauaen: 

$3  57 
2  86 

1  67 

.5  95 

2  43 

$7  14 
5  24 
4  28 

10  71 
3  57 

$5  36 
4  05 

2  98 

In  Buhlback  : 

7  14 

2  86 

MINES  AND   MINING. 


Wages  2)aid  per  day, ' 


week,  or  year,  in  and  in  connection  ivith  iron  and  salt  mines  in  the  con- 
sular district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


In  mines  and  foundries : 

Fonudry  superiuteudeuts  per  year. 

roundly  treasurers do. . . 

Foundry  assistant  superintendents do. . . 

Foundry  bookkeepers do. .. 

Machine  inspectors do. .. 

Clerks do... 

Assistant  mining  engineers do... 

Travelinj;  salesmen do. .. 

Foundry  men per  day. 

Turners  do. .. 

Loiksmitbs do... 

Smiths do. .. 

Carpenters  do... 

Rollers  do. . . 

PudiUers do. .. 

Mellers , do. .. 

Miners  do . . . 

Common  laborers do... 

In  salt  works  : 

Superintendents per  year. 

Treasurers  do  .. 

Assistant  superintendents do. . . 

Bookkeepers do... 

Overseer do... 

Stoiekeeper do. .. 

Inspectors  of  mines  do  . . 

Inspectors  of  salt  works do  .. 

Chief  surveyors per  week. 

Surveyors     do. .. 

Foremen  of  boilers do. .. 

Boileis do. .. 

Millers do... 

Smiths  do. .. 

Caipenters  do. .. 

Masons do. .. 

Day  laborers do  . . 


Lowest. 


$809  20 

714  00 

428  40 

523  60 

856  80 

428  40 

428  40 

571  20 

48 

59 

57 

52 

52 

57 

48 

38 

31 

31 

809  20 

904  40 

428  40 

523  60 

342  72 

499  80 

714  00 

618  80 

6  06 

4  76 

4  28 

3  33 

2  86 

4  05 

3  00 
3  09 
2  62 


Highest.  I  Average. 


$904  40 
904  40 
571  20 
52:!  60 
856  80 
428  40 
428  40 
571  20 

1  19 
83 
83 
76 
83 
71 
79 
95 
71 
48 

904  40 

904  40 

571  20 

523  60 

342  72 

499  80 

714  00 

618  80 

7  14 

5  71 

4  76 

3  81 

2  86 

4  05 

3  09 
3  21 
3  09 


$856  80 

785  40 

535  50 

523  60 

856  80 

428  40 

428  40 

571  20 

70 

65 

58 

57 

59 

55 

55 

71 

43 

43 

856  80 
904  40 
456  96 
523  60 
342  72 
499  80 
714  00 
618  80 
6  90 
5  24 


*  In  office  work  ei;;ht  hours,  and  in  the  mines  twelve  hours  constitute  a  day's  work. 


LKI50K    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


583 


RAILWAY   EMPLOYES. 

fVar/es  paid  to  railwai/  einploi/cn  {tlw^e  eni/nfied  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  engaged  on 
the  engineH  and  ears,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <)'-c.)  in  the  consnlar  district  of  Stutt- 
gart. 


OccupatioDs. 


Chief  conductors - 

Roiid-iuastera ■ 

Guards : 

Liiiti 

Tuunuls  and  bridges 

Station  directors 

Chiefs  of  station 

Ticket  clerks    

Station  superintendents 

Porters  and  saloon  attendants 

Switchmen  

Freight  and  baggage  officials,  cashiers,  supply-clerks,  and  storekeepers' 

Assistant 

Train-masters  .. 

Conductors 

Car  attendants  

Freight  handlers 

Brakenien 

Locomotive  engineers 

Firemen  : 

First  class 

Second-class 

Linemen 


Lowest. 


$833  20 
428  40 

154  70 
178  50 
428  40 
309  40 
309  40 
261  80 
214  20 
166  60 
380  80 
261  80 
261  80 
214  20 
214  20 
190  40 
166  60 
309  40 

226  10 

202  30 

*43 


Highest. 


$357  00 
523  60 

178  50 
178  50 
761  60 
380  80 
380  80 
333  20 
238  00 
190  40 
666  40 
2«5  60 
285  60 
2:t8  00 
238  00 
202  30 
178  50 
428  40 

261  80 

226  10 

*50 


Average. 


$345  10 
476  00 

166  60 
178  50 
547  40 
345  10 
345  10 
297  50 
226  10 
178  50 
514  08 
273  70 
273  70 
226  10 
226  10 
196  35 
172  55 
368  90 

243  95 
214  20 

*45 


■  Per  daj. 


SHIP-Y^ARDS. 


Wages  paid  per  year  or  day  in  shifj-yards,''  distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood  shi2)-build- 
mg,  in  the  consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


Masters  of  shops per  year. 

Masters  of  yards do. . . 

AVood  carvers per  day. 

Locksmiths  and  forgemen do.'. . 

Boiler-makers do . . . 


Lowest. 


$714  00 

428  40 

57 

52 

52 


Highest. 


$904  40 

571  20 

95 

95 

1  05 


Average. 


$809  20 

523  60 

76 

71 

79 


*  Ship-yards  at  Friedrichshafon,  on  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  at  Neckarsulm,  on  the  Xeckar. 

seamen's  WAaES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  seamen  {offi"ersand  men),  disfin'/uishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
rioer  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam.* 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

General  manager 

$904  40 
523  60 
333  20 
309  40 
202  30 
261  80 
251  80 
234  55 

$904  40 
523  60 
4.52  20 
309  40 
202  30 
857  00 
251  80 
234  55 

$904  40 
623  60 

Bookkeepers  

380  80 

309  40 

Tow  bo:it  hands 

202  30 

Engineers 

293  93 

251  80 

Seamen .            

234  55 

♦These  prices  apply  to  the  lino  of  passenger  and  freight  steamers  run  on  Lake  Constance  by  the 
Wurtemberg  government. 


584 


LABOE    IN    EUROPE — GERMANY. 


STORE   AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  Jill'  year  in  drij  goods  and  variety  stores,  ukolesaJeor  retail,  to  males  and  females 
in  the  consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$285  CO 
119  00 
190  40 
160  00 
190  40 

S5  70 
142  80 
238  00 

$1,42S  00 
7U  00 
595  00 
238  00 
2:j8  00 

47  60 
470  00 
476  00 

$571  20 
357  00 

Clerks 

357  00 

''1 4  "'0 

214  20 

Shop  nil  Is: 

42  84 

285  60 

357  00 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (toivns  and  cities)  in  the  consular  district  of 

Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average, 


Man- servants 

Coachmen 

Gaidtuers 

Cooks: 

Male 

Feiiialo  (in  hotels).. 

Female  (in  families) 

Ladies'  eompauioiis 

Giiveinesses 

Housekeepers 

Chanil)(-riiiai<ls 

Nurse  gills 

Waitinj:  maids 

Housemaids 

"Waiters 

Waitresses 


$142  80 
71  40 
71  40 

166  60 
28  f.6 
57  12 
142  80 
110  00 
35  70 
28  56 
42  84 
57  12 
30  94 
59  5i) 
28  56 


$171  36 
142  80 
128  52 

856  80 

226  10 

142  80 

476  00 

285  60 

95  20 

57  12 

85  68 

85  68 

35  70 

285  60 

47  60 


$154  70 
lii7  10 
95  20 

285  60 
71  40 
95  20 

3.'.7  00 

238  00 
71  40 
42  84 
71  40 
71  40 
33  32 

142  80 
35  70 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  the  consular  district 
of  Stuttga7-t,  with  or  ivithout  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Overseers per  year.. 

Stalle  liauds do 

Day  laborers: 

Mal(^ per  week.. 

Female do  . . . 

Dairymen do 

Maids per  year.. 


Lowest. 


$142  80 
35  70 

1  43 

1  19 

1  43 

23  80 


Highest. 


$476  00 
95  20 

2  14 

1  90 

2  38 
38  08 


Average. 


$357  OO 
57  12 

1  90 

1  43 

1  90 

30  94 


LAr$OR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 

CORPORATION  EMPLOY:6s. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Stuttgart. 


585 


Occupations. 


Mayor , 

Mayor's  secretaiy 

Eniiiueciinj;  advisers 

Citv  Wiirdeu 

Chief  euj;iiiei-r 

Streoi  inspector  

Clerks  at  cits  hall 

President  of  city  court 

Re^iistiars        

City  warden's  cashier 

Siirvevors 

Siiperinteiideiit  of  public  buildings 

Couiptrolhr's  of  building 

Assessors , 

Bookkeepers 

Actual  ies 

Supeiintendcnt  of  markets     

Couiptt  oiler  of  accounts 

Comptroller  of  taxes   

Assistant  city  warden 

Superiutenileiit  of  octroi 

City  recorders 

Waidens  of  forestry   

Cliief  of  police  

Coiniuissaiics  of  police 

Clerks  of  police  

Inspectors  of  police 

Chief  of  bureau,  dwejlings,  and  strangers  . . 

Qunrterraaster  of  police 

Fire  alarm  operators 

Superintendent  of  gas-lisrhts 

Inspectors  ot  canals  and  water-works 

Constructors  of  water- works 

Veterinary  surgeons 

Pooi  -house  officials 

Superintendent  of  public  hospital 

Assistant  superintendent  of  public  hospital  . 

Captain  of  gaurd  (octioi) 

Guards  (octroi)    

luspi'ctor  of  cemeteries 

Grave  diggers 

Coporals  of  police 

Policemen 

Keeper  of  citv  ball 

Attendants  at  city  hall 

To wer- watcher  s  (for  fires) 

Suburban  policemen  

Overseers  of  streets  and  canals , 

Overseers  of  mark  et  s 

Janitors  in  public  schools 

Inspectors  of  meats 

Sextons  of  churches 

Phvsicians  for  the  poor 

Surgeons  for  the  poor 

Chaplain  of  poor-house 

Schoolmaster  of  poor-honse 

OvoisecMs  of  pool' 

Warden  of  poor  boiise 

Chief  medical  diieotor,  city  hospital 

Assistant  physicians  at  city  hospital 

Oculist  at  city  hospital ...  1 


Lowest. 


, 380  00 
><56  80 

,  :{hO  40 

,  ■.WO  40 
yu4  40 
904  40 
523  00 
916  ot) 
6'JO  20 
993  60 
761  60 
8;i3  ou 
7tjl  60 
690  20 
571  20 
749  70 
571  20 
571  20 
511  70 
476  00 
833  00 
571  29 
999  60 

,  3:i2  81) 
630  70 
571  20 
618  80 
333  20 
511  70 
535  50 
9U4  40 
8u9  20 
511  70 
511  70 
476  00 

,094  80 
547  40 
470  00 
315  35 
476  00 
357  00 
314  16 
280  84 
571  20 
242  76 
])-3  26 
273  70 
368  90 
3(19  40 
218  06 
190  40 
142  80 
83  30 
85  70 
52  30 
59  50 
571  2i» 
499  80 
785  40 
204  68 
119  00 


iligb. 

St. 

$2,  380  00 

856 

^0 

1,642 

20 

1,  380 

40 

9u4 

40 

904 

40 

999 

60 

9:6  30  1 

833 

00 

999  60 

904  4U 

833 

00 

761 

60 

749  70  1 

749 

70 

749 

7U  ! 

571 

20  1 

571 

20 

511 

70 

476 

00 

833 

to 

999 

60 

999 

60 

1,  332 

811 

833 

00 

571 

20 

773 

50 

511 

70 

511 

70 

5,5 

50 

904  40  1 

999 

(iO 

690 

20 

1,  094 

80 

904  40 

1,  094  00 

61S 

80 

471 

00 

315  35  1 

476 

00 

452 

20 

314 

16 

280 

84 

571 

20 

290 

36 

192 

78 

357 

00 

434  35 

300  40 

487 

90 

190 

JO 

297 

50 

95 

20 

35 

70 

52  36  1 

123 

76 

571 

20 

499  80  1 

785 

40 

204  68 

119  00 

$2,  380  00 
8:6  00 
1,511  30 
1,380  40 
yu4  40 
904  40 
725  90 
916  30 
761  60 
999  60 
809  20 
3.«  00 
761  60 
719  95 
647  36 
749  70 
571  20 
r.71  20 
511  70 
476  00 
833  00 
737  SO 
999  60 
1,332  80 
706  86 
571  20 
671  16 
422  45 
51  70 
535  50 
904  40 
904  40 
595  00 
80.J  25 
602  83 
1,  094  80 
083  10 
476  00 
315  35 
476  (10 
404  60 
314  16 
280  84 
571  20 
266  56 
185  64 
297  50 
392  70 
309  40 
428  40 
190  40 
238  00 
88  06 
35  70 
52  36 
91  63 
571  20 
499  80 
7X5  40 
204  68 
119  00 


583 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE GERMANY. 


GOVERNIMENT   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paidper  year  toemployds  in  Government  departments  and  offices — exclusive  of  trades- 
men and  laborers — in  the  consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occupations. 


Ministers  of  state 

President  superior  county  court 

Presidi'nts  of  county  courts,  of  senate  of  superior  county  court,  and 

chief  attorneya-iieneral      

Councillors  at  ministry  of  justice,  and  at  superior  county  court ;   also 

directors  of  county  courts  

County  court  councillors  and  county  judges,  and  attorneys-general 

County  judires    

Diiectors  of  county  and  circuit  boards  in  interior  departraent 

Chief  councilors  of  the  Government  and  chief  councilors  of  engineer- 


Lowest. 


$4,  284  00 
2,  284  80 


Highest.   Average. 


$4,281  00 
2,  284  80 


1,  Gti6  00      1,761  20 


Coadvisers  at  interior  department  

President  of  Protestant  consistory 

Directors  at  treasury  department 

Chief  councilors,  finance  or  engineering 

Coadvisers  at  treasury  department 

Assessors  in  various  departments 

Secretaries,  registrars,  revisors    

Cashiers  

Comptiollers 

Office  clerks 

Copying  clerks 

Office  servants 


1,  332  80 

1,  047  20 

086  40 

1,523  20 

1,  332  80 

1,  047  20 

1,  999  20 

1,  523  20 

1,332  80 

1,047  20 

666  40 

571  20 

1,  237  60 

8o9  20 

404  60 

357  00 

333  20 


1,  523  20 

1,  237  70 

856  80 

1,618  40 

1,428  00 

1,237  60 

1,999  20 

1,618  40 

1,428  (0 

1,  237  60 

856  80 

8(i9  20 

1, 237  60 

809  20 

499  80 

380  00 

333  20 


$4,  284  00 
2,284  80 

1,  713  60 

1,4:^8  00 

I,  142  40 

761  60 

1,  570  80 

1,380  40 

1,142  40 

1,999  20 

1,  ii70  80 

1,  380  40 

1,  142  40 

701  60 

600  20 

1,  237  60 

8(19  20 

452  20 

36X  90 

333  20 


The  Wurtemberg  Government  has  under  its  management  and  control  no  other  industrial  establish- 
tnentB  than  those  included  and  given  herewith. 

printers'  wages. 

statement  showing  the  wages  paid  printers  (compositors,  pressmen,  proof-readers,  tf-o. )  in  the 

consular  district  of  Stuttgart. 


Occapations. 


Printing  offices : 

Foremen per  year.. 

Compiisitors  and  proof-readers. per  day.. 

Press  foremen do 

Firemen do 

Male  and  female  hands do 

Port  cr do 

Foundries : 

Foienion  . .. do. 

Sieri'otypers,  &,c do. 

Workmen do 


Highest.  Average. 


$714  00 

$G42  60 

1  43 

1  19 

1  43 

1  10 

83 

77 

48 

43 

83 

77 

1  67 

'  1  55 

1  09 

1  03 

1  43 

1  19 

THE  UNITED  KIXaDOM. 

ENGT^ANB. 

BIRMINGHAM.  X 

liEPOKT  BT  COXHVL  KING. 
DIFFICULTY   OF    SECURING   STATISTICS. 

lu  seeking^  information  to  enable  me  to  reply  to  this  question  I  have 
met  with  many  refusals,  some  of  which  were  courteous  and  some  of 
which  were  not.  Ou  the  other  hand,  I  have  met  with  mucli  kind  and 
considerate  assistance. 

In  the  fi'Iass  trade  I  have  found  no  firm  willing:  to  give  me  the  slightest 
information,  and  in  all  trades,  in  tiie  case  of  the  workingnien  themselves, 
I  have  met  with  many  refusals  and  a  good  deal  of  suspicion,  even  after 
I  explained  my  object,  although  to  me  it  seems  that  an  honest  and 
trustworthy  comparative  report  upou  the  wages  and  condition  of  the 
"working  i:»eople  throughout  the  world  must  be  of  real  value  and  un- 
mixed good  to  all  the  working  classes. 

In  most  cases  it  has  been  impossible  to  get  the  highest,  lowest,  aud 
average  wages,  and  I  have  been  forced  to  be  content  with  what  I 
could  get.  The  prevalence  of  the  system  of  piece  work,  and  the  fixed 
card-rates  of  the  various  trades- unions,  must  partly  account  for  this 
failure  on  my  part.  Times  are  so  hard  in  most  trades  that,  as  a  rule, 
most  who  are  not  capable  hands  are  out  of  employment.  At  least  I 
have  been  told  that  such  is  the  case  by  several  masters  and  one  or  two 
foremen,  who  have  given  this  as  a  reason  for  only  being  able  to  supply 
average  statistics. 

From  Mr.  Browning,  consular  agent  at  Redditch,  I  have  received  a 
paper  which  I  inclose,  giving  the  cost  of  producing  40,000  needles. 
This  was  the  nearest  approach  he  could  get  to  a  report  of  the  wages  paid 
in  that,  the  staple  trade  of  Redditch,  as  all  the  work  is  piece-work,  often 
given  out  and  done  in  the  artisan's  own  houses.  Some  time  ago  the 
Messrs.  Milward  took  me  through  their  vast  factory  at  Redditch  and 
explained  the  whole  process  of  needle  making  to  me  ;  but  the  details 
are  so  intricate  that  even  had  my  memory  faithfully  retained  what  I 
then  saw  this  would  hardly  be  a  proper  place  to  describe  it. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

In  Birmingham  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by  the  following  gentle- 
men, who  have  given  me  every  facility  for  obtaining  information,  viz: 
Messrs.  Thomas  Pemberton  &  Co.,  brass  founders;  Messrs.  Morewood 
&  Co.,  iron  rollers;  Messrs,  W.  Tonks  &  Sons,  brass  founders ;  Mr,  Silk, 
of  the  household  su])])ly  stores;  Messrs.  Tangye  Bros.,  machine-makers ; 
Messrs.  Peter  Wright  &  Sons,  anvil-makers  at  Dudley;  Mr.  Barnsley, 
builder,  and  Messrs.  Raudle  &  Co.,  tin-i)late  makers. 

587 


688  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

BIRMINGHAM   BRASSWARE   AND   JEWELRY. 

For  more  than  a  i;eiitnrv  Biriningiiain  has  had  a  woildwich^  i'oi)uta- 
tion  for  its  oriiaiiuMital  brass  ^oods,  and  for  about  ^hc  same  time  it  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  tlie  jewehy  trade.  In  fact  so  many 
men  are  employed  in  those  two  trades  that  they  may  be  said  to  be 
almost  the  most  important  trades  in  this  ^reat  town  of  nearly  half  a 
million  workers.  For  this  reason  I  have  secnred  a  return  of  wayes  from 
a  mannfactnrinft-  jeweler  and  two  from  leading  brass  founders.  The 
re])ort  res:ardin<;-  coopers'  wages  was  sent  in  in  an  nnusual  form,  but 
may  be  of  interest,  since  I  have  been  unable  to  procure  any  othei'.  In 
connection  with  this  inquiry  I  beg  to  inclose  wage  lists  of  the  general 
trades,  foundries,  &c.,  store  and  shop,  tin-])late  works,  gold  and  silver 
smiths,  agricultural  laborers,  needle-makers,  and  coopers. 

COST   OF   LIVING   TO   THE   LABORING   CLASSES. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  exact  answer  to  this  question.  Eents  vary 
from  about  50  cents  to  about  $2.50  a  week,  according  to  situation  and 
amount  of  accommodation.  In  Quintain,  where  many  of  the  former 
nail-workers  have  obtained  other  work,  a  comfortable  cottage  of  four 
rooms,  with  forj:e  attached,  can  be  had  for  about  75  cents,  while  in 
Cradley  and  Lye,  where  the  nail-makers  are  almost  wholly  dependent 
upon  their  moribund  trade  for  existence,  the  same  class  of  cottage  costs 
about  (10  cents.  Clothing  is  cheaper  than  it  is  in  America.  It  is,  how- 
ever, little  if  any  cheaper  than  it  was  Ave  years  ago  here.  Cheap 
tailor  goods  are  about  the  same  price  that  they  then  were.  Boots  that 
in  1877  cost  $2.50  can  now  be  had  as  good  for  about  $2.25.  Print  goods 
quoted  at  11  cents  in  1877  can  now  be  had  for  7  cents.  Canton  tlaiinel, 
now  12  cents  i)er  yard,  was  but  9  cents  in  1877.  Coal,  which  cost  $1.50 
in  1877,  can  now  be  had  for  about  $3.12,  but  coal  is  an  article  that  con- 
stantly changes  in  value.  Sugar  and  coffee  have  not  changed  in  ])rice, 
but  tea  has  come  down  fi  om  70  cents  in  1877  to  40  cents  now.  Potatoes, 
milk,  eggs,  bread,  and  bacon,  have  remained  about  stationary.  Fresh 
meat  is  somewhat  cheai)er.  Thus,  on  tlie  whole,  I  may  say  that  living 
is  slightly  cheai)er  and  wages  slightly  higher  than  they  were  in  1877. 
Yet  the  number  of  the  nnemi)loyed  is  greater,  and  the  actual  distress 
now  existing  is  almost  alarming  in  its  extent.  The  labor  unions  keep 
up  the  wages,  but  they  cannot  tind  work  for  the  constantly  increasing 
numbers  of  idle  hands. 

THE   HAND   NAIL-MAKERS. 

In  the  ]iand-made-nail  region.  Lye,  Cradley,  Halesowen,  &c.,  there  is 
much  suffering.  Many  are  without  work,  and  the  more  fortunate  can 
only  earn  a  miserable  pittance.  Tliere  seems  to  be  no  ])ossibility  of 
im])roveinent  by  ordinary  measures,  and  it  would  appear  as  if  liere,  at 
any  rate,  (iovernment  might  intervene,  and,  by  giving  them  the  means 
to  emigrate,  rescue  these  i)oor  ])eoi)Ie,  who  are  iairly  honest  and  willing 
to  be  industrious,  from  the  ruins  of  a  once  prosperous  trade. 

THE   LEAD   MINES   OF   SHROPSHIRE. 

Another  ])art  of  this  consular  district  is  just  now  the  scene  of  acute 
suffering.  The  had  mines  in  Shropshire  have  been  compelled  to  cease 
work,  and  more  than  three  hnndre<l  men  in  a  reniote  section  of  country 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  589 

are  thrown  out  of  cniployiiuMit,  with  wn<?es  due  but  unpaid.  The  women 
and  children  and  many  of  the  men  are  nearly  starving",  and  have  oidy 
been  rescued  by  gifts  of  food  from  the  i)eople  of  Shrewsbury.  This  dis- 
tress may,  however,  be  re<;arded  as  temporary. 

HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

I  think  the  people  in  this  vicinity  are  fsiirly  thrifty,  and  perhaps  as 
sober  as  the  average  British  working  people.  The  amount  of  drunken- 
ness, and  of  crime  arising  from  drunkenness,  shows  a  very  satisfactory 
decrease,  if  the  figures  of  the  chief  constable  are  to  be  relied  upon. 
The  total  number  of  such  cases  coming  under  the  notice  of  the  i)olice 
in  the  borough  of  Birmingham  was  L';»,780  in  the  five  years,  187-4-'78, 
against  110,710  in  the  five  years  1879-'83.  This  showing  is  even  more 
favorable  than  appears  at  first  sight,  because  the  estinuited  population 
of  liirmingham  was  3(16,325  in  1875,  and  414,840  in  1883. 

This  decrease  may  be  i)artly  owing  to  the  s])read  of  education,  and 
the  opening  of  ^'ree  reading-rooms  and  lectures  throughout  the  town. 
These,  with  the  very  successful  coffee  houses,  have  given  the  working 
people  comparatively  i)leasant  places  of  resort  without  the  necessity 
of  drinking  strong  liquors.  Before  such  places  existed  men  and  women 
who  sought  ]>ublic  recreation  or  social  i)leasures  were  almost  compelled 
to  go  to  the  bar-rooms  and  gin  shoi»s.  The  fact  that  so  soon  as  an  al- 
ternative was  otiered  to  the  working-man  a  very  ai)i)reciable  reduction 
took  place  in  the  amount  of  drunkenness  seems  to  tell  its  own  tale. 

FEELING   BETWEEN  EMPLOYERS   AND   EMPLOYED. 

Strikes  are  not  unfrequent  here,  but  the  number  and  variety  of  trades 
is  very  large,  in  the  nail  and  chain  making  districts  strikes  may  be 
said  to  be  chronic,  as  there  is  generally  one  in  jirogress  in  one  i)art  or 
other  of  the  black  country.  In  n^.any  of  the  chief  trades,  however,  arbi- 
tration has  been  adopted  and  has  worked  fairly  well.  Last  yenr  a  ])or- 
tion  of  the  iron  trade  for  a  time  refused  to  accept  the  abitrator's  decision 
against  the  men.  A  strike  resulted,  accompanied  by  some  rioting,  which 
was  not  of  long  duration.  More  recently  in  Kiderminster,  as  Mr.  Mor- 
ton states  in  his  meuKu-andum,  there  liave  been  disagreements  and 
serious  riotings,  so  that,  in  spite  of  a  largely  augmented  police  force, 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  call  upon  the  military  for  aid  in  order  to 
restore  order. 

On  the  whole,  however,  1  should  say  that  the  feeling  betwi-en  em- 
])loyers  and  employed  is  not  unkindly.  Many  of  the  greater  em])loyers, 
by  the  cstablisliment  of  eating-rooms  at  their  works,  where  cheaj),  good 
food  is  provided,  reading-rooms,  courses  of  lectures,  night  schools,  and 
systems  of  social  entertainment,  day  nurseries  for  thecbildreu  of  work- 
ing women,  «&c.,  have  done  much  to  add  to  the  comfort  of  their 
men  and  to  i)romote  good  feeling.  In  a  number  of  the  factories  which 
I  have  visited  I  have  heard  tlie  men  sjieak  very  kindly  of  their  employ- 
ers. In  some  1  found  men  who  had  been  all  their  lives  in  the  one  fac- 
tory. In  Mr.  Pemberton's  coi)[)er  factory  there  is  an  old  man  who  has 
been  nearly  sixty  years  there,  and  who  tells  with  pleasure  and  pride 
that  he  has  known  five  generations  of  the  Bemherton  family. 

Are  the  working  people  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wher- 
ever they  choose,  or  do  the  emplosers  impose  any  conditions  in  this 
regard  ?  How  often  and  in  what  kind  of  currency  is  labor  paid  ?  As 
a  rule,  working  people  are  paid  m  sterling  money  once  a  week,  and  are 


590  LABOR    IN    El'h'OPE ENGLAND. 

free  to  do  what  tlicy  will  with  it.  In  the  nail  and  chain  districts  there 
was  a  great  deal  of  payino-  tor  labor  with  orders  for  goods  n])on  shops 
belonging  to  the  employers.  This  so-calli'd  truck  system  is  now  illegal. 
It  is  said  still  to  jnevail  in  some  i)laces,  bnt  1  have  asked  a  number  of 
the  working  peoj)lc  themselves,  all  of  whom  denied  having  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  existence  now  of  this  system. 

CO-OPERATIVE    SOCIETIES. 

I  have  not  been  able  as  yet  to  procure  any  details  concerning  the 
workings  of  any  of  the  unions,  most  of  which,  1  believe,  combine  much 
co-operative  work  with  their  other  business.  Most  of  them  have  sick 
and  burial  funds  connected  with  them.  At  the  Messrs.  Pemberton's 
works,  where  about  four  hundred  hands  are  employed,  the  men  all  belong 
to  the  brass  workers'  union.  In  addition  to  which  they  each  pay  a  shilling 
a  week  to  a  sick  fund  confined  to  that  factory,  which  insures  8  shill- 
ings a  week  in  case  of  disability  to  work.  The  remainder  of  the  fund 
is  usually  divided  among  the  contributors  at  Christmas,  and  generally 
gives  each  man  enough  to  enable  him  comfortably  to  tide  over  the 
week's  holiday  at  that  season. 

In  addition  to  this  each  man  pays  a  penny  and  each  boy  a  halfpenny 
each  week  to  what  is  called  the  hospital  Saturday  fund.  Siujilar  con- 
tributions are  made  in  most  of  the  works  throughout  the  town,  and  the 
amount  thus  collected  is,  on  a  fixed  Saturday  each  year,  handed  over 
to  the  various  hospitals.  This  year  this  fund,  contributed  by  the  work- 
ing men  and  women,  amounted  to  about  $30,000. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

I  think,  on  the  whole,  it  is  pretty  good.  Honse  rent  in  Birmingham 
is  moderate,  costing  from  3G  cents  to  $1.90  per  week  for  such  houses  as 
the  working  men  live  in. 

The  question  of  artisans'  dwellings  has  been  hotly  discussed  here  re- 
cently in  the  newspapers  and  in  the  town  council.  An  influential  com- 
mittee was  appointed  and  a  searching  and,  I  think,  thorough  inquiry 
was  made.  The  report  shows  that  5,273  houses,  out  of  a  total  of  65,909, 
are  empty,  and  that  these  empty  houses  are  fairly  distributed  through 
all  parts  of  the  town,  showing  that  any  overcrowding  that  exists  does 
not  result  from  any  lack  of  accommodation. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  the  houses  was  found  to  be  fairly  good. 
The  number  of  cases  of  dangerous  overcrowding  was  verj-  small  as  com- 
pared with  many  other  large  towns,  and  such  overcrowding  when  found 
was  generally  i)roved  to  be  the  result  of  intemjjerance  rather  than  of 
poverty.  The  committee  reported  that  the  intemi)erance  and  improvi- 
dence existing  are  largely  the  result  of  the  i)resent  depression  of  trade. 
In  this  they  difier  radically  from  my  individual  oi)inion,  founded  as  I 
believe  on  statistics,  that  both  drunkenness  and  improvidence  increase 
rapidly  when  times  are  good.  However,  the  committee  came  to  the 
conclusion  that:  "The  dwelling  house  aciommodation  for  the  artisan 
and  laboring  class  within  the  borough  is,  generally  sj)eaking,  in  a  fairly 
sanitary  condition,  and  that  overcrowding  does  not  exist  to  any  great 
extent." 

The  committee  also  urged  upon  councils — 

First.  That  all  new^  houses  should  be  certified  by  a  competent  official 
before  they  are  allowed  to  be  occupied. 

Second.  That  extreme  care  shouhl  be  used  by  the  building  surveyor 
in  the  supervision  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  houses. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  f)91 

Tliird.  That  the  staircases  of  new  houses  should  be  better  constru(;ted. 

Fourth.  That  Mie  corporatiou  shouhl  eini)h)y  scavengers  and  white- 
wasliers  to  cleanse  the  worst  courts  occasionally. 

Firth.  That  it  is  very  desiral)]e  that  all  courts  should  be  lighted. 

Sixth,  That  more  suitable  closet  accommodations  should  be  provided 
for  children. 

Seventh,  That  single  houses  should  be  thoroughly  stripped,  ])apered^ 
and  lime-washed  at  least  once  in  two  years,  and  others  once  in  three 
years.  (A  single  house,  I  am  told,  is  a  house  with  one  room  on  the 
ground  lloor  an«l  two  above.) 

Eighth.  That  cheap  trains  and  tram-cars  should  be  run  to  and  from 
the  suburbs. 

l^inth.  That  it  is  desirable  that  some  model  dwellings  should  be 
erected  by  private  enterprise  for  the  working  classes. 

INTERVIEWS  WITH  WORK-PEOPLE. 

My  inquiries  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  people  are  moderately  thrifty. 
A  number  of  foremen  with  whom  I  have  spoken  have  all  agreed  in  tell- 
ing me  that  the  majority  of  their  men  save  something.  I  have  spoken 
to  a  nnmber  of  working  people  of  various  trades  with  varying  results. 
Some  seemed  to  suspect  me  of  mysterious  designs  of  an  unholy  nature, 
and  declined  to  have  anything  to  do  with  me.  Some  pretty  plainly  told 
me  to  go  about  my  business  and  let  theirs  alone.  The  answers  of  others 
1  have  endeavored  to  report  faithfully  below. 

HOW  A  BIRMINGHAM  BAKER  LIVES. 

A  baker  said : 

I  Avoik  from  3  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  2  in  the  afternoon,  six  days  a  week.  I 
get  17  shillings  a  week  and  my  meals  Fifteen  shillings  a  week  with  meals  is  what  I 
used  to  get,  and  30  t-hillings  a  week  with  meals  is  the  top  wages  for  a  baker.  Con- 
fectioners can  get  about  3  pounds  ($14,58)  per  week,     I  live  in  the  master's  house, 

HOW  A  BIRMINGHAM  IRON-WORKER   LIVES. 

An  iron- worker  said  : 

My  business  is  mechanical.  I  am  thirty  years  old.  I  have  a  wife,  I  earn  about 
34  shillings  (.$8.16)  a  week.  The  habits  of  the  men  here  are  pretty  steady,  but  they 
get  very  irregular  when  they  take  to  drink.  The  feeling  between  us  and  the  gov- 
ernors is  good,  as  has  often  been  shown,  I  do  not  believe  in  strikes,  and  of  late  they 
have  gone  out  of  fashion  and  been  thrown  aside  for  arbitration,  which  seems  to  be 
the  best  tor  both  masters  and  men. 

We  generally  get  our  wages  paid  weekly  in  cash,  and  we  do  what  we  please  with  it. 
Co-operative  societies  have  made  rapid  strides  these  last  few  years,  and  seem  to  be- 
come more  popular  every  year,  [This  man  firmly  refused  to  give  any  particulars  as 
to  his  family  expenditure,] 

HOW  A  BIRMINGHAM  BRUSH-MAKER  LIVES. 

A  brush-maker  said : 

I  am  forty-five  years  old,  I  have  a  wife  and  four  children  ;  the  eldest  is  twenty- 
one  and  the  youngest  twelve.  In  my  trade  wages  vary  very  much,  but  a  general 
workman  of  ordinary  ability,  working  full  time,  can  earn  from  $7.20  to  .|8.40,  We 
work  ten  hours  a  day,  beginning  at  8  o'clock  and  working  until  6,  but  we  have  an 
hour  for  dinner  and  fifteen  minutesfor  lunch.  We  takeour  supper  afterwork  isover. 
I  could  support  my  family  without  my  wife  working;  but  my  children  contribute  on 
an  average  $3,39  per  week.  We  reckon  to  get  about  £120  per  annum,  equal  to 
$583.20. 


592  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

A  house  containing  two  bed-rooms  and  kitchen  costs  3s.  Gd.  per  week,  equal 

ahont §44  22 

Clotliiiig  for  self  and  lauiily,  £->0  97  20 

Food  aliont  26^.  per  week,  or  £67  128.  per  annum 328  53 

We  i)ay  no  taxes.     Schooling,  now  that  only  one  child  attends,  '3d.  per  week, 

I'M.  ]>er  annum 3  15 

Trades  union,  £4  48.  per  annum 20  40 

Total  expenditure 493  50 

The  union  contribution  includes  one  to  a  sick  club,  out  of  which  I  would  draw  10 
shillings  ($2.43)  per  week  if  I  were  either  sick  or  out  of  work.  I  pay  no  tax  on  in- 
come. The  co.st  of  school  books  is  very  suiall,  as  most  of  them  are  found  1)y  the 
school  board.  My  doctor's  bill  for  the  past  year  has  been  more  than  usually  high,  as 
it  wa.s  about  £5  (.$24.30).  As  a  rule  we  have  a  mere  nothing  to  nay,  as  we  are  a 
healthy  family. 

For  brt-aktast  we  have  tea  or  cocoa  and  bread  and  butter,  or  bread  and  bacon.  For 
dinner,  (isli  or  )>eef,  or  some  other  kind  of  meat,  vegetaldcs,  and  beer,  souietiuies  pud- 
ding. For  tea  we  have  tea  and  bread  and  butter,  and  for  sujiper  we  have  bread  and 
cheese  and  b(^er,  and  sometime-',  but  very  rarely,  a  bit.  of  mcMt. 

I  have  no  money  saved.  I  have  no  help  to  fall  back  upon  except  my  sick  club,  and 
that  is  only  available  for  myself  and  not  for  my  wife  and  family.  In  case  of  my  death 
my  wife  would  be  ])aid  £7  (.$34.02).  If  my  wife  dies  before  me  I  should  get  £4  ($19.44) 
to  cover  funeral  expenses. 

In  case  of  a  (jiiairel  with  my  employer  I  should  get  15  shillings  ($3.65)  for  me  and 
1«.  6d.  (37  cents)  for  each  child,  in  addition  to  a  small  sum  for  the  wife,  making  in  all 
fully  £1  i>er  week  ($4.ri6). 

One  good  reason  why  our  men  don't  bother  to  save  is,  that  union  membership  in- 
sures superannuation  allowanites  of  4s.  6d.  per  week  after  fourteen  years' membership, 
or  6  shillings  per  week  after  twenty-one  years'  membership,  and  we  consider  that  is 
enough  to  save  a  man  from  the  pauper's  union. 

now   A   QUINTAIN  FEMALE  TACK-MAKER   LIVES. 

A  young  \Yomaii  making  tacks  at  Quintain  said: 

I  work  for  a  master  at  Bromsgrove,  and  there  they  pay  different  from  what  they  do 
about  Halesowen.  I  get  paid  by  the  thou>and.  The  card  price  is  8^rf.  (17  cents)  i)er 
thousand.  lean  make  a  thousand  iu  four  hours' constant  work.  I  do  not  have  to 
■wori<,  as  my  husbaud  is  a  gardener,  earning  17  shillings  a  week,  at  the  Methodist  Col- 
lege hard  by.  He  has  to  worlc  very  late  for  that.  He  used  to  get  only  15  shillings 
per  week.  I  have  no  children  and  I  work  about  eight  hours  a  day  four  days  in  the 
week.  Wiirk  is  very  hard  to  get,  and  I  am  glail  lo  take  it  under  the  card  rate.  I 
only  get  7id.  (144  cents)  ])er  thousand.  In  tiiis  way  I  make  4s.  Wd.  ($1.16)  per  week. 
Thiis  we  Ii.ivh  £1  Is.  U)d.  per  week  or  56£  15s.  4'/.,  ecjual  to  $J7.').d9  a  year.  Our 
rent  is  3  shillings  a  week,  or  £7  His.  equal  to  $37.90  a  year.  Our  house  has  four 
good  rooms,  two  below  and  two  above  (she  showed  me  the  house,  which  looked  com- 
fortable and  was  exquisitely  clean).  I  think  it  better  to  be  poor,  with  this  good 
air  out  here  at  Quintain,  than  to  make  several  shillings  a  week  more  and  live  in  a 
crowded  court  and  pay  doctor's  bills.  I  always  enjoyed  very  poor  health  until  I 
came  to  Quintain,  but  since  then  I  have  been  well.  The  reason  so  many  nail  inaktw's, 
forges  are  shut  up  in  Quintain  is  that  the  trade  has  got  so  bad  tiiat  most  of  the 
•women  go  all  the  way  to  Birmingham — about  4  miles — to  get  scrubbing  or  washing 
to  do,  anil  many  of  the  men  liavo  got  work  in  the  chemical  and  other  works  at  Old- 
bury,  2  miles  oif  I  iiave  a  brother  and  his  wife,  who  art!  nail-makers,  and  between 
them  they  make  about  14  shillings  a  week  — £36.  8s.  per  annum,  eijual  to$17().8H.  They 
pay  3  shillings  a  week  Ibr  rent  and  1  shilling  for  fucd — which  we  call  brt^ezes — lor  the 
forges,  ai.d  casting  and  weighing.  That  leaves  10  shillings  a  week  foriood  and  cloth- 
ing fbr  the  family.  Their  fond  consists  of  what  they  call  l)reiid  and  butter,  but  I  call 
it  bn-ad  and  scrape,  for  brrnkf.ist,  dinner,  and  supper;  sometimes,  perhai»s  several  times 
a  week,  a  bit  of  bacon.  Thijy  hardly  ever  see  fresh  meat,  it  is  so  dear  in  this  neigh- 
borhood ;  \0d.  ai>ound  for  good  beef  or  mutton.  For  my  part,  1  do  not  think  the  cliil- 
dreii  get  enough  to  eat  ibr  growing  chililrcn  like  them. 

Eight  years  ago  times  Wfre  ^rood.  As  high  as  Is.  l^d.  per  thousand  were  paid  for 
tacks,  but  most  of  the,  jioor  ]»eople  thought,  the  good  times  would  last  forever,  and 
60  spent  all  they  earned  ;  but  tln-y  have  had  to  pay  for  it  since.  Why,  mo>t  of  the 
people  in  the  Halesowen  district  are  in  debt  every  place  they  can  get  cre<lit;  and  on 
that  account  they  could  not  emigrate,  even  if  tliey  could  save  the  passage-money, 
which  would  be  impossible. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  593 

I  never  knew  so  much  sufl'erinj^  amouff  the  people  as  there  is  now;  I  think  there 
never  was  so  much  hefore  ;  I  <h)  not  know  liow  it  is  to  eud  or  what  is  to  come  of  it,  for 
many  piiople  are  almost  starviuj^  and  the  rtist  of  us  have  not  much  to  help  theiu  with. 
I  think  the  mustcu-s  must  he  <!;ettinf>'  very  rich,  since  they  do  not  pay  the  money  to  the 
poor  people  as  they  foruuMly  did. 

Another  younj;-  wonuiu  inakin<>: tacks  at  Quintain,  and  using  the  Oliver,  said: 

I  do  not  think  this  is  very  hard  work.  I  do  not  think  the  oliver  is  as  hard  as  a 
sewinji machine  and  it  is  not  so  eoiiliuin<i,  not  nearly  so  constant  work,  thou^^h  some- 
tbiufi  of  the  same  sort  of  thing.  I  think  it  not  nearly  such  hard  work  as  washing  or 
scruhhing. 

I  work  for  a  Halesowen  master  and  am  ])aid  by  the  j)ouiul.  I  work  from  7  o'clock 
to  7  o'cdoek,  with  pauses  for  meals,  and  if  I  work  steadily  I  can  make.  .'^^  pounds  of 
tacks  and  earn  18(f.  What  with  housekee|)ing  and  the  difiliculty  of  getting  work  I 
have  only  four  days'  work  a  week,  so  I  am  able  to  earn  (>  shillings. 

My  father  is  dead  and  I  am  unmarried,  but  my  mother  lives  here.  She  does  a  good 
deal  about  the  house  and  takes  care  of  my  brother's  child,  so  she  cannot  work  very 
steadily  at  tack-making,  and  only  earns  about  half  a  crown  a  week.  Brother  pays 
the  child's  expenses,  but  does  not  htilp  us  any.  Mother  and  I  earn  8s.  6d.  a  week  and 
we  pay  3  shillings  a  week  rent,  and  breezes  aud  tools  and  repairs  and  other  necessary 
expenses  come  to  a  shilling  a  week  more.  So  we  have  4s.  (M.  a  week  for  food  and  cloth- 
ing for  the  two  of  us.  We  are  pretty  well  generally.  We  have  bread  and  butter  and 
tea.  I  often  get  some  bacon,  but  have  rarely  tasted  fresh  meat.  My  brother  is  a 
carter.  I  do  not  know  how  much  men  make  at  nail-making,  but  not  enough  to  save 
any  money. 

SAFETY  OF  EMPLOYES. 

What  are  the  means  furuished  for  the  safety  of  employes'? 

The  same  factory  acts  are  in  force  here  as  elsewhere  in  England,  and 
with  excellent  results.  The  Birmingham  Daily  Post,  in  a  recent  article 
upon  this  subject,  said  that  ''though  accidents  occur  in  Birmingham 
at  the  rate  of  about  one  a  day  throughout  the  year,  they  have  dimin- 
ished by  about  a  fourth  part  within  the  last  ten  years."  This  diminu- 
tion is,  I  should  think,  entirely  due  to  the  new  laws  and  the  efficient 
labors  of  the  ftictory  inspectors,  appointed  and  acting  under  those  laws. 

Mr.  Bowling,  an  experienced  factory  inspector,  has  recently  made 
some  interesting  and,  I  think,  valuable  remarks  upon  this  subject,  in  a 
farewell  report,  after  living  fifteen  years  in  this  town.  From  this  I  quote 
the  following : 

Two-thirds  of  the  waking  life  of  a  workingman  are  spent  in  the  factory  or  work- 
shop, and  it  is  not  easy  to  exaggerate  the  influence  for  good  or  for  evil  that  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  exercises  his  handicraft  exert  over  his  private  life.  I  have 
always  remarked  that  the  condition  of  the  factory  is  reflected  in  the  condition  of  the 
work  people.  When  the  one  is  healthy,  well  ordered,  and  cheerful  the  people  are  the 
same.  When  the  one  is  neglected  by  the  master,  dirty  and  ill-arranged,  then  the  peo- 
X)le  are  almost  certain  to  be  morally  aud  socially  inferior  aud  carry  the  influence  of 
the  factory  into  their  honu's.  This  influence  should  never  be  forgotten  in  dealing 
with  the  (juestion  of  the  social  improvement  of  the  masses  and  of  the  houses  in  which 
they  dwell.  Mere  attention  to  sanitary  matters  and  the  regulations  of  the  Factory 
acts  will  not  suftice  ;  there  is  a  large  force  for  good  untouched  by  these ;  a  force  which 
can  do  much  to  soften  the  harshness  of  daily  toil  and  bring  somewhat  of  beauty  even 
into  the  workshop;  the  force  of  a  far-seeing  charity  and  sympathy  among  men,  anil 
this  force  is  being  largely  exerted  in  Birmingham. 

My  own  smaller  experience  leads  me  unhesitatingly  to  indorse  what 
Mr.  Bowling  says,  not  only  as  to  what  should  be  done,  but  also  as  to 
what  bas  been  done  in  Birmingham.  I  have  never  known  a  community 
which,  as  a  whole,  seemed  to  me  to  be  so  thoroughly  imbued  with  honest 
public  spirit,  and  the  truest  feeling  of  democracy.  Very  many  of  the 
wealthiest  and  best  educated  and  highest  ])laced  men  here  join  with  those 
of  the  poorer  and  humbler  classes  in  working  and  advising  for  tlie  giMi- 
eral  good.    Private  charity  has  taken  many  beautiful  shapes,  and  the 

92  A— LAB 38 


594  LABOR    IN    P:UR0PE ENGLAND. 

dingy  town  has  grown  far  brighter  even  during  the  few  years  I  have 
lived  here.  Hosjntals  of  every  kind  have  been  endowed.  Eibication  in 
every  branch,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  in  art,  scietice,  and  letters, 
is  possible  to  every  one  who  cares  to  have  it.  Parks  liave  been  opened, 
as  well  as  a  noble  series  of  free  bathing  houses  and  free  libraries. 
Oneap  concerts  are  given  weekly,  at  least,  in  the  town  hall,  and  numer- 
ous courses  of  free  lectures  and  other  entertainments  take  place  in  the 
various  board  schools.  In  short,  during  the  past  fifteen  years,  so  1  am 
told,  the  possibilities  of  pleasure  in  the  lives  of  the  artisan  and  laboring 
classes  have  been  many  times  doubled. 

POLITICAL  RIGHTS. 

What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingmen,  and  what  are 
their  influences,  through  such  rights,  on  legislation  ? 

These  are  the  same  here  as  elsewhere  in  English  towns.  Practically 
the  workingmen  all  have  votes  and  are  a  great  force  in  jHditics;  but 
perhaps  here,  more  than  in  some  other  towns,  this  force  is  skillfully 
controlled  by  engineers  who  uuderstaod  its  power  and  its  uses. 

CAUSES  OF  EMIGRATION. 

What  are  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the  working- 
people,  'S^a.  ? 

Birmiiigham  is  a  town  of  such  manifold  interests  that  the  causes  of 
emigration  differ  widely,  and  the  employments  of  the  emigrants  are  as 
varied  as  the  trades  of  the  town  are  numerous.  Nearly'  all  who  emi- 
grate do  so  in  the  hope  of  improving  their  condition,  generally,  perhaps 
urged  to  do  so  by  the  failure  to  get  steady  employment  at  home.  I 
once  knew  a  saw-maker  who  went  to  America,  and  after  twelve  years 
came  back  to  England  because  his  wife  had  never  been  contented  in 
America.  After  a  year  they  were  about  to  return,  and  came  to  me  for 
some  slight  information  which  they  needed.  I  asked  him  why  he  went 
back,  and  he  said : 

Well,  my  wife  thought  there  was  noplace  like  Enj^hmd  until  she  jiothack,  and  now 
she  floes  not  like  it.  She  iiiuls  the  old  way.s  and  the  old  friends  are  not  so  good  as  she 
expected  them  to  he.  The  food  is  not  so  varied  or  so  plentiful,  and  she  wants  to  go 
hack  to  America.  As  for  me,  I  always  liked  Iiuliana  better  than  England ;  I  get  higher 
wao^es  there.  To  be  sure  clothing  and  rent  are  cheaper  in  England,  and  food  cost.s 
aboiit  the  same,  only  they  do  not  have  so  much  in  England.  Ihit  in  America  we  had 
much  more  varied  food,  more  luxuries,  and  after  twelve  years  I  owned  the  house  I 
lived  in  and  two  others.     Here  in  England  I  could  not  have  saved  a"penny. 

I  think  this  man's  experience  was  typical.  A  good  worknmn,  who  is 
willing  to  work,  can  do  better  for  himself  and  for  his  liimily  in  America 
than  he  can  here,  and  it  is  a  knowledge  of  this  that  largely  induces  the 
euiigration  of  the  best  class  of  emigrants. 

i  have  been  unable  to  get  any  especial  information  regarding  female 
labor. 

WILSON  KING, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Liniiuiyham,  June  1,  1881. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades  in  Birmingham,  1884. 


595 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Occupations. 

Average. 

BuiliHua  trades : 

Per  hour.] 

$0  10 
10 

Biiil(liii2  trades— continued. 

Per  hour. 

$0  18 
*10  50 

17  i 

12  ! 

16  1 
10 

18  1 

17  i 
10  ' 

18 

Brick-iiiakera 

0) 

16 

Butihcrs 

*3  00 

Gardeners,  ordinary 

Laborers,  porters   &c 

Nail-makers  (h.and) 

§4  50 
10 

(II) 

16  ' 

i 

'  Per  week  of  54  hoarn.        t  .Altogether  piece-work.        I  About,  per  week,  and.  board  and  lodging. 
§  Per  week  of  about  70  hour.s.  ||  Piece-work  entirely. 

III.  Foundries,  machine  shops  and  iron  works. 

Wages  jjaid  per   ireek  of  fifty -four  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in 

Birmingham. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Iron  works : 

$10  80 
7  0^ 

11  50 

8  00' 

10  50 

9  60 

9  60 

Drillers 

7  00 

7  75 

Pattem-maker.s 

11  OO 

10  50 



6  25 

Brass  foundry  : 

Foreman  casters 

|9  00 
6  00 

11  00 
6  00 

$15  00 
7  50 
15  00 
10  00 
15  00 
17  50 
4  00 

12  00 
6  75 

12  50 

7  50 

Metal  mixer 

13  00 

Modellers 

15  00 

Bovs    

2  00 

3  00 

Varnishers  (girls) 

3  00 

Anvil  and  vise  makers 

6  25 

15  00 

10  00 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fiftg-six  hours  in  Messrs.    Handle  tf-  Co.'s   tin-plate   and   iron 
works  in  Birmingham  for  good  workers. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  !  Highest.  |  Average. 


Iron-plato  workers 

Iron  braziers     

Tin-plate  workers 

Blacksmiths  or  mounting  forgers 

Tinners , 

Japauners  (oiuameuters)   

Stampers  

Colorers  (women)  44  hours 

Tin  cleaners  (women)  44  hours. . . 


$5  80 

6  75 
4  8C 
G  00 

7  25 
6  00 
(i  00 
2  40 
2  40 


.$9  75 
9  75 
9  75 
9  25 
14  50 
12  00 
12  00 
4  37 
4  86 


7  75 

6  25 

8  00 

9  75 
8  50 

7  25 
2  90 
2  90 


Most  of  the  above  generally  work  by  the  piece  and  in  that  case  usually  earn  about  10  per  cent,  more 
by  working  about  six  hours  per  week  less  time.  The  women,  however,'work  about  44  hours  per  week 
whether  on  piece  work  or  not. 


596  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

Wagespaid  to  gold  and  silver  smiths  and  jewelers  in  Birmingham, 


Occupations. 


Gem  setters per  day. 

Gold  chain  makers  do . . . 

SilvpiHmiths do. .. 

Polishers per  week . 

Lappers    per  day. 

Wire  drawers do  .. 

Engravers do  .. 

Enamellers do... 

Goldsmiths do . . . 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$1  44 

$2  43 

1  41 

2  43 

96 

1  92 

2  43 

4  86 

1  20 

1  68 

96 

1  44 

1  20 

1  92 

1  44 

2  43 

1  20 

1  92 

The  wa^es  quoted  above  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  demand  for 
home-made  goods. 

Needle-making  at  Redditch. 
Eighteen  pounds  of  No.  5  wire  will  produce  40,000  needles,  at  a  cost  of: 

Cuttius  and  rubbing  18  pounds  No.  5  wire $0  18 

Pointing 84 

Starajjing  the  eyes  at  6  cents  per  1,000 2  40 

Hardening  and  tempering 60 

Scouring 1  45 

Handing,  heading,  and  weighing  up,  at  1  cent  per  1,000 40 

Burnishing  the  eyes,  at  2  cents  per  1,000 80 

Finishing,  at  5  cents  per  1,000 2  00 

Papering  in  papers  of  25  to  28  cents  per  20,000 56 

Labeling  at  12  cents  per  20,000 24 

Cost  of  producing  40,000  needles 9  47 

Coopers'  wages  in  Birmingham  per  week  of  five  working  days. 

A  hof'shead  maker — good  average — makes  three  hogsheads  per  day  at  96  cents 

eac"h,$2.88 • $14  40 

Two  half-hogsheads  per  day  at  $1.08  each,  $2. 16 10  80 

A  good  average  barrel- maker  makes  seventeen  36-gallon  barrels  at  78  cents 

each 13  25 

Twentv-four  18-gallon  barrels  at  52  cents  each 12  48 

Thirtv  9-gallon  barrels  at  44  cents  each 13  20 

Thirty-six  4i-gallon  barrels  at  40  cents  each 14  40 

Vat-builders  earn  about  $1.62  per  day 8  GO 

IX.  Shop  and  store  wages. 

Waqes  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  to    sixty  hours  in  household  supply  stores,  retail,   to 
males  and  females,  in  Birmingham. 


Occupations. 


MALE. 

Porters  and  laborers - 

Delivery  porters  ( who  deliver  goods) 

Salesmen   

Chiefs  of  departments 

FEMALK. 

Toung  girls  who  copy  orders 

Young  girls  who  weigh  and  pack  up 

gftleswonien 

Principal  assistants ■  - 

Jroperior  clerks,  cashiers,  and  book-keepers 


Lowest.    Highest.     Average. 


$3  65 
5  10 
3  65 


9  72 

1  21 

1  21 

1  45 

4  37 

4  20 

$5  10 
6  00 
6  75 

17  00 


2  55 

2  55 

3  65 

5  82 
8  50 


5  50 

5  37 

13  37 


2  10 
2  10 
2  90 

5  10 

6  00 


The  above  amounts  should  be  increased  by  the  value  of  a  goofl,  plain 
dinner,  which  is  sui)plied  free  of  auy  charge,  at  a  cost  of  about  5  shil- 
lings per  week  per  head. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

X.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  {toivns  and  cities)  in  Birmingham. 


597 


Occupations 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Cooks  

i      |77  7fi 

$:43  00 
97  20 
97  20 
77  76 
77  76 
97  20 

$106  92 
87  48 

Parlor  maids 

77  70 

Honso  maids 

68  04 

77  76 

General  servants 

Kitchen  maids 

1        48  60 

i        38  88 

58  32 
58  32 

Laundry  maids 

77  76 

87  48 

XI.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  {country)  servants  in  Glouces- 
tershire and  Wo7-ceslershiref  without  hoard  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Agricultural  laborers 

Plowman  and  boy,  constant  employmen  t 
Gardener,  common  


Highest,' 


.$3  65 
4  50 
4  50 


XII.  Corporation  employ:6s. 

Wages  paid  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Birmingham. 
POLICE  FORCE. 


Ko. 


5 
1 
2 

56 
462 


Occupations. 


Chief  constable per  year. 

Chiftf  clerk do. .. 

First-class  superintendents do... 

Spfond-elass  superintenilents do. .. 

Third-class  superintendents do. . . 

Seijieants per  week. 

Constables* do... 


Lowest. 


$7  77 
5  58 


Highest. 


$9  25 
7  29 


Average. 


$3,  888  00 

1,117  80 

874  80 

826  20 

777  60 


IMPROVEMENT  COMMITTEE. 


Clerks per  annum . .  i    $126  36 

Artisans per  week . .  7  29 

Laborers do 


$1,458  00 
10  93 


$5  10 


FIRE  BRIGADE. 


Superintendent per  annum. 

Assistant  superintendent do 

Enslneer per  week. 

A8si.stant  enffineers  (each) do 

Firemen  (each) , do 


$6  25 


1,  4fi8  00 

826  20 

7  53 

6  12 


*  Constables  receive  tlio  lowest  rate  of  pay,  $5.5S,  on  appointmentand  two  sliillinj;s  aweek  more  after 
six  months,  another  shillin!i  per  week  after  twelve  montlis.  After  five  years  the  wa^ies  are  r.^ised  to 
$6.80  per  week,  and  after  ten  years'  service  to  $7.25.     Uniforms  and  an  allowance  for  boots  are  provided. 


598 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Wages  paid  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  citi/  of  IJirmingham — Continued. 
PPBLIC  WORKS  DEPARTMENT. 


No. 


Occupation.s. 


Artizans .per  week . 

Blacksmiths do 

Carpenters do 

5     Clerks do 


Clerks  of  works do. 

Draiijihtsmen do. 

5     Plajigers     do . 

89     Horse  drivers do . 

5  Paviors , do . 

170     Roadmen  do. 

30  :  Sewerraen do . 

25     Stnblemen  do 

6  :  Wheelwrisilits  do. 

70  I  Lamplighters  do. 

109  1  Stonebreakers do . 


Lowest. 


4  86 

7  29 
2  91 

8  50 

9  72 
6  54 

5  10 
5  83 
4  62 
4  38 

4  86 

5  34 


Highest. 


*Average. 
WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  OFFICE. 


$8  73 

7  77 

8  50 
12  15 
15  30 
17  00 

8  00 
5  58 
7  29 
5  34 
7  29 
7  53 
7  77 
4  86 
*3  80 


Hours  per 
day. 


9i 
9i 
8 
8 
8 
9i 
9i 
11 
9i 
9i 


"Various. 
Various. 


Chief  inspector per  annum . 

Outdoor  inspectors  (each) do 

"Weijrht  adjuster   per  week  of  44Hiours. 

Chief  clerk  and  stamper l)er  week  of  44*  liours. 

Junior  clerk  and  stamper per  week  of  .4i  hours. 

Assistants per  week  of  44|  hours. 


$729  00 

534  60 

8  50 

7  29 

3  64 

4  86 


GAS  DEPARTMENT. 


No.  I 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Hig^-*-   ^frZL 


115 
53 
33 


Clerks per  annum 

Inspectors  of  mains,  meters,  and  lam])s 

Lamplighters per  week 

Gau gers,  stokers,  and  flromen 

Engine  drivers 

Carpenters  

G«8  fitters  and  service  layers 

Painters  and  glaziers 

Main  layeis 

Porters  and  watchmen 

Laborers 


$97  20 

315  90 

5  10 

9  77 

7  29 

8  76 
5  10 
7  29 
5  10 
4  38 
4  86 


$972  00 
874  80 

5  10 
9  72 

7  29 

8  76 
10  93 

7  29 

6  81 

5  34 

6  75 


41J 
50 
various. 
60 
.54 
54 
54 
54 
54 


60 


Number  varies  from  1,100  at  midsummer  to  1,800  at  Christmas. 
BATHS  DEPARTMENT. 


No. 


Occupatious. 


General  superintendent per  annum.. 

Clerk per  week.. 

Residents  (average) do 

Stokers  (average)    do 

Male  bath  attendants do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

Female  money  takers do 

Female  bath  attendants do 

Female  bath  scrubbers  (one  day  per  week) 


Average. 


$1,215  00 
5  97 
7  77 
5  00 
5  83 
5  59 
5  35 
5  10 
4  86 
4  00 
2  43 
96 


Hours 
per  day. 


10 
10 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


599 


Jf'agt><  paid  to  the  corporation  employh  in  the  city  of  Uirmint/hani — Continued. 
MARKETS  AND  FAIRS  DEPARTMENT,  ETC. 


No. 


Occupations. 


GEXEUAI.  MARKET. 

Superintendent  of  luarkets per  annum. 

Clerks  and  collectors per  week. 

Gas  titter do. 


Sweeper  and  crier. 


do. 


Policeman do. 

Sweepers do. 

Watchman do 


Lowest. 


$12  15 


6  06 


1     Clerk do. 


SMITIIFIKLl)   MARKET. 

Clerks per  week. 

Sweeper  and  town  crier do 

Clerk do 

Sweeper do 

Weighiuan do 

Clerk do 

Policeman do 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES   (AXI.MALS)   ACT  BEPAUTMEXT. 


Inspectors  of  meat 
Inspector  of  meat  . 
Slaughterman,  &c.  , 


Highest. 


$1,700  00 
13  60 
9  72 
7  60 
6  31 
6  31 
5  35 
3  15 


7  29 
7  29 
5  05 
4  86 
4  86 
2  43 
7  29 


13  60 
12  63 
7  29 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 


No. 

Occupations. 

T/Owest. 

Highest. 

Hours 
per  day. 

Superintendent 

Matron  

Assistant  matron 

Teacher 

do 

Labor  master 

Tailor 

$631  80 
243  00 
97  20 
194  40 
145  80 
204  12 
218  70 

(*) 

...       do 

(•') 

do 

(*) 

do 

9 

do 

. .     do 

9 
12 

...do 

10 

Sh, .P>,T  !,!-«>,- 

per  week.. 

do 

do 

do 

do. 

do 

$7  29 
5  58 
4  38 
1  21 
1  45 
4  38 

9 

1     Dairy -master 

1      Hostler 

12 

12 

aAliBial  1.r.na,.T,.nifI 

6 

Laundress  

General  utility  man 

10 

10 

*  All  the  time. 
AVATER  DEPARTMENT. 


12 
133 
112 


Clerks  and  inspectors per  week 

Artisans do 

Laborers do 


HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. 


?0 

Clerks 

$3  40 
6  80 
6  07 
5  83 
5  10 

$8  50 
8  50 

7  77 

8  50 
5  83 

00  OC 

?4 

Sauitarj' inspectors 

156 

Collectors  of  ni"^ht-soil 

10 

17 

10 

157 

Laborers 

10 

• 

PARKS  DEPARTMENT. 


General  superintendent 

Paik  keepers 

Attendants  in  museum. 
Gardeners 


.per  annum. 
. .  .per  week. 

do 

, do 


$5  34 

*4  86 

5  10 


, 215  00 
7  39 


With  residence. 


600 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Wages'vaid  to  the  corporation  empJoi/es  in  the  city  of  Birmir.ghnm — Continued. 

ENGINEERING. 


No. 

Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

4     Engineerst 

per  annum.. 

$505  44 

$1,1 

42  10 

$816  48 

t  These  men  also  occupy  houses,  rent  and  fire,  light  and  rate  free. 
CLERKS,  COUNTER  CASHIERS,  &c. 


Salaries per  annum. 

do do 

lio do 


COLLECTOKS. 

Salaries per  annum . 

INSPECTORS. 

Salaries per  annum. 

do do 


486  00 


486  00 
972  00 


486  00  ;       972  00 


486  00  I      972  00 


365  25 

712  50 

1,  215  OO 


319  13 
653  67 


ESTATES  COMMITTEE. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Hours 
per  day. 


TOWN  HALL. 

Curator per  week . 

Cleaners do 

Porters do 


COUNCIL  HOUSE. 

Arti sans per  week . 

Doorkeepers do 

Porte  rs do 

Cleaners do 

Curator per  annum . 

WILTON   CEMETEKT. 

Superintendent per  annum. 

A«.siHtaut  buperintendent do 

Clerks    per  week. 

Foreman do 

Carter do 

Gardener do 

Grave-diggers do 


8  50 
5  34 
5  10 


$14  58 
2  91 
5  82 


10  20 

6  07 

5  83 

3  15 

583  00 


1,215  00 
379  08 

4  80 
8  50 

5  83 
5  83 
5  35 


9 
10 


!> 

11 

9 

6 


10 
10 
10 
10 


RUBERY  HILL  ASYLUMS. 


Occupations. 


Superintendent per  annum. 

Assistant  medical  officer  do 

Clinical  assistant do 

Cliaplaiu do 

Cli'r k  to  writ eis  and  purveyors do 

(;if,rk  to  asylum do 

Head  attendant,  male do 

Charge  atteuilants,  male do 

Under  attt-ndants,  male do 

Night  attendants,  male do 

M;ini('d  eoiiple  for  male  side do 

Hall  porter    do 

Iliad  nurse,  female do 

('hargo  nurses,  female do 

Under  nui  ses,  female   do 

Niirlit  nurses do 

Engineer per  week. 

Stoker do 

Baker do 

Painters do 

Tailors    do 

Carpenters do 

Shoemaker do 

Gai-dener do 

Laborers do 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


$155  50 
130  08 
155  50 


102  06 
82  62 
97  20 


5  83 

6  32 


$1,  944  00 
5.i8  90 
90 
50 


558 

607 

749 

729 

437 

199 

165 

199 

280 

lli5 

218 

136 

111 

136 

8 

4 

■     6 

6 

6 

6 

5 

4 

4 


Remarks. 


And  residence. 

And  residence  with  board. 

Do. 
Non-resident. 

Do. 
And  residence. 

Do. 
And  residence  and  uniform. 

Do. 

Do. 
And  residence  and  board. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
With  residence. 


Do. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


601 


JVage^  paid  to  (he  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  lyirminf/hdm — Coiitiiiiied. 
WINSON  GREEN  ASYLUMS. 


No. 


Occapations. 


SnpcriiitciHuiit per  annum. 

Assistant  incdic'al  otticer do 

Clinical  nssistant  -do 

Cliaplain do 

Clerk  to  visitors  and  purveyors do 

Clerk  to  asylum do 

Storekeeper do 

Head  attendant do 

Charge  attendants,  male do 

Under  attendants,  male  do 

Married  coujjles  for  male  side do 

Hall  porter do 

Head  nurse,  female do 

Charge  nurses,  female do 

Under  nurses,  female do 

Night  nurses,  female do 

Engineer per  week. 

Stoker do . 

Baker do. 

Tailors        do. 

Shoemaker do. 

Carpenters do. 

Painter do. 


Lowest.    ;   Highest. 


$160  38 
120  08 
228  42 


106  92 

82  62 

106  92 


Remarks. 


"With  residence. 
Residence  and  board. 
Do. 


BRADFORD. 

RE  POUT  BT  COXSUL  GRINNELL. 

Ill  compliauce  with  the  instructions  of  the  Department,  conveyed  in 
the  labor  circular  dated  February  15, 1884, 1  have  devoted  myself  during 
the  past  two  months  to  a  studious  examination  and  comprehensive  inves- 
tigation of  the  conditions  of  labor  in  its  various  branches,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  its  relation  to  the  welfare  of  the  working"  classes.  This  has  con- 
sumed more  time  than  I  had  anticipated,  owing  to  the  variety  and  char- 
acter of  industries  represented  in  the  consular  district  of  Bradford,  the 
reluctance  of  both  master  and  workmen  to  im})art  to  a  stranger  de- 
tailed information  as  to  their  personal  and  private  interests,  manners  of 
living,  and  mutual  relations,  while,  added  to  this,  was  the  necessity  of 
comparing,  sifting,  and  verifying  the  various  and  often  conflicting  state- 
ments and  facts  elicited  under  the  unfavorable  circumstances  above  re- 
ferred to. 

I  might  have  collated  sufficient  facts  and  data  to  form  a  tolerably 
accurate  report  exclusively  from  the  returns  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
the  reports  of  committees,  and  other  printed  sources,  but  I  have  pre- 
ferred to  obtain  the  information  desired  from  personal  interviews  with 
representative  individuals  of  the  classes  standing  for  capital  and  labor. 


THE  WOOL  INDUSTRY  OF  BRADFORD. 

The  Department  is  aware  by  previous  dispatches  from  this  consulate 
that  the  chief  industries  of  Bradford  consist  in  wool-combing,  spinning, 
weaving,  dyeing,  and  linishing  both  yarns  and  goods  ;  tlie  extraction 
and  working  of  iron  ore,  the  manufacturing  of  such  machinery  as  is 
necessitated  in  the  various  proces.ses  in  treating  wool,  in  conjunction 
with  the  neighboring  town  of  Leeds ;  the  quarrying  of  stone,  with  which 
this  district  abounds  and  which   is   suitable  for  building  and  paving 


602  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

purposes,  together  with  such  miuor  industries  aud  trades  as  arc  cou- 
coinitaut  to  aud  necessitated  by  these. 

It  is  scircely  necessary  to  say  that  the  wool  industry  is  by  far  the 
largest  and  most  important,  and  it  is  owing  to  this  that  Bradford  has 
attained  its  present  commercial  ])rosperity  and  wealth. 

This  industry  miy  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  branches:  (1) 
combing,  (12)  si)!ni)ing,  (3)  weaving,  (4)  dyeing  and  finishing. 

Tlie  wool,  which  is  brought  from  the  neighboring  (!Ouuties  of  England, 
Scotlanil,  and  Ireland,  and  imported  from  various  parts  of  the  world — 
Australia,  Russia,  «!vrc.,  undergoes  here  the  various  treatments  above  re- 
ferred to,  and  is  exported  from  Bradford  in  every  stage  of  the  pn^cess, 
from  the  raw  material  to  the  most  higlily-finished  cloths.  These  indus- 
tries, which  are  usually  kept  distinct  and  separate,  give  employment  to 
vast  numbers  of  workingmen,  women,  and  children. 

CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING    CLASSES. 

The  condition  of  the  working  classes  in  Bradford,  as  in  other  parts  of 
England,  has  formed  the  subject  of  a  vast  amount  of  d(diberative  dis- 
cussion and  legislative  enactments  during  the  past  twenty  or  thirty 
years,  and  has  undoubtedly  been  greatly  improved  and  ameliorated. 

The  general  tendency  in  conservative  and  monarchical  countries,  a 
tendency  markedly  developed  in  France,  Germany,  and  also  in  England, 
to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  central  government  in  all  cases  of  difficulty,  dis- 
tress, or  want,  has  led  to  the  i)assing  of  a  long  series  of  acts  and  laws 
regulating  the  relations  of  master  and  workmen,  the  condition,  manner 
of  life,  hours  of  labor,  ages,  &c. 

In  addition  to  these  laws  and  enactments,  trades  unions  and  work- 
ingmeus'  societies  are  now  almost  as  prevalent  as  in  the  nuddle  ages, 
while  the  necessity  which  called  them  into  being  at  that  time — that  is, 
the  entire  absence  of  any  legislation  upon  the  subject — no  longer  exists, 
so  that  the  workingman  in  the  manufacturing  districts  of  England,  and 
in  another  sense,  and  almost  in  an  equal  degree,  the  master,  has  ceased 
to  become  a  free  agejit,  aud  is  so  hampered  by  general  laws  and  the  un- 
written codes  of  the  trailes,  unions  and  societies  that  individual  free- 
dom of  thought  and  action,  and  a  self-reliance,  which  has  formed  so 
prominent  a  feature  in  the  English  character,  are  virtually  suppressed. 

WORKINGS   OF   THE   ENGLISH   FACTORY   ACT. 

It  is  obviously  not  within  the  province  of  a  consular  officer  to  obtrude 
any  criticisms  ui)on  the  laws  of  the  country  to  which  he  is  accredited, 
but  I  may  be  ])ermitted  to  ])roffer  some  observations  which  have  sug- 
gested themselves  to  me  after  conversations  with  masters  and  work- 
men in  reference  more  especially  to  two  recent  enactments  of  the  British 
Parliament.  I  refer  to  the  laws  commonly  known  as  the  factory  act, 
1878,  and  the  emi)loyers'  liability  act,  1880.*  The  former,  with  the  view 
to  [)reventing  theoverworking  of  the  operatives  in  manufacturing  mills, 
4&C.,  and  to  obviate  a  tendency  which  was  su])posed  to  be  manifest  to 
overwork  women  and(;hildren,  and  thus  impair  and  undermine  the  liealth 
of  future  generations  of  British  subjects,  prescribe  the  hours  during 
which  women  and  children  should  work,  limiting  the  former  to  fifty-six 
hours  i)er  week,  and  the  latter  to  a  number  proportionately  smaller  in 
accordance  with  their  age.     Whilst  the  policy  of  the  act  in  regard  to 

*  Publisbed  iu  appeudix. 


LADOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  603 

cbiklreii  is  undoubtedly  far  seeing'  and  beneficial  (altliouj;li  discretion 
on  such  matters  might  have  been  left  to  the  parents) ,  it  is  at  least  doubt- 
ful in  the  case  of  women  who  form  a  large  majority  in  the  manufactur- 
ing mills  of  England. 

The  obvious  results  of  this  act  arc  :  First,  that  the  wages  are  reduced 
proportionately  to  the  number  of  hours  which  have  been  shortened  and 
that  the  income  of  the  family  is  materially  lessened.  This  may  be  esti- 
mated at  10  per  cent. 

The  second,  and  equally  if  not  more,  important  result  is,  that  in  the 
excessive  competition  witli  the  manufactures  of  France  and  Germany, 
in  which  countries  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  work  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  masters  and  operatives,  England  is  at  an  immense 
disadvantage,  and  may  not  improbably  be  superseded  in  the  markets  of 
the  world  by  the  products  of  manufacture  which  these  countries  are 
able  to  produ(;e  more  cheaply  and  consequently  to  sell  more  cheaply. 

The  other  law,  which  is  of  a  less  general  nature  and  minor  imi)ortance, 
provides  that  the  employer  shall  be  liable  for  damages  to  workmen  in- 
jured or  killed  in  his  em[)loy,  whether  or  not  the  injury  or  death  was 
the  result  of  their  own  carelessness  or  that  of  a  fellow- workman.  It 
"would  seem  that  this  should  have  been  left,  as  in  our  country,  to  the 
judgment  of  the  courts,  who  under  the  doctrine  of  contributory  negli- 
gence would  decide  whether  the  emijloyer  was  or  was  not  liable.  The 
result  of  this  law  would  seem  to  engender  carelessness  among  the  work- 
ing peoi)le,  individually  and  collectively,  and  to  probably  increase  the 
number  of  accidents,  whilst  the  manufacturer  has  recourse  to  insurance 
companies,  which,  upon  payment  of  an  annual  premium,  assume  all  lia- 
bility he  may  incur  through  accidents  to  his  workmen. 

1  merely  submit  these  considerations,  which  are  the  result  of  some  re- 
flections on  the  matter,  and  which  offer  themselves  to  my  mind  as  se- 
rious objections  to  laws  which  were  enacted  with  a  purely  humanitarian 
view  and  with  the  zealous  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  its  subjects  which 
has  always  actuated  the  British  Government. 

WAGES,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

The  depression  of  trade  which  has  existed  in  the  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts of  England  since  lS7G-'77,  and  which  was  due  to  a  variety  of  con- 
tributory causes,  chiefly  in  the  United  States  and  France,  and  which 
reached  its  lowest  ebb  in  1878-79,  has  gradually  given  place  to  a  grow- 
ing prosperity,  which  has  now  reached  a  point  only  exceeded  by  the  fic- 
titious and  unnatural  commercial  and  industrial  prosperity  consequent 
on,  and  subsequent  to,  the  American  civil  war  and  Franco-German 
war.  The  working  classes  were  obliged  during  the  years  of  depression 
to  leave  in  great  numbers  Bradford  and  neighboring  manufacturing 
towns  and  seek  emidoyment  elsewhere.  Mills  and  factories  were  either 
worked  on  a  very  reduced  scale,  or  in  some  instances  were  obliged  en- 
tirely' to  suspend  work.  At  the  present  time  all  factories  and  mills  in 
this  vicinity  are  in  active  work,  with  a  full  complement  of  operatives, 
who  have  been  enabled  to  exact  and  receive  thesame  wages  which  they 
obtained  in  1870.  Indeed  the  reviving  prosperity  is  so  marked  that 
there  is  an  increasing  demand  for  more  working  men  and  women. 

I  inclose  herewith  carefully  prepared  tabular  statements,  twelve  in 
number,  showing  in  great  detail  the  wages  now  received  by  the  work- 
ing classes  in  Bradford  and  district,  together  with  brief  statement  show- 
ing in  part  the  wages  received  by  them  in  lS76-'79.  Also  tabular  state- 
ment showing  the  cost  of  living  amongst  the  working  classes.     The 


604  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

facts  and  data  therein  given  bare  been  collected  from  many  different 
sources,  and  liav^e  been  compared  together,  and  more  especially  with  the 
labor  returns  furnished  from  the  Bradford  district  to  the  British  G-ov- 
ernment,  and  kindly  submitted  to  me  in  advance  of  their  communication 
to  the  British  Government  by  Mr.  Henry  Mitcbell,  J.  P.,  so  that  I  am 
convinced  that  they  give  an  entirely  reliable  and  accurate  view  of  the 
condition  and  results  of  labor  in  this  district. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKtNG   CLASSES. 

The  evident  deduction  from  a  careful  perusal  of  these  statements  and 
returns  is,  that  the  working  classes  enjoy  a  high  degree  of  well  being 
and  prosperity.  The  wages  received  by  an  average  family  of  the  work- 
ing classes  are  more  than  sufKcient  for  their  wants,  and  allows  them  to 
indulge  in  such  amusements  as  are  most  congenial  to  Yorkshiremen. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  amusements  too  often  take  the  form  of 
low  dissipation,  not  only  of  the  men,  but  even  of  the  women  and  younger 
persons.  Drinking  to  excess  is  most  common  (although  strenuous 
efforts  have  been  lately  made  by  introducing  what  are  called  coffee  tav- 
erns to  overcome  this  vice)  an«l  immorality  prevails  to  a  great  extent, 
but  the  more  healthy  outdoor  aniusements  such  as  foot  ball  and  cricket 
are  very  popular  and  largely  attended  l)y  the  working  classes.  I  was 
forcibly  impressed  with  this  a  short  time  since  ni)on  learning  that  the 
receipts  for  admission  to  afoot-ball  match  amounted  to  £2S1  ($1,396.72). 
The  attendance  at  these  matches  and  games,  wliich  have  a  merely  slight 
local  interest,  is  largely  composed  of  the  working  classes. 

Were  thrifty  and  economical  habits  as  inherent  in  the  English  char- 
acter as  in  the  French  and  German,  sufficient  money  might  easily  be 
economized  by  the  working  classes  to  enable  them  to  regard  with  equa- 
nimity and  to  endure  without  suffering  the  evils  of  the  periodical  de- 
pressions in  trade  which  now  weigh  so  heavily  upon  them. 

FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYE. 

In  regard  to  the  mutual  feeling  and  relation  between  employer  and 
em])loyed,  I  would  say  that  the  old  spirit  of  loyalty  and  fealty  to  the 
master  which  formerly  existed,  in  a  strong  degree,  and  which  now  exists 
in  some  country  communities,  has  entirely  died  out  in  large  manufact- 
uring towns,  and  the  relations  between  masters  and  workmen  are  con- 
fined now  simply  to  the  exigencies  and  requirements  of  business,  the 
master  knowing  few  or  none  of  the  workm«^n  under  his  emi)loy  and  the 
workingman  remaining  with  or  deserting  the  master  in  projiortiou  as 
the  wages  offered  are  equally  great  or  less  than  his  competitors. 

In  this  connection,  /.  e ,  the  relations  between  master  and  workman, 
I  may  allude  t*^  strikes  upon  which  the  Government  ask  information. 
There  have  been  no  strikes  of  a  serious  nature  in  Bradford  tor  a  number 
of  years.  The  demand  for  higher  wages  which  has  been  lately  made  has 
been  acceded  to  by  the  dyers  and  s])inners,  who  realized  the  justice  of 
the  demand  but  who  exhibited  a  reluctance,  sometimes  even  allowing 
the  workmen  to  leave  work  two  or  three  days  for  the  sake  of  enhancing 
in  the  eyes  of  the  woi'kmen  the  value  of  the  concession  granted. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In  terminating  this  dispatch  I  wish  to  express  my  acknowledgments 
and  thanks  to  MaJ.  W.  H.  Shepherd,  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Mitchell  & 
iShepher«l,  in  who^e  immense  mills  Turkey,  Van,  and  Gape  mohair  is 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  605 

sorted,  washed,  scoured,  spun,  and  woven.  Major  Sheplierd  is  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  Biadiord  chamber  of  commerce,  examiner 
in  the  weaving  and  pattern  designinj^  of  the  city  and  <;uihls  of  London 
Institute,  «S:c.  He  has  given  nie  valuable  inlormation  on  labor  and 
wages,  and  1  have  the  pleasure  also  to  inclose  copy  of  a  letter  from  him 
addressed  to  me  on  the  subject, 

I  also  inclose  herein  with  considerable  satisfaction  copy  of  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  me  on  the  general  subject  of  the  dispatch  by  JNIr.  Henry 
Mitchell,  J.  P.,  vice-president  of  the  group  of  jurors  of  wool  and 
silk  fabrics  at  the  Philadel[)hia  Exposition  of  1870  and  Pans  Exposi- 
tion of  1878;  president  of  the  chamber  of  commerce;  president  and  al- 
most creator  of  the  now  celebrated  Bradford  Technical  College ;  formerly 
mayor  of  Bradford,  and  head  of  the  widely-known  house  of  A.  &  S. 
Henry  &  Co.  Mr.  Mitchell,  who  has  made  a  profound  and  elaborate 
study  of  economic  and  industrial  questions,  and  who  is  prominently  and 
favorably  known  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  has  given  me  the 
results  of  his  long  and  careful  observation,  and  I  am  desirous  of  ex- 
pressing my  obligations  to  him  on  behalf  of  the  Department  for  his 
courtesy  in  furnishing  me  with  a  great  deal  of  information  upon  the 
subject-matter  of  this  dispatch,  as  well  as  the  returns  for  the  British 
Government  above  referred  to. 

I  trust  that  this  report,  together  with  Mr.  Mitchell's  comprehensive 
letter,  and  that  of  Major  Shepherd  before  referred  to,  will  fully  and  com- 
pletely respond  to  the  questions  propounded  by  the  Department  and 
enable  it  to  judge  accuratel}'  the  various  phases  of  the  labor  i)roblem  in 
the  north  of  England,  with  the  industrial  and  economic  conditions  con- 
nected therewith. 

WILLIAM  F.  GRINNELL, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Bradford,  June  28,  1884. 


APPENDIX  TO  CONSUL  GRINNELUS  REPORT. 

CONDITION   OF   BRADFORD   INDUSTRIES. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Shepherd  to  Consul  Grinnell. 

Bradford,  Jvne  30,  1884. 

My  Dear  Sir  :  Acting  ou  the  sujrgestiou  you  gave  ine  a  few  dayH  ago,  I  have  now 
the  pleasure  to  hand  you  a  few  comparisons  I  have  made  between  the  state  of  trade 
in  Bradford  at  the  present  time  and  that  which  existed  in  1878,  together  with  some 
general  remarks  on  the  conditions  of  our  industry  and  the  relations  which  prevail 
bitweei)  employers  and  work-people. 

In  instituting  a  comparison  between  thepresent  rate  of  wages  in  the  Bradford  trade 
and  those  which  prevailed  in  1878,  and  between  the  conditions  which  then  prevailed 
and  which  now  prevail,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  back  a  little  further  than  1878  the 
more  clearly  to  understand  the  situation. 

Up  to  1875  the  Bradford  trade  had  been  liourishing  and  manufacturers  could  hardly 
believe  that  the  time  would  ever  come  when  ordinary  Bradford  dress  goods  would  be 
practically  unsalable.  The  first  reduction  in  wages  took  place  about  June,  1870,  and 
that  may  therefore  bo  regarded  as  the  time  when  the  work-peo]do  first  began  to  feel 
the  pinch  which  their  employers  had  felt  for  a  year  or  more.  In  1878  luster  goods 
had  gone  out,  yet  manufacturers  jjtrsisted  in  making  bright  goods,  and  declined  to 
change  their  machinery  or  style  of  manufacture,  becatise  "Bradford  goods  had  always 
been  wanted,  and  would  doubtless  be  wanted  again,"  whilst  a  few  were  shrewd 
enough  to  go  in  for  the  manufacture  of  soft  wool  dress  goods,  and  were  already  com- 
peting more  or  less  successfully  with  the  manufacturers  of  Rheims  or  Roubaix. 


606  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

In  this  couutry,  too,  very  laudable  efforts  were  made  by  many  of  the  leaders  of 
fashion  amongst  the  aristocracj'  to  change  the  prevailing  taste  into  home  manufact- 
ures, but  witli  the  i-esnlt  only  that  until  the  tight,  close-lirting  garments  then  worn 
went  out  of  fashion,  Bradtord  must  either  make  soft  wool  goods  or  Ronbaix  must 
do  the  business.  Radical  changes  of  this  character  must  necessarily  be  a  work  of 
considerable  time,  and  (to  use  an  old  adnge)  "whilst  The  grass  was  growing  the 
liorse  was  starving."  So  we  find  a  signilicant  iiulicatitui  of  the  Bradford  trade 
barometer  when  in  1«7'J  a  second  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  in  wages  took  place,  whilst 
several  Large  lums,  both  of  mercliants,  spinners,  and  manufactnrers,  went  out  of  busi- 
ness voluntarily  or  otherwise. 

A  good  deal  of  long  wool  combing  and  spinning  machinery  was  in  consequence 
thrown  out  of  work,  and  a  large  number  of  looms  either  broken  up  or  exported  ;  yet 
there  was  very  little  suffering  amongst  the;  working  classes,  and  (con,si(leriug  the 
very  great  depression  in  trade)  comparatively  few  operatives  out  of  work.  Whilst  it 
is  only  fiiir  to  infer  that  some  of  those  who  were  atti acted  to  the  district  by  previous 
good  times  had  either  returned  to  their  old  homes  and  occupations  or  emigrated  to 
other  countries,  yet  many  remained,  and  nearly  all  were  employed. 

This  may  be  acconnted  for  by  the  very  considerable  demand  which  had  grown  up 
for  cashmeres  and  dress  goods,  for  which  France  had  liitherto  had  a  complete  mo- 
nopoly, and,  in  a  greater  and  ever-increasing  degree  by  the  manufacture  of  worsted 
coatings,  most  of  which  were  woven,  and  the  whole  of  the  yarn  for  which  was  spun 
in  Brailford  and  the  district,  thus  causing  the  tine-wool  spinners  to  be  well  em])loyed 
at  satisfactory  rates.  Fine-wool  combers  were  also  exceedingly  busy,  many  of  the 
establishments  working  both  night  and  day.  A  large  quantity  of  new  nuichinery 
was  put  down,  aud  very  considerable  extensions  were  madein  this  particular  branch. 
One  well-known  tirm  of  comuiissicm  wool-combers,  Messrs.  Isaac  Holden  &  Sons, 
whose  colossal  establishments  in  France,  at  Croix  and  elsewhere,  are  amongst  the 
wonders  of  French  manufacturing  industries,  connnenced  the  erection  of  additional 
premises,  twice  the  size  of  their  already  enormous  establishment,  in  Bradford.  For 
these  reasons  we  find  that  the  rate  of  wages  established  in  1879  has  been  maintained 
until  the  month  of  May  this  year,  when  a  very  marked  improvement  in  the  demand 
for  luster  and  mohair  yarns,  with  a  more  pronounced  indication  of  the  return  of 
luster  goods  to  favor,  has  been  the  means  of  a  concession,  by  most  of  the  leading 
spinners,  of  the  10  per  cent,  which  was  taken  otf  in  1879,  thus  leaving  wages  pretty 
much  as  they  wei'e  in  that  year.  The  conditions  of  the  trade  are,  however,  some- 
what altered,  for  whilst  the  number  of  looms  and  their  producing  power  must  be 
considerably  less,  the  increase  of  speed  and  other  improvements  in  spinning  whilst 
requiring  fewer  hands  to  attend  to  the  work,  must  be  producing  at  the  present  time 
more  yarn  than  at  any  previous  period. 

Certainly  themost  distinct  features  of  the  past  seven  years  are:  1st.  Themarked  im- 
j)rovement  in  taste  and  skill  shown  by  manufacturers  in  producing  all- wool  goods  which 
were  previously  imported  from  France;  and  2d.  The  enormous  growth  and  expansion 
of  the  manufacture  of  worsted  coatings,  which  may  be  said  to  mark  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  the  Bradford  trade. 

While  the  operatives  have  thus  scarcely  felt  the  pinch  of  bad  times,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  employers  have  suffered  seriously  and  it  will  be  fortunate  if  the  present  re- 
turn of  prosperity  enables  them  to  recoup  themselves  for  their  losses  ;  certainly  the 
diminished  power  of  production  ought  to  give  them  a  much  larger  margin  of  i)roht 
than  heretofore,  adversity  has  not  been  altogether  an  unmixed  evil,  for  while,  on  the 
one  hand,  it  has  taught  bothemi)loyers  and  employes  the  necessity  for  greater  economy 
and  thrift,  on  the  other  hand,  it  lias  proved,  beyond  dispute,  that  greater  taste  and 
skill  must  be  exercised,  both  in  design  and  coml)inal  ion  of  color,  if  Bradford  is  to  hold 
its  own  in  the  markets  of  the  world, 

Yorkshire  men  generally  have  the  credit  of  being  shrewd  enough  in  most  things, 
but  (jsjiecially  wliere  their  own  interests  are  concerned,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Bradford  Technical  College,  with  its  staff  of  art  and  science  teachers,  its  professors 
of  chemistry  and  dyeing,  and  its  schools  of  mechanical  science,  weaving  and  pattern 
designing,  indicate  plainly  the  determination  of  Bradford  that  her  young  men,  both 
artisans  and  those  in  a  higher  position,  shall  hick  no  opportunity  of  gaining  that 
theoretical  and  practical  training  wlii(-h  shall  again  place  and  keep  her  at  the  head  of 
the  manufacturing  world.  In  one  thing  Bradford  must  be  congratulated,  and  that  is 
the  good  feeling  which  has  always  prevailed   between  employer  and  employed. 

It  is  (juite  true  that  in  large  towns  there  is  not  that  personal  interest  which  exists 
in  villages  between  the  emitloyer  and  his  work-people,  where  all  are  dependent  on 
one  i)articular  establishment.  Yet,  Bradford  with  the  exception  of  an  occasional  ex- 
citement amongst  the  dyers,  has  been  particularly  free  from  strikes  and  turn-outs. 

On  the  i>art  of  the  masttirs  there  has  always  been  a  disposition  to  give  a  reasonable 
advance  in  wages,  when  circnmstanees  iiermitt-ed  (and  in  many  cases  before),  while 
the  hands  do  not  fail  to  recognize  the  fact  that  masters,  for  some  years,  have  been 
willing  to  work  without  profit,  simply  to  keep  their  work-people  employed. 


LABOR  m  EUROPE ENGLAND.  607 

It  may,  iicrliiips,  be  considtM-cd  lortunate  f'oi-  botli  sides  tliai  tlnT*;  is  iiotliiiif;  wlii(d> 
can  he  called  an  organized  condition  either  of  eajjital  or  labor;  of  clu))s  and  socicities, 
there  are  i)lenf-y  ;  lor  instanee,  the.  engineers,  overlookers,  warp-dressers,  ineclianics, 
&c.,  all  have  th.eir  soei(>lies,  bnt  they  i)artak(^  more  of  the  character  of  "sick  clnbs," 
and  allhoiigli  these  socitities  ha\(^  now  and  then  been  nsed  to  jirevoit  men  from  a])- 
yilying  for  woik  where  thei'e  miiiht  be  a  dispnte  between  the  men  and  theii-empU)yer», 
yet  their  inllnence  is  more  friMinenlly  and  wisely  employed  in  tiuding  work  for  those 
who  may  be  in  want  of  sitnations. 

TIk'  only  strikes  worth  mentioning  have  been  in  the  case  of  dyers  and  masons;  in 
the  former  case  both  sides  have  displayed  a  laudable  willingness  after  a  little  while 
to  meet  each  other  and  to  snl)mit  to  arbitration,  whilst  the  mas(rns  have  generally 
been  able  to  agree  with  their  eni]doyers  after  a  very  short  term  of  idleness. 

Politically  "Jack  is  as  good  as  his  master,"  and  whilst  1  am  pretty  snre  that  none 
of  my  workmcMi,  being  Radicals,  would  vote  on  my  side,  being  a  Conservative,  on  the 
other  hand  I  am  e(jnally  certain  that  if  I  had  a  Conservative  A^oter  in  my  employment 
ho  wonld  \()te  against  me  if  I  were  a.  Liberal,  and  I  should  consider  liim  worthless  if 
he  didn't. 

No  doubt  the  estalilishment  of  ])olitical  clubs  where  workingmen  voters  are  made 
much  of,  and  where  wovkingmen's  (juestions,  under  the  inHuence  of  the  caucus,  are 
continually  brought  to  the  front,  have  made  y)olitics  more  attractive  to  the  workmen; 
they  do  not,  however,  always  tiiid  that  those  are  most  liberal  as  employers  who  are  the 
most  denmnstrative  politically  as  Liberals. 

With  respect  to  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  regard  to  labor  and  the  workino- 
people,  my  feeling  is  that  too  mnch  legislation  has  been  done,  certainly  not  always  to 
the  advantage  of  the  workman  but.  in  some  instances  to  the  detriment  of  both  master 
and  man. 

There  was  surely  no  harm  in  working  sixty  hours  per  week,  and  the  llfty-six  hours'  bill 
was  only  passed  because  the  Tories  found  that  the  Liberals  intended  making  thatastrou"' 
point  and  so  adopted  it  into  their  programme;  the  humanitarian  cry  al)Out  the  hard- 
ship of  compelling  little  children  to  go  to  work  so  early  as  tJ  o'clock  in  the  mornino- 
was  proved  to  be  nonsense,  because  as  soon  as  the  act  came  into  force  and  the  work- 
people were  otiered  the  alternalive  of  beginning  work  at  6  or  (3.30 — leaving  otf  at  5.15 
or  5.45  at  night,  they  practically  all  voted  for  beginning  work  at  (5  o'clock,  and  again 
most  of  them  would  have  been  only  too  glad  to  have  worked  sixty  hours  per  week  ever 
since  the  act  was  passed  had  the  state  of  trade  required  them  to  do  so. 

The  "  em])loyers  liability  act,"  whereby  mastersare  made  responsible  for  an  accident 
to  a  workman,  even  by  the  carelessness  of  a  fellow-workman,  has  simply  resulted  in 
a  state  of  things  the  very  opposite  of  what  was  intended. 

Men  are  more  careless  because  whatever  happens  the  master  is  responsible,  and  on 
the  other  hand  a  master,  by  an  annual  payment  to  one  of  the  Employers  Liability  In- 
surance Associations,  may  protect  himself  from  anj'  action  at  law  or  from  the  conse- 
quences of  any  accident  which  may  happen  to  those  in  his  employment,  and  so  haviu'^ 
paid  the  money  he  naturally  thinks  less  of  an  accident  than  before. 

Wonld  it  not  have  been  better  to  leave  things  as  they  were,  and  to  have  allowed 
those  who  have  their  labor  to  sell  to  get  the  best  price  and  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions circumstances  permitted,  instead  of  driving  industries  out  of  the  country  by 
imposing  burdens  which  are  proving  a  grievous  addition  to  those  already  borne  by 
the  heavily  handicapped  manufacturers  of  this  country. 

Trusting  that  this  may  be  of  interest  to  you.     I  remain  yours,  very  faithfullv, 

W.  H.'  SHEPHERD. 

W.  F.  Grinnell,  Esq., 

United  States  Consul,  Bradford. 


THE   WORSTED   INDUSTRIES   OF   BRADFORD. 

Mr.  Henry  Mitchell  to  Consul  Grinnell. 

Bradford,  June  27,  lri84. 
My  Dear  Sir:  Referring  to  my  conversation  with  you  yesterday,  I  have  much 
pleasure  m  giving  you  some  account  of  the  past  and  present"  position  of  the  worsted 
industry  of  th's  district.  My  recollection  of  the  condition  of  our  trade  extends  over 
nearly  a  half  a  century,  as  so  far  back  as  the  year  183G  I  was  employed  in  a  sitinning 
and  weaving  factory  a  few  miles  from  this  town.  At  that  time  the  wool  was  entirely 
combe<l  by  hand,  and  the  work  was  done  to  a  large  extent  in  the  cottages  of  the  work- 
people, and  as  charcoal  was  largely  used  for  heating  the  combs  the  occupation  was 
very  detrimental  to  health,  and  this,  combined  with  bad  sanitarj' conditions,  caused  the 
average  mortality  to  be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  present  time.     Weaving  was  also 


608  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

mostly  (lone  by  hand,  and.  was  also  carried  on  in  the  houses  of  the  operatives;  power- 
looms  wore  then  Just  beinj;  introduced,  but  weaving  by  hand  continued  to  some  ex- 
tent for  about  ten  years ;  now  it  is  almost  entirely  superseded  by  power-looms,  and 
combing  hy  hand  has  been  entirely  abolished  tor  about  twenty-five  years  ;  combing 
machines  came  into  pretty  general  use  from  1848  to  18G0,  and  no  hand-work  is  now 
done. 

The  introduction  of  machine  cojnbing  has  had  a  most  important  bearing  upon  the 
growth  and  development  of  our  trade;  it  has  reduced  the  cost  of  combing  75  ])er  cent, 
on  long  wools,  and  in  some  instances,  especially  in  tine  wools,  the  cost  is  reduced  to 
about  one  eighth  of  the  price  i)aid  to  hand-combers  in  183ti.  There  have  also  been 
very  marked  improvements  in  spinning  machinery,  such  as  the  introduction  of  cap- 
frames,  &c.,  this,  with  increased  speed  and  length  of  fi'ames,  has  reduced  the  cost  of 
spiim'ng  nearly  one-half,  and  has  more  than  doubled  the  product  of  the  same  number 
of  hands. 

In  weaving  the  changes  have  been  still  more  remarkable,  a  hand-loom  weaver,  in 
1836,  seldom  produced  more  than  30  or  40  yards  of  cloth  per  week,  now  a  single  weaver, 
minding  two  looms,  will  frequently  turn  out  200  to  250  yards  of  cloth  in  the  same 
time. 

In  dyeing  also  there  has  been  very  remarkable  progress.  Formerly  and  for  some 
years  after  the  introduction  of  cotton-warps,  wool  and  cotton  could  not  be  dyed  to- 
g«  hi T,  and  it  was  necessary  to  dye  the  cotton-warps  before  weaving,  either  for  black 
or  colors  ;  now  our  dyers  are  able  to  dye  cotton  and  wool  fabrics  to  any  shade  re- 
quired and  at  little  more  than  half  the  cost  of  forty  years  ago.  The  growth  of  our 
trade  has  been  enormous.  In  1836  the  total  amount  was  estimated  at  not  over 
£5,000,000,  now  it  is  supposed  to  reach  at  least  £35,000,000;  at  the  former  period  there 
were  not  more  than  five  or  six  leading  staple  articles  ])roduced,  now  there  are  at  least 
fifty.  In  1836  our  goods  were  almost  entirely  made  of  English  wool,  with  a  small  pro- 
portion of  Australian,  so  with  American  and  German,  now  we  use  wool  from  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  the  foreign  supply  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  home,  besides 
which  we  use  enormous  quantities  of  mohair,  alpaca,  silk,  and  other  fibers  which 
were  then  unknown. 

The  introduction  of  cotton-warps  in  1838  and  1839,  as  well  as  the  introduction  of 
mohair  and  alpaca  about  the  same  time,  led  to  an  enormous  development  of  our  trade, 
and  to  the  production  of  a  large  variety  of  cheap  and  beautiful  fabrics,  which  had 
not  previously  been  made.  This  was  also  greatly  stimulated  by  the  introduction  and 
development  of  railways,  and  the  abolition  of  the  corn  laws.  These  undoubtedly  en- 
abled foreign  countries  to  greatly  increase  their  purchases  of  our  goods,  and  also 
tended  to  improve  the  condition  of  our  people.  Since  that  time  the  wages  of  spinners 
have  increased  nearly  40  per  cent,  and  of  weavers  at  least  25  per  cent. 

At  the  present  time  the  earnings  of  our  operatives  are  about  10  per  cent,  less  than 
at  the  highest  poiut,  which  was  probably  reached  in  1871  or  1872. 

There  has  recently  been  an  advance  of  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  wages  of  spinners, 
weavers,  and  dyers.  They  are  now  well  employed,  and  are  producinga  larger  variety 
of  articles  than  at  any  former  period. 

Bradford  has  made  more  rapid  strides  during  the  past  two  or  three  years  in  the  va- 
riety and  excellence  of  its  products  than  at  any  forn)er  period,  and  although  many 
other  branches  of  industry  are  considerably  depressed,  all  our  best  manufacturers  in 
this  district  are  well  employed  and  are  full  of  orders  for  some  months  to  come.  This 
improvement  may  be  attributed  to  the  rapid  progress  of  education,  to  the  fact  that 
operatives  are  both  intelligent,  sober,  an(l  industrious. 

We  have  excellent  elementary  schools  all  over  the  borough,  and  have  recently  es- 
tablished a  technical  college,  in  which  our  overlookers  and  managers  are  receiving  a 
first-rate  education  in  all  those  liranclies  of  art  and  science  which  have  a  direct  bear- 
ing upon  our  industries.  The  institution  has  cost  about  £40,000,  and  is  attended  by 
over  eight  hundred  students,  and  the  number  is  steadily  increasing. 

Forty  years  ago  the  hours  of  labor  in  our  factories  were  seventy-two  per  week,  and 
a  very  small  number  of  our  operatives  received  any  education  except  those  working 
half-time.  Now  the  hours  are  reduced  to  tifty-six  and  one-half  per  week,  and  all  are 
compelled  to  go  to  school  until  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age.  The  annexed  table 
will  show  the  ]»rogress  of  education  since  1871. 

Although  th<!  hours  of  ]al)or  have  been  so  much  reduced,  there  has  been  no  percep- 
tible falling  oif  in  the  ))roductiou  of  goods,  as  the  speed  of  machinery  has  been  in- 
creased, and  the  hands  are  able  to  give  more  attention  to  tludr  work  and  to  turn  out 
as  much  as  at  any  former  period.  There  has  also  been  a  very  marked  decrease  in  the 
mortality  of  both  children  and  adults,  as  is  shown  in  the  annexed  table,  and  Bradford 
is  now  considered  the  healthiest  manubicturiug  town  in  the  Kiugd  )m. 

Our  district  is  also  favonsd  with  an  abundant  sujjply  of  coal  and  ir()n,  as  well  as  of 
raw  material  Ibr  uuinufacturing,  being  in  the  center  of  the  great  wool-producing 
counties  of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire,  from  which  our  best  luster  wools  are  sup- 
plied. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


609 


Tlio  rate  of  wa^es  to-day  docs  not  materially  vary  from  that  of  1878.  There  has 
been  some  reduction  in  wages  of  masons,  cariicnters,  bniidta\s,  and  also  in  tlie  spin- 
ning and  manufacturing  business  during  the  dejiressed  period  of  1879  to  188:i,  but 
recently  an  advance  has  taken  ])hice  about  equal  to  the  reduction  then  made. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  are  generally  steadj-  and  trustworthy,  and  a  con- 
siderable ])roi)ortion  of  tliem  save  money,  and  a  few  own  their  own  cottages. 

Apart  from  tlie  building  and  machinery  trades,  very  few  trades  unions  exist.  The 
work  in  connection  with  our  staple  industry  is  so  diversified  that  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  fix  a  uniform  rate  of  wages. 

Generally  speaking,  a  very  good  feeling  exists  between  the  employers  and  their 
work-peoi)le,  and  we  have  very  few  strikes,  when  these  occnr;  they  are  usually  set- 
tled very  quickly,  either  l>y  direct  negotiation  or  by  reference  to  an  arbitrator. 

The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wherever  they  choose  ; 
employers  impose  no  condition  iu  this  regard.  They  are  generally  paid  weekly  in 
ordinary  currency.  Several  prosperous  co-operative  societies  exist  for  distributing 
articles  of  food  and  clothing,  and  some  have  accumulated  considerable  capital,  and 
have  fulfilh  d  the  promises  held  out  at  their  formation;  but  I  don't  know  of  any  such 
societies  which  have  succeeded  as  manufacturers  or  producers. 

The  general  condition  of  the  working  classes  has  greatly  improved  during  the  last 
twenty  or  thirty  years;  as  a  rule  they  are  sober,  frugal,  and  industrious,  and  many  of 
them  have  fairly  comfortable  homes,  and  are  well  clothed.  In  many  cases  they  are 
able  to  lay  up  something  for  old  age  and  sickness,  and  many  clubs  and  societies  ai'e 
established  for  this  purpose.  There  are  some  exceptions,  but  they  are  chielly  the  idle 
and  intemperate,  or  those  who  have  weakly  constitutions. 

Every  precaution  is  tak>^n  to  protect  employes  fr^m  accident  by  guarding  all  ma- 
chinery of  a  dangerous  character,  and  masters  are  liable  for  any  damages  arising 
from  neglect  of  these  precautions. 

All  male  householders  now  possess  the  franchise,  and  can  vote  for  both  members  of 
Parliament  and  municipal  officers,  and  as  the  working  classes  are  usually  in  a  large 
majority  they  exercise  considerable  influence  at  elections.  They  pay  a  very  small  por- 
tion of  the  taxation  of  the  country,  the  only  articles  subject  to  duty  being  tea,  coffee, 
tobacco,  wine,  and  spirits. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  is  to  shorten  the  hours  of  labor,  and  to  give  every  pos- 
sible protection  to  workers. 

The  chief  causes  of  emigration  are  the  rapid  increase  of  population,  the  difficulty 
of  finding  suitable  occupation,  and  the  desire  to  improve  the  position  in  life. 

I  am  unable  to  answer  your  specific  questions  in  regard  to  female  labor,  as  we  have 
no  reliable  statistics  to  guide  us ;  a  very  large  proportion,  however,  of  both  our  spin- 
ners and  weavers  are  females,  and  they  are  generally  preferred  to  men ;  they  earn  quite 
as  good  wages,  which  range  from  10  shillings  to  25  shillings  a  week  for  adult  women. 
Some  of  them  are  married  and  have  families,  and  in  such  cases  I  fear  the  health  of 
their  children  suffers  somewhat  from  the  absence  of  the  mothers,  but  the  shortened 
hours  of  labor  has  greatly  modified  this  evil,  and  infant  mortality  has  greatly  decreased 
during  the  past  few  years. 

I  am,  my  dear  sir,  yours  very  truly, 

HENRY  MITCHELL. 

W.  F.  Grinnell,  Esq., 

United  States  Consul,  Bradford. 


Children  at  schools  in  Bradford. 


March. 


November.     Increase 


Increase 
per  cent. 


Population 

Number  of  children  in  public  elementary  schools 
Average  attendance 

Number'of  half-timers 


1871. 
146,  000 
14,  204 

9,064 
1875. 

9,  732 


1883. 

200,  000 
36,  487 
27,  031 

6,157 


54,000 
22,  283 
17,  967 

*3,575 


36.3 
l.i6.  8 
198.2 

*.58 


*  Decrease. 

Before  the  passing  of  Lord  Sandon's  act,  in  1876,  children  under  ten  years  of  age  were  taken  into 
employment  independent  of  standard  passed.  They  must  now  be  ten  years  of  age  and  have  passed  in 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  of  standard  2. 

92  A— LAB 39 


610 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Eeturna  relative  to  the  population  of  Bradford. 


Tear. 

Death-rate 

per  l.OUO,  all 

ages. 

Deaths  of  in- 
fants uuder 
1  year,  per 

1,000  births. 

Death-rate  of 
children  un- 
der 5  years, 

per  100  death* 
at  all  ages. 

1860                                       

25.0 
24.9 
26.4 
25.4 
30.6 
27.0 
27.3 
24.5 

1801                                 

186''                                         

1863                                     

1864                                       

1865                            

1866                                 

1867                                 

1868                                   

26.6 
25.6 
27.6 
25.7 
26.7 
2.5.2 
27.9 
28.3 
2.5.2 
23.3 
24.1 
22.9 
22.9 
19.7 
21.2 
18.3 

1869                          

1870 

208 
209 
197 
206 
189 
200 
174 
155 
177 
150 
174 
153 
178 
146 

1871 

1872                                   

1873                              

1874                                  

1875 

50.3 

1876 

47.5 

1877 

44.9 

1878                                    - 

36.9 

32.3 

1 880    •- 

48.0 

40.6 

1882 

45.9 

36.8 

Town  Hall,  Bradford,  June  28,  1884. 


THOS.  "WHITESIDE  HIME,  B.A.,  21.  B.  L., 

Medical  Officer  of  Health. 


STATEMENTS  SHOWING  THE    WAGES  PAID  IN  TEE   GENERAL    TRADES 
AND  INDUSTRIES  OF  BRADFORD. 


Wages  paid  x>er  week  in  Bradfora. 


Occupations. 


Assistants : 

Chemists  (per  annum) 

Cotfee  taverns: 

Male 

Female 

Drapers : 

Male  (per  annum) 

Female  (residing  on  the  premises) 

Grocers : 

Countermen 

Warehousemen 

Local  travelers 

Building: 

Bricklayers 

Masons 

Plasterers 

Slaters 

Plumbers  and  glaziers 

Gas-fitters 

Joiners 

Laborers 

BlacksTiiiths 

Strikers 

Basket-makers  (piece-work) 

Brush-makers  (piece-work) 

Brewers'  laborers 

Brass  fouuders  and  finishers 

Billposters 

Boot  and  shoe  making  : 

Ladies'  boot-making per  pair. 

Gent's  shoe-making do 

Gent's  boot-making do. .  - 

Gent's  long  work do . . . 


Hours 

per 
week. 


65  to  70 

63 
63 

60 
60 

57  to  60 
57  to  60 
57  to  60 

49i 

49i 

49i 

49i 

49i 

49i 

49J 

494 

54 

54 

52 


Lowest. 


$316  32 

4  38 

2  43 

97  33 
97  33 

4  86 

3  65 
9  73 


5  83 

3  89 
7  29 

6  07 

4  86 
6  57 

5  83 


Highest. 


$583  98 

12  16 
3  65 

608  31 
291  99 

9  73 

5  83 

12  16 


8  75 

5  83 

9  73 
8  51 

6  32 
8  26 
6  32 


Average. 


$389  32 

6  80 

3  16 

291  99 
170  32 

7  05 

4  86 
10  94 

7  05 
7  29 
7  53 
7  53 
7  53 
7  53 

6  80 
4  86 

7  53 

4  86 

8  51 
7  29 

5  83 
7  29 

6  07 

1  27 

1  27 

1  41 

158tol  82 

I 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  Bradford — Continued. 


611 


Occupations. 


Boot  aufl  shoo  niakinfc — Continued. 

Ext  I  a  toe 

Stilclics  pricked 

Patent 

Brick  and  tile  iiiakinfi  (piece): 

Clay-get tiTs,  panmen,  setters,  discharging 
per  1,000 

Machinciiien 

Machine  boys 

Firing  kilns 

ISngineiiien 

Joiners  and  laborers 

Porenien         

Coach-biiildiiig: 

Whcelei  s 

Trimmers 

Vieemen 

Smiths 

Painters 

Carpet  and  linoleum  planners 

Caipi^t-makcrs  or  stitchers,  female 

Cabinet-makers 

ConCectioiicrs    

Cigar-makers,  Is.  Ad.  to  28.  9d.  per  100 

Coopers 


Hours 

per 
■week. 


kiln,  6  cents  i 


Cutlers  . 

Carvers  and  gilders 

Carvers  (masons)    

Driveis : 

Bus 

Guards  (boys) 

Cab  

Tram-car 

Guards 

Draymen  and  carters  

Dressmakers  (meals  provided). 

Gartleners 

Hatteis : 

Poremen 

Assistants 

Horseshoers  : 

Firemen 

Doormen 

Jewelers 


Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Milliners  (meals  provided) 

Mantua-makers  (meals  provided) 

Malaters 

Millers 

Laborers 

Polishers  (French) 

Painters 

Paper-hangers 

Photographers 

Packiug-iase  makers  

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Servants  (female)  : 

General  (per  annum) , 

House  maids  (per  annvun) 

Nurse  maids  (per  annum) 

Waiting  maids  (per  annum)... 

Cooks  (per  annum) 

Timber  yards : 

Circular  sawyers 

Planing-raachinemen 

Laborers  

Telephone-con  structionmen 

Telephone  operators 

Telephone  inspectors 

Tallow  chandlers 

Tool- handle  turners 

Tailors  : 

Keady-made 

Bespoke 

Tinsn)it  hs 

Upholsterers 

"Watch  examiners 

Watch   tiniahers 

Watch  jol>bers 


56i 
56J 

56i 
56i 


Lowest. 


49i 

72 
72 

72 


$5  83 

5  b3 

6  32 

7  29 
6  32 

5  83 
2  92 

6  80 
6  07 


66 
66 

58 

57i 

574 


54 
54 
54 
49J 

50 


54 

52i 

60 

60 

60 


4  80 
6  07 
6  56 


4  86 
1  21 

4  86 

7  29 

5  34 

6  80 
5  34 

7  29 
4  38 
1  21 
1  21 


Highest. 


6  32 

4  80 

7  29 

6  78 

7  29 
7  29 

5  34 

6  32 

68  13 
68  13 
53  53 
87  59 
87  59 


5  59 
1  46 

4  86 

5  10 

6  32 

4  13 

6  78 
4  86 

6  78 

7  29 
7  78 


$8  75 
8  75 

6  80 
8  75 
8  26 

7  29 
3  16 

8  51 
8  26 


6  80 

7  78 

8  75 


5  83 
3  89 
9  73 

9  73 

6  07 

8  26 
6  32 
8  75 
5  83 
3  m 
3  89 


8  02 

5  83 
8  51 
8  75 
7  78 

19  46 
7  05 
7  78 

87  59 
87  59 
87  59 
97  33 
170  32 

6  32 


6  78 
3  65 

7  29 
7  29 

7  78 

6  07 

8  51 

7  29 

8  51 

9  73 
9  73 


$0  06 

06 

018 too  24 


4  86 
4  86 

2  43 
C  80 

6  07 

4  86 
9  73 

7  29 

8  26 
6  56 
8  75 
8  26 

6  56 

3  16 

7  78 
6  80 

5  34 

6  07 

6  80 

7  66 
12  16 

5  83 
2  92 

4  86 

7  29 

5  10 

5  34 
2  92 

6  78 

8  51 
5  71 

7  53 
5  83 

8  02 

4  86 
2  67 
2  92 

5  59 

6  78 
5  34 

7  78 
7  29 
7  29 

9  73 

5  95 
7  29 

77  86 
72  99 
68  13 
97  33 
107  06 

6  07 

7  78 
5  59 

5  83 
2  92 
7  29 

6  32 

6  56 

5  10 

7  78 

6  78 

7  78 

8  26 
8  26 
8  51 


612 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE ENGLAND. 

II.  Factories,  mills,  etc. 


Average  wages  'paid  per  week  of  fifty -six  and  one-half  hours  in  factories,  mills,  cfc,  in 

Bradford. 


Occupations. 


Males. 


Men.         Boys. 


Females. 


Women.      Girls, 


WOOL   COMBING. 


Woc)l-8orters 

Washers: 

Foremen 

Assistants 

Dryers 

Foremen  overlookers . 
Carding  overlookers.. 
Combing  overlookers 

Carders  

Backwash  minders  . . . 

Card  jobbers  

Card  grinders 

Combers  

Box  minders 

Prepareis 

Finishers 


$7  17 

4  86 
4  38 

3  71 
11  20 

8  14 
7  30 

4  01 
4  62 

4  62 

5  34 
3  65 
3  28 
3  40 


BPINNING  AND  MANUFACTURING. 


Drawing  ove«lookers 
Spinning  overlookers. 


7  90 
7  53 


Drawers  . 


Spinners 

Rovers  

Dotfers : 

Spinning 

Twisting 

Half-timers 

Jobbers : 

Spinning 

Twisting 

Finishers 

Doublers 

Foremen  twisters 

Twisters 

Warpers 

Winders 

Reelers 

Warp  dressers 

Twisters  in 

Weaving  overlookers 

Weavers: 

Coatings 

Dress  goods 

Packois 

Healds  and  slag  makers < 

Warehousemen 

Slivorers  

Engine  tenders , 

Stokers 

Mechanics 

Smiths 

Joiners 

Masons , 

Laborers 


8  38 
'397 


7  53 
7  17 
7  53 


3  40 
5  71 
5  10 
7  05 

4  62 


8  76 

5  60 
7  30 

6  80 

6  92 

7  30 
4  86 


$3  04 


2  49 
2  67 


2  31 
2  37 


2  61 

2  37 

2  19 

2  00 
0  60 

2  37 
2  12 


$2  43 


2  79 
2  31 
2  67 
2  49 


2  25 
2  31 
2  43 
2  92 
2  43 


$2  19 


2  19 
2  00 
0  97 


2  19 
2  43 


3  16 

2  92 

3  52 


2  31 
'2'66 


4  38 
3  52 


The  machinery  onlyruns  fifty-six  hours  ;  the  remaining  half  hour  is  allowed  for  cleaning. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  613 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifUj-four  hours  in  dye-works  in  Bradford. 


Occnpations 

Lowest. 

Highest . 

Average. 

ForeiiKMi : 

$7  66 

$28  10 

$19  46 
15  33 

Black  dyers 

Mill 

5  28 

7  30 
5  28 

5  52 

14  60 
5  76 

5  40 
10  94 

Crabl)  liouso: 

B«)iemen 

5  52 

7  66 

Gray  room : 

Foremen 

Men 



4  86 

5  83 

5  34 

Women  (piece) 

4  13 

Serge  room : 

Foremen 

9  73 

Men 

5  28 

5  76 

5  52 

Dolly  room  : 

Foremen 

8  69 

4  98 

Tentering  room : 

9  24 

Youths 

3  40 

5  59 

7  42 

Men  

5  10 

5  34 

Measurers : 

8  14 

Men 

5  10 

Presisers : 

Foiemen 

24  33 

10  70 

Scourers 

4  38 

Sizcrs 

6  07 

9  48 

7  77 

Chemical  men 

5  77 

Mechanics 

7  05 
7  30 
7  30 

7  90 

8  52 
7  66 

7  48 

Joiners  

7  90 

7  48 

Stokers 

5  34 

5  34 

Smiths 

7  30 

7  78 

Pipemen 

7  30 

5  28 

Laborers 

5  35 

III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Brief  statement  showing  average  luages  paid  in  factories,  mills,  tj'o.,  in  Bradford  between 
1876-'79,  compared  with  the  present  time. 


Occupations. 


To  June 

9,1876. 


June  9, 
187o  to 
February 

7, 1879 


February 

7, 1879, 

to  May, 

1884. 


June, 

1884. 


WOOL  COMBING,  SPINNING,  AND  MANUFACTURING 

Comb  minders 

Makers-up 

Eeelers 

Scourers   

Spinning  overlookers 

Spinners : 

HHlf'-timers 

Full-timers 

Drawers 

Rovers 

Weaving  overlookers 

Weavers  

Wolil-sorters : 

Piece 

Day  men 


$4  86 
3  89 

3  65 
5  83 
8  26 

1  09 

2  31 
2  92 
2  67 
8  02 

4  62 

7  78 
7  78 


$4  38 
3  65 
3  52 

5  34 
7  54 

97 
2  06 
2  67 

2  43 
7  30 

3  65 

6  80 

7  30 


$4  13 
3  40 

3  40 

4  38 
6  80 

85 

1  82 

2  43 

2  19 
6  80 

3  16 

6  32 
6  80 


$4  38 
3  65 

3  .52 

4  62 

7  54 

97 
2  06 
2  67 

2  43 

7  54 

3  52 


614  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  iron  foundries  and  engineering  ivorks  in  Bradford. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$5  34 

7  78 

$8  76 
8  76 

$7  30 

8  26 

4  38 

7  78 

11  67 

8  76 

4  86 

Tettlers 

5  34 
7  30 
7  30 
7  30 
4  86 

6  80 

7  78 
7  78 
7  78 
5  83 

5  83 

7  54 

7  54 

Fitters 

7  54 

5  10 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  rules  as  to  time  and  allowance  for  lodgings  when  worting  out: 

1.  Ordinary  time,  all  days  except  Saturda.ys,  6.15  to  5.30  (one  and  a  half  hours  for  meals).    Satur- 
day, 6.15  to  12  o'clock  (half  hour  tor  breakfast). 

2.  Allowance  out  of  town  (lodgings  from  home),  Is.  6d.  per  day  for  each  day,  and  if  detained  from 
home  over  Sunday  Is.  6d.  additional. 

3.  Allowance  in  town  (not  lodging  from  home),  9d.  per  day;  Gd.  additional  allowed  for  night. 
When  lodging  fi'oni  home  full  hours  must  be  worked,  but  when  lodging  at  home  time  is  allowed  for 

going  to  work  in  a  morning  and  returning  at  night. 

Oveitime  is  reckoned  as  follows :  Time  and  a  quarter  from  ordinary  time  for  first  four  hours,  and 
time  and  a  half  afterwards  to  6  p.  m. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  large  ironmongery,  i^-c.,  estabUshments  in  Brad- 
ford. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$7  29 

$8  50 

$7  78 

4  86 

5  34 

6  56 

7  78 
7  20 

7  29 

Fittei's                    .              

6  92 

Girders : 

6  56 

5  81 

4  38 

7  29 

7  78 

7  53 

7  90 

6  56 

6  56 

7  29 

9  73 

8  50 

6  08 

6  80 

7  29 

5  46 

Shop  assistants 

6  08 

17  03 

9  73 

One  shilling  and  sixpence  per  day  expenses  allowed  to  smiths  and  boll-haugers  when  working  in 
the  country. 

XV.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  fifty- four  hours  in  printing,  lithographing,  i^-c,  offices  in  Bradford. 


Occupations. 


Printing : 

Coin])osif  ors 

i\la(;liiufmi',n 

Litlio;;ii|)li   printing: 

Aitisis,  first-class 

Arlists,  s((!ond-cla88- . 

Trinislci-(TS    

IMacliiMOiicn ...   . 

I'rcss  piiiitfsrs  (pit'ce). 

Stone  jioli.shors 

Kinl)os.s(MS 

Bookbinders : 

Knlers 

r  ovwaiders 

FiiiisheiM    

Book  sewers  (women) - 
Pattern-card  luakers  


Lowest. 


$7  29 

7  29 

19  40 

8  51 

7  78 
7  78 


78 


7 

7  78 
9  73 
2  43 
7  29 


Highest. 


$9  73 

10  94 

48  66 
17  03 
12  16 

11  55 


6  32 
5  83 

8  75 
8  75 
12  16 
4  86 
8  26 


Average. 


$7  78 

7  78 

29  20 
12  10 

8  75 

9  73 
S  02 
4  86 
4  86 

7  78 
7  78 
9  73 
3  65 
7  78 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Cost  of  living  to  the  laboring  classes  in  Bradford. 


615 


Articles. 


Prom — 


To- 


Average 
price. 


FOOD. 
Butter : 

Eufilisli per  pound. 

Irish do. .. 

Bacon do. .. 

Beef do . . . 

BiscuitB do . . . 

Cocoa do. .. 

Coffee do. .. 

Curi'aiit.s do 

Candles do . . . 

Cliee.se  do . . . 

Cauliflowers each . 

Cabbages do . .  . 

Enslish for  12. 

30llflt  Iri.sh for  16 . 

""'II'  French for  20 . 

Flour per  stone. 

Fish: 

Cod per  pound . 

Halibut do   . . 

Heriiuiis each. 

Haddock  per  pound. 

Liu jr do  . . 

]SIackerel each. 

Plaice  per  pound . 

Kay do .  - . 


Lard do . . . 

Mutton   do . . . 

■Onions do... 

Potatoes: 

Old per  stone . 

New    do. . . 

Peas  per  pound. 

Pork  do  . . 

Rice do . . . 

Sugar  do... 

Sago do. .. 

Soap do. .. 

Starch do  . . 

Soda  per  stone. 

Sultanas per  pound. 

Tea do... 

Vinegar per  quart 

CLOTHING. 

Blankets per  pair. 

Corsets  each . 

Cashmeres per  yard. 

Calicoes do  . . 

Flanuel do. .. 

Hosiery per  pair. 

Hats,  felt 

Jackets,  pilot 

Overcoats 

Prints     per  yard . 

Quilts,  cotton each . 

Sheets,  cotton per  pair. 

Suits : 

Cotton  cord 

Tweed 

"Worsted 

Shirtings  : 

Cotton per  yard. 

Fnion  and  woolen do... 

Skirts  


Shawls,  wool 

Stuffs per  yard . 

Stockings,  good  worsted  per  pair. 

Worsted,  knitting  per  ounce. 

Boots : 

Men's  per  pair. 

Women's do 

Clogs do. . . 

LODGINGS,    ETC. 
Ale  and  porter: 

Best per  gallon. 

Common do... 


1  94 
97 
40 
4 
24 
32 
60 

3  65 

7  29 
9 

1  21 
73 


6  07 
9  73 


18 


1  70 

1  21 

36 


$0  26 
24 
16 
18 


4  25 

1  46 

48 

12 

36 

48 

1  09 

6  07 

9  73 

13 

1  58 

1  46 


10  21 
14  59 


2  92 

2  43 

73 


2  92 

1  21 

44 

8 

28 

40 

97 

4  86 

7  29 

10 

1  33 

1  09 


48 
32 


616  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Coat  of  living  to  the  laboring  classes  in  Bradford — Continued. 


Articles. 


From — 


To- 


Average 
price. 


Coals 

Gas 

Lodgings,  with  board... 
Ktuts : 

Four-roomed  house. 

Six-roomed  house... 

Spirits 

Tobacco  

Wines 


, per  ton . 

.per  1,000  feet. 
per  week. 


do... 

do.... 

..per  pint., 
.per  ounce.. 
.  per  pint.. 


$3  24 


85 
1  33 


$3  89 


1  21 
1  82 


$3  24 

60 

3  04 

1  09 

1  58 

54 


48 


BRISTOL. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LATRROP. 


I  present  the  following  facts  and  figures  in  answer  to  the  Department 
Labor  circular: 

DIFFICULTY    OF   OBTAINING  INFORMATION. 

Obtaining  the  figures  has  been  a  work  of  difficulty,  as  employers  fre- 
quently have  refused  them,  especially  when  they  understood  the  com- 
prehensive nature  of  the  inquiry  made  by  the  Department.  Each  seemed 
to  consider  that  if  he  furnished  his  wage  list  to  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment an  immediate  imi>ulse  would  be  given  to  American  opposition. 
This  i^eculiar  theory  hardly  seems  consistent  with  that  degree  of  prac- 
tical intelligence  necessary  to  manage  a  large  business,  but  it  has  been 
generally  maintained.  The  laborer,  too,  has  refused  in  one  or  two  cases 
to  answer  the  personal  questions  (statements  1  to  22).  His  motives, 
however,  were  unselfish,  as  no  argument  would  induce  him  to  believe 
but  that  it  was  a  scheme  to  find  out  how  much  he  got  in  order  to  reduce 
the  American  wages  to  a  i)recise  equality.  The  statistics  presented 
here  will  not  show  a  material  change  within  the  past  ten  years,  nor  has 
the  condition  of  the  laborer  altered  much.  There  have  been  no  strikes^ 
no  panics,  no  crises,  no  difiiculties,  though  of  late  there  has  been  stag- 
nation and  slack  work. 


PAST  AND  PRESENT  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

It  can  be  said,  generally,  that  compared  with  ten  years  ago,  the  la- 
borer knows  more,  has  more,  and  drinks  less.  He  knows  more,  but  he 
has  acquired  his  knowledge  slowly.  His  advance  in  this  direction  has 
been  until  lately  as  imperce[)tible,  thougli  as  sure,  as  the  movement  of 
the  glacier;  but  the  new  generation,  whose  members  are  now  one  by 
one  stepi)ing  into  ])lace,  show  plainly  their  improvement  over  their 
fathers.  They  are  the  first  fruits  of  the  education  act  of  1870,  and  how- 
ever little  they  may  have  acquired,  its  effect  has  been  distinctly  hu- 
manizing. 

They  have  more  because  their  money  will  buy  more;  in  other  words^ 
commodities  are  cheaper.  The  import  of  meat  grown  under  better  con- 
ditions than  are  possible  here,  gives  them  a  chance  at  a  roast  oftener 
than  ever  before.  The  increase  of  grain  production  throughout  the 
world,  and  the  imi)rovement  in  milling,  gives  them  a  better  loaf  and  a 
cheaper  one  than  their  fathers  had.  The  enormous  competition  between 
the  manufacturers  has  brought  their  products  to  the  buyer  at  a  price 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE EM  GLAND.  617 

cheap  in  proportion  to  tlioir  cost.  The  stnpendons  rivnlry  between  the 
refiners  of  the  workl,  tliose  in  Fratice  receiving-  liberal  aid  IVoni  their 
Government,  has  resulted  in  a  price  for  sugar  which  enables  the  laborer 
to  use  pounds  where  his  ancestors  had  spoonfuls.  Besides,  many  new 
things  have  appeared  at  a  reasonable  })rice  that  add  much  to  comfort. 
Preserved  fruits  of  many  kinds  are  a  wholesome  and  delightful  change 
and  are  sold  here  at  such  a  price  as  to  be  reall.v  economi(;iil  in  lieu  of 
butter.  The  tremendous  canning  industries  of  America  enable  the 
workman  to  have  a  variety  in  season  and  out  of  season  greater  than 
the  longest  purse  could  have  procured  a  century  ago.  Butterine,  senti- 
ment aside,  is  a  cheaj)  and  excellent  substitute  for  butter.  These  are 
conditions,  however,  common  to  almost  the  entire  civilized  world,  and 
they  may  be  summed  u])  by  saying  that  production  has  cheapened  and 
wages  have  not  fallen  in  i)roportion.  Therefore,  the  laborer  is  better 
oflt"  than  at  any  previous  period  of  his  history. 

LABOR   PARTNERSHIP   IN   MILLS. 

A  x>lan  is  now  nnder  discussion,  by  which  he  is  to  receive,  besides 
his  wages,  a  share  in  the  proceeds  of  his  work ;  by  which  he  is  to  be  a 
partner  in  the  profits,  but  not  a  '  arncipant  in  the  losses;  in  other  words, 
by  which  the  principles  oi  jo-operation  are  to  be  applied  to  production. 
Co-operation  in  distribution  has  been  a  great  success  in  England  under 
two  systems  absolutely  different  in  i)rincip]e  (of  each  of  which  I  gave 
some  ac(*ount  in  an  article  on  credits,  forwarded  July  30,  1883).  The 
founders  and  supporters  of  these  systems  held  their  sixteenth  annual 
congress  on  the  3d  of  June  of  this  year  at  Derby,  and  the  main  dis- 
cussion was  in  reference  to  this  application  of  the  principle  of  co-op- 
eration to  production.  The  high  repute  of  many  of  the  participants  in 
this  convention,  an<l  their  admitted  success  in  their  previous  attempts, 
give  their  words  an  authority  not  possessed  by  many  organizations 
formed  to  i)ropagate  theories;  and  we  may  expect  to  find  within  a 
reasonable  time  that  with  them  theory  means  practice. 

The  new  system,  [said  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor,  tlie  president],  does  not  supersede, 
but  adjusts  itself  miou  j>resent  arrangeniems.  Fixed  or  jiiece-work  waj;es  aie  paid 
as  under  tlie  established  routine  and  at  full  market  rates,  but  at  the  end  of  each  busi- 
ness year  a  share  in  the  uet  protits  realized  shall  be  assigned  as  an  additional  and 
wholly  independent  remuneration  to  the  workmen  employed  under  the  system.  The 
sum  thus  allotted  will  usually  be  in  proi)ortion  to  the  amounts  which  the  men  had 
severally  earned  during  the  year  in  wages. 

The  system,  whose  cardinal  i)rinciple  is  thus  outlined,  is  an  assured 
success  in  France,  andsevei-al  large  industries  are  there  conducted  in  ac- 
cordance with  it ;  but  it  seems  uidikely  to  me  to  be  as  successful  in  Eng- 
land for  some  time  at  any  rate  and  for  this  reason:  The  ])oint  is  that 
the  laborer's  interest  in  the  profits  will  produce  in  him  such  increased 
interest  in  the  work  that  there  will  be  increased  net  returns  of  just 
about  the  amount  to  be  divided  in  consequence  of  his  greater  diligence 
and  care  to  prevent  waste.  Where  this  does  not  follow  the  system  is 
manifestlj'  afailure,  and  it  seems  unlikely  to  follow  in  England,  because 
it  presupposes  an  amount  of  foresiglit  and  care  not  usually  possessed 
by  the  British  workman.  I  question  whether  work  would  be  better  done, 
whether  there  would  be  less  waste,  whether  tools  would  be  better  han- 
dled, in  consequence  of  the  prospect  of  a  return  in  the  nature  of  a 
bonus  some  months  in  the  future.  As  he  has  come  uiuler  my  observa- 
tion, the  laborer  is  irresponsible  and  improvident,  and  will  not  deny 
himself  a  present  want,  or  take  trouble  in  a  present  moment,  for  a 
future  good. 


618  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

RELATIONS   BETWEEN  LABOR   AND    CAPITAL. 

Besides,  the  relations  of  capital  and  labor  in  this  country  are  not 
propitious  for  such  an  exi)erinie]it.  The  representatives  of  the  one  are 
the  buyers,  the  representatives  of  the  others  the  sellers  of  labor:  and 
these  are  the  only  relations  in  which  they  know  one  ajiother.  Their 
couii)lete  and  absolute  separation  prevents  a  connnunity  of  thought  on 
any  subject,  and  often  produces  an  undercurrent  of  bitterness  and  dis- 
like which  finds  vent  in  doing  all  that  can  be  done  with  impunity  to 
thwart  the  interests  of  the  proprietor.  While  there  is  a  certain  an- 
tagonism between  capital  and  labor  the  world  over,  yet  their  differences 
are  intensely  aggravated  by  the  class  distinctions  of  England ;  and  I 
consider  that  in  our  ha])i)y  freedom  trom  this  blight  in  the  United  States 
we  are  7U)t  only  nearer  than  England  to  a  ])ermaiH'nt  settlement  of  the 
differences  between  the  two  factors  in  production,  but  that  in  the  mean 
time  we  have  one  great  advantage  over  our  adversary  in  our  already 
begun  con. test  for  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

In  justice  to  Bristol,  I  must  say  that  1  do  not  think  that  in  many  of 
its  trades  the  undercurrent  of  animosity  is  as  marked  between  master 
and  man  as  it  is  in  many  other  ])laces.  All  the  large  manufacturers 
who  have  constructed  buildiugs  within  the  i>ast  few  years  have  made 
considerable  provision  for  the  comfort  of  their  employes,  not  forgetting 
ample  arrangements  for  safety  and  protection  in  case  of  tire.  Some  of 
the  proprietors  take  all  their  hands  on  an  excursion  Oiie  day  in  the  year. 
This  "annnal  outing"  involves  an  outlay  in  some  cases  of  thousands, 
"but  appears  to  be  a  cheerful  and  willing  concession  to  the  pleasure  of 
the  work  ]ieople.  It  certainly  is  ai>i)reciated,  and  it  induces  a  kindly 
feeling  upon  the  part  of  those  benefited  which  not  only  elevates  their 
character  but  is  of  direct  ])ecuniary  advantage  to  the  owner.  One  very 
large  firm  has  around  its  office  walls  (and  it  is  a  ])leasant  sight  to  see), 
the  portraits,  in  oil,  of  those  laborers  who  have  been  forty  years  and 
more  in  its  em])loy.  There  are  a  goodly  number,  some  bearing  date  of 
the  previous  century.  Another  firm  does  not  take  apprentices,  but 
allows  every  man  in  its  en)i)loy  to  bring  up  his  son  to  his  branch  of  the 
business,  no  premium  being  charged,  anil  wages  being  paid  when  the 
boy  becomes  of  any  value.  This  ()i)i)ortunity  of  teaching  their  children 
a  trade  without  the  expense  of  iiulenturing,  is  snuch  ai)preciated  by  the 
men;  for  the  premium  ordinarily  charged  of  from  $100  to  $U()0  is  a 
heavy  tax  upon  them. 

THE   APPRENTICESHIP   SYSTEM. 

Apprenticing  is  not  universal,  as  formerly  ;  it  is,  however,  general, 
and  exists  niuler  some  conditions  manifestly  unfair.  For  instance,  a 
note  to  Table  M  states  that  in  a  first-class  dry-g( ods  store  a  girl  must 
pay  a  ]n'emium  of  about  $'_'()()  to  learn  to  be  a  saleswoman,  and  gets  no 
wages  for  two  and  ])eihaps  three  years.  ]Now,  an  intelligent  girl  is  of 
some  use  even  from  the  first,  and  yet  she  is  actually  i)aying  for  the 
privilege  of  serving  the  proi)rietor.  This  is  unjust,  aiul  the  same  injust- 
ice may  be  seen  with  regard  to  boys  in  stationery  stores  and  in  general 
avocations  where  no  long  special  training  is  requisite  to  make  one  ])ro- 
ficient.  The  ]n-oprietor  of  a  large  retail  and  wholesale  store  of  long  es- 
tal)lisliment  told  me  that  if  he  wished  he  could  easily  run  his  business 
with  a])|)rentices  alone,  wiio  would  actually  be  paying  him  $200  to  serve 
him  for  five  years.  Instead  of  doing  this  lie  admits  that  youths  are  of 
some  use  from  the  beginning,  so  instead  of  demanding  a  premium  he 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


619 


begins  to  pay  waoes  from  tlie  second  niontli.  Anion <;st  manual  trades, 
however,  ap[)renticing  is  very  i)roperIy  continued,  and  the  great  major- 
ity of  the  trade  societies  refuse  to  admit  as  a  member  one  wlio  was 
never  indentured. 

TRADE   ORGANIZATIONS. 

These  trade  organizations  are  powerful,  especially  among  the  workers 
in  coal,  in  iron,  and  in  glass,  where  they  may  be  said  to  be  des[)otic. 
They  take  i)articnlar  cognizance  of  the  nmtter  of  apprenticing,  and  tlieir 
men  will  cea>e  to  work  in  a  concern  which  takes  more  tban  a  certain 
proportion.  The  best  men  in  any  given  general  trade  will  nsually  be 
fonnd  to  be  "union"  men,  particulai'ly  among  the  printers,  who  have 
several  strong  organizations,  most  of  which  athliate  with  one  anotiier. 
In  the  report  of  one  of  these  associations,  the  typographical  union,  for 
the  last  half  of  the  year  1883,  1  note  an  outlay  of  $5,000  and  over  for 
*'out  of  work  and  relief  payments,"  an  average  of  about  a  dollar  a  mem- 
ber. This  indicates  a,  serious  dci)ression  in  a  trade  whi(;li  is  vsomething 
of  a  barometer,  and  is  corroborative  evidence,  if  any  were  needed,  of 
the  general  stagnation. 


TEMPERANCE   AMONG  THE   WORKING  PEOPLE. 

The  general  dullness  will  probably  account  for  considerable  of  the  de- 
crease in  drinking,  of  which  1  have  before  spoken  ;  but  still  a  huge  nieed 
of  praise  is  due  to  certain  individunis  and  societies  who  have  h^tely 
made  the  temi)erance  question  a  live  one,  and  who  have  labored  hard 
and  earnestly  to  elevate  the  working  classes  in  this  respect. 

The  table  given  below  indicates,  however,  that  there  is  still  vast  room 
for  improvement.  It  shows  the  exi)enditure  upon  intoxicating  liquors 
for  the  year  1883  in  the  whole  United  Kingdom,  together  with  the  uum- 
ber  of  gallons  consumed.  The  amounts  for  1882  are  also  given  for  com- 
parison. 


Description . 

Quantity. 

Price. 

1 

1883. 

1882. 

Gallons. 
28,  713,  997 
H,  235,  738 

14.  382,  983 
905,  809,  440 

15,  000,  000 

$4.8665  , 
5.8395 
4.378 

.365 

.486 

.$139,736  666  40 

48,  092,  592  00 

62,  968,  ()99  57 

352,  520,  445  60 

7,  290,  000  00 

$138,  959,  325 
48  4-'3  743 

63  206  851 

Beer 

356,  512,  568 

7,  290,  000 

1,  032, 142,  158 

610,  608,  403  62 

614,  392,  487 

*  Estimated. 

The  pojiulation  of  these  islands  is  increasing,  it  should  be  remembered, 
at  the  rate  of  over  1^  i>er  ctMit.  ])cr  year,  so  that,  taking  this  into  con- 
sideration, there  was  about  $11,000]000  less  spent  in  1883  than  in  1882 
for  drink  (in  proportion  to  population).  This  reduction  seems  nothing 
when  the  enormous  consumj)tioii  is  remembered,  but  then  we  find  that 
in  187n  the  expenditure  was  $710,670,745,  with  a  population  of  about 
32,000,000,  we  see  that  a  great  many  people  must  drink  a  great  deal 
less  now  than  they  did  eight  years  ago.  As  it  is  the  consumi)tion  of 
alcoholic  beverages  in  1883  averaged  29|  gallons  for  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  the  kingdom.*     These  29g  gallons  cost  an  average  of  $10.57 

*  By  the  censtis  of  18al  tbe  poimlatiou  was  35,'246,56'2,  and  I  allowed  4i  per  cent,  for 
increase,  niakinu:3(3,83"2,657.  Thisisinobably  fsoniewliattoo  liberal,  sotbattlie  average 
per  head  is  really  probably  somewhat  larger  than  above  stated. 


620  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

to  every  mau,  woman,  and  child  in  the  kingdom.  These  appalling  fig- 
ures are  am])le  justification  for  the  almost  rabid  earnestness  of  a  certain 
portion  of  the  before-mentioned  temperance  advocates  who,  like  all  fa- 
natics, will  persist  in  injuring  their  cause  by  claiming  too  much  and  by 
confusing  use  and  abuse. 

I  append  several  tables  giving  wage  statistics  for  Bristol.  I  have  iu- 
cluded  also  two  tables  of  wages  and  hours  in  the  building  trades  in 
twenty  representative  towns  of  Great  Britain,  which  are  presented  in  a 
form  that  makes  comparison  with  wages  in  the  United  States  a  simple 
and  easy  matter.  I  do  not  myself  make  the  comi)arison,  as  I  liave  no 
figures  from  America  of  later  date  than  1881.  In  (concluding  this  por- 
tion of  my  return  I  beg  to  refer  to  a  statement  on  labor  in  Bristol,  for- 
warded by  me  on  the  30th  of  October,  1883,  in  which  theie  is  consider- 
able matter  pertinent  to  this  inquiry.  I  now  turn  from  the  general 
laborer  to  present  some  details  in  my  district  of  the  life  of  the 

TROWBRIDGrE  FACTORY  OPERATIVES 

The  town  of  Trowbridge,in  Wiltshire,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  shows 
factory  life  in  England  under  its  most  favorable  (conditions.  It  is  en- 
tirely a  manufacturing  town;  it  is  large  enough  to  have  many  of  the 
advantages  of  cities  without  burdensome  taxation  ;  it  is  set  down  in  the 
middle  of  a  fertile  agricultural  country,  where  food  products  aie  cheaj) ; 
and  finally,  its  environment  is  true  country,  accessible  t(j  its  citizens  in 
a  few  minutes'  walk.  Moreovei,  it  lias  furnished  many  operatives  to 
various  mills  in  America,  from  whom  1  hope  to  gather,  in  the  future, 
information  which  will  be  material  for  an  interesting  comparison.  For 
these  reasons  1  have  paid  special  attention  to  Trowbiidge.  I  give  in 
tabular  lorm  tlie  wages  paid  in  three  of  its  ])rincipal  mills,  and  accurate 
averages  are  i)resented.  It  ap])ears  that  the  averajie  wages  paid  to  the 
418  women  in  this  ])articular  factory  are  $-?.G(>  per  week.  In  another 
the  average  is  $3.02G.  This  would  su])])ort  life,  with  severe  self-denial, 
but  it  is  seldom  that  a  woman  operative  is  other  than  wife  or  daughter 
of  a  man  in  similar  employ  ;  hence  her  earnings  are  generally  "pooled," 
and  mak(-  with  the  somewhat  larger  income  of  the  liead  of  the  house  a 
living  wage,  but  only  a  living  wage.  The  average  income  of  the  men 
appears  in  one  factory  to  be  $5,(>i,  and  in  another  $5.44^.  This  would 
not  sui)p(»rt  the  traditionally  lariie  English  family  with(nit  aid  from  wife 
or  offsi)iiiig.  The  latter,  when  under  fifteen,  average  in  one  case,  $2.25^, 
and  in  another,  $2.3!t(>  per  week.  Wages  have  decreased  a  little  in  the 
past  few  years;  on  the  other  hand  Trowbridge  has, in  common  with  the 
rest  of  tiic  world,  seen  a  gradual  reduction  in  the  \nicc  of  commodities. 
The  wages  therefore  represent  an  e(iual,  if  not  a  slightly  increased,  pur- 
chasing power.  The  ])eoj>le,  however,  are  not  so  well  otf,  as  the  desires 
have  grown  faster  than  the  means  of  gratifying  them;  a  natural  result 
of  education,  however  imjierfect,  of  the  daily  paper,  of  the  railway,  of 
all  movements  which  widen  the  horizon  and  enlarge  the  scope  of  human 
life.  The  em])l(jyment  of  women,  especially  as  weavers,  has,  of  course, 
lowered  men's  wages.  Most  of  the  narrow  looms  are  run  by  women,  and 
the  broad  looms,  too,  were  in  their  hands  until  their  evil  e<fe(;ts  on  the 
system  becanie  patent  to  everybody. 

The  combined  earnings  of  the  family,  then,  just  supi)()rt  it,  notwith- 
standing the  conditions  are  favorable  in  chea])ness  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducts and  in  inex])ensive  distribution,  for  co-operation  fiourishes.  It  is 
conducted  on  the  Kochdale  j)lan  (of  which  I  gave  some  account  in  a  re- 
port on  "  credits,"  forwarded  July  30, 1883),  and  brings  life's  necessaries 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  621 

to  the  cousiiiner  at  a  iniiiiimim  cost,  besides  forcing'  competitors  to  do 
the  same.  The  cooperative  store  has  an  annual  turn-over  of  $80,000, 
and  is  managed  entirely  by  factory  hands.  It  has  proved  a  boon  to 
Trowbridge. 

The  operatives  are  steady  and  law-abiding.  Theft  and  drunkenness 
are  rare.  Some  of  the  women  are  immoral,  but  by  no  means  more  than 
a  very  small  i)roportion.  Factory  life  anywhere  is  not  wholesome  for 
women,  and  language  and  general  tone  of  talk  here,  as  elsewhere,  is 
degrading  and  makes  the  girls  bold  and  in)pudent  A  battery  of  ar- 
tillery is  generally  quartered  in  the  town,  and  the  blue-coats  have  a 
fatal  attraction  for  the  less  sedate  among  them.  Places  of  worship  are 
unusually  numerous  and  well  attended.  There  are  twelve  of  them,  be- 
sides a  liourishiug  Salvation  Army  Corps.*  There  are  temi)erance  or- 
ganizations an<l  various  similar  societies  connected  with  the  churches, 
and  sewing  circles,  &c.,  especially  for  the  women.  The  young  men 
maintain  a  ritle  corps,  two  brass  bands,  and  two  tire  brigades,  besides 
half  a  dozen  cricket  clubs.  There  is,  however,  no  i)ublic  library,  no 
mechanics'  institute,  no  museum,  no  theater,  and  evening  amusement  is 
limited  to  occasional  temperance  entertainments,  lectures,  and  concerts. 
There  is  absolutely  nothing  besides  but  the  public-house. 

FEELIN&   BETWEEN   EMPLOYER   AND   EMPOYfi 

No  systematic  or  general  attempt  is  made  to  educate  or  elevate  the 
operatives,  and  the  relations  between  employer  and  employed  are  simply 
those  of  master  and  man.  The  employers,  it  is  true,  are  generally 
magistrates,  or  hold  some  municipal  office,  such  as  guardian  of  tlie  poor, 
or  member  of  the  local  board,  and  in  virtue  of  such  offices  they  main- 
tain a  certain  oversight  over  the  interests  of  the  people  as  a  whole,  but 
I  could  hear  of  no  factory  owner  who  interests  himself  in  his  employes 
outside  the  factory  any  more  than  in  any  general  member  of  the  com- 
munity. This  separation  of  interests  is  injurious  to  all  concerned,  and, 
besides,  is  distinctly  detrimental  to  the  trade.  Both  classes,  how- 
ever, get  on  without  friction.  There  has  been  no  strike  or  lock-out  for 
twenty-tive  years  or  over,  nor  does  either  capital  or  labor  combine  to 
accomplish  an  end. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

There  are  no  trades  unions,  nor  societies  for  regulating  wages,  hours, 
or  prices.  There  is  no  provision  made  by  owners  for  employes  perma- 
nently disabled  or  superannuated,  though  in  isolated  cases  old  and 
faithful  servants  have  been  pensioned.  The  mutual  benefit  societies, 
to  which  nearly  all  the  workmen  belong,  are  sometimes  a  support  for 
them  in  sickness  or  old  age,  but  they  are  unstable,  and  if  they  iail  t 
workhouse  is  frequently  the  only  place  where  the  man  who  has  lived 
past  his  usefulness  can  go  to  die,  for  the  operative  can  rarely  save.  In 
the  accounts  given  of  themselves  by  thirteen  Trowbridge  men  (State- 
ments 1-13),  only  two,  it  will  be  seen,  lay  by  anything,  and  yet  these 
statements  are  made  by  men  purposely  sele-ted  for  their  steadiness  and 
reliability,  and  who  rej)resent  the  best  element  of  factory  life.  One  of 
the  two  who  saves  earns  weekly  (Statement  No.  4)  $2.08  only,  but  he 
has  three  children,  whose  united  earnings,  added  to  his,  makes  an  income 

*  The  Salvation  Army  has  a  tield  iu  Eu^laud  that  it  has  u6t  in  America,  and  it 
reaches  a  chiss  that  can  be  j^ot  at  in  no  other  way.  In  my  opinion  it  has  done  much 
good,  though  its  methods  cannot  be  nuqualiliodiy  approved. 


622  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

of  $8.03.  The  other  (No.  9)  lias  the  help  of  his  wife,  who  brinjis  in 
82.43  a  w(H'k,  iiiakiiif:-,  with  his  waj^es,  $7.29.  Uf  course  it  is  evident 
that  Mitlumt  this  hclj)  neither  could  save,  and  indeed  the  former,  with 
his  $2. OS,  could  not  suppoit  his  family  without  the  aid  of  some  mem- 
bers of  it.  Many  of  the  foremen  and  some  of  the  better  paid  workmen 
lay  by  something-,  and  frequently  own  their  dwellings,  which  they  keep 
neat  and  in  rejiair,  taking-  special  pride  in  their  gaiden  plots.  But 
those  on  average  wages,  renting  four  to  six  roomed  cottages,  at  au  aver- 
age of  SiJ  cents  per  week,  cannot  and  do  not  have  the  same  interest  in 
their  homes,  but  as  a  rule  Ihey  keep  them  neat  and  clean,  though  jios- 
sibly  they  uuiy  be  most  imlitferently  furnished.  Where  husband  and 
wife  both  work,  the  home  suffers  and  the  children  are  neglected  and 
are  much  in  the  streets. 

COMPULSGEY-EDUCATEON   ACT. 

The  compulsory-education  act  ])rovides  that  the  children  shall  i)ag8 
a  certain  age,  or  through  certain  branches,  before  they  can  leave  school. 
What  the  age  shall  be  or  what  the  course  gone  through  is  determined 
bj'  the  different  local  boards  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of 
their  resi)ective  neighborhoods,  and  in  a  manufacturing  town  the  stand- 
ard is  invariably  set  low,  that  children  may  assist  their  parents  as  soon 
as  possible.  The  result  is  that  in  Trowbridge  many  of  the  children  ac- 
quire but  little  more  than  the  bare  ability  to  read.  The  head  master  of 
the  public  school  there  informs  me  that  "  good  spelling-  and  the  ability 
to  write  a  few  sentences  intelligibly  is  beyond  three-fourths  of  them. 
Immediately  they  pass  the  required  examination,  which  most  can  do  at 
10  or  11,  they  ar<'  withdrawn  to  save  the  school  fees  of  12  cents  ])er  week, 
or  to  help  mind  the  babies,  or  to  play  about  the  streets  until  they  reach 
13,  when  they  may  be  em})loyed  in  the  factory." 

Small  as  is  the  modicum  of  education  acquired  b^'  the  young,  it  is  in 
many  cases  a  larger  share  than  is  possessed  by  their  parents,  many  of 
whom  can  neither  read  nor  write.     Says  the  head  master : 

I  am  frequently  told  when  an  excuse  is  lackiug  for  absence;  "Please,  sir,  mother 
can't  -write." 

He  says  further : 

I  am  surprised  when  you  tell  me  that  the  operatives  have  said  that  they  do  not 
find  the  education  act  a  hardship.  [Statements  Nos.  1  to  13.]  This  is  entirely 
ojjposed  to  my  exi)eiience.  Parents  seek  to  evade  the  act  in  every  jtossible  way. 
Irrej^nlarity  of  attendance  is  the  great  difficulty  Avhich  meets  teachers  everywhere, 
and  the  moment  the  standard  for  exemption  is  reached  three  children  out  of  four  are 
withdrawn  from  school,  in  many  cases  to  save  the  school  fees.  This  is  more  marked 
with  girls  than  boys. 

CLUBS   AND   CLUB  EXPENSES. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  every  ])ersonal  statement  from  Trowbridge 
oi)eratives  (I  to  13)  contains  an  item  for  club  exi)enses,  and  in  most 
cases  this  charge  is  disi)roportionate  to  the  auiount  of  income,  being  5 
j)er  cent,  or  over.  The  clubs  referred  to  are  similar  in  princii)le  to  those 
which  have  had  such  au  eftlorescence  in  the  United  States  lately,  though 
smaller  in  numbers  and  more  conservative  in  management.  They  are 
not  under  Government  surveillance  and  they  frequently  fail.  In  i)er- 
sonal  statement  ]S'o.  4  the  writer  says,  "Tw^enty  years  in  a  shop  club, 
which  broke  uj)  last  year."  At  the  average  of  12  cents  i)er  week,  this 
club  represents  to  this  man  a  loss  of  about  $125,  or  not  much  less  than 
a  year's  earnings.     (His  earnings  are  $2.67  per  week,  as  per  statement.) 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  623 

It  seeins  straiiifie  that  the  amoniits  thus  ox]>ended  for  clubs  are  not 
saved  instead,  Imt  it  must  l)e  confessed  that  there  is  a  certain  iini)rovi- 
den(!e  in  the  British  worknnm,  and  a  certain  bad  judgment,  which  will 
let  him  deny  himself  to  ])ay  dues  to  a  club  founded  on  a  rotten  and 
exploded  principle,  and  which  i>ievents  his  finding  his  way  to  the  con- 
venient and  everrea<ly  ]iostal  savings  bank.  The  clubs  when  flourish- 
ing i)ay  about  as  follows  lor  a  weekly  charge  of  fifteen  cents:  In  sick- 
ness, 83.40  a  week  for  the  first  six  months;  half  that  for  the  next,  and 
half  the  latter  sum  indefinitely  should  the  sickiu'ss  last.  In  case  of 
death,  from  $75  to  $100  goes  to  the  heirs.  There  will  be  noticed,  also, 
in  these  personal  statements  an  oft-recurring  item  of  a  few  cents  for 
insuraiu'e.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  insure  the  children's  lives  for  a 
few  dollars  to  (;over  the  expense  of  burial  in  case  of  their  death. 

EMIGRATION. 

There  has  been  of  late  years  considerable  emigration  from  Trowbridge 
to  the  United  States.  The  impulse  to  go  has  not  sprung  from  a  general 
and  vague  desire  to  improve  the  condition,  but  from  a  certain  and  spe- 
cific knouledge  that  experience  in  the  factory  would  find  a  better  and 
steadier  market  in  certain  parts  of  the  United  States  than  at  home; 
better,  because  better  paid;  steadier,  because  of  less  liability  to  be  put 
on  short  time.  When  this  last  happens,  as  it  sometimes  does  in  Trow- 
bridge, it  means  want  and  hunger,  there  being  no  nuirgin  even  on  fall 
wages.  When  they  emigrate  they  go  to  Providence,  K.  I. ;  to  l*"all  River, 
to  liockville,  Conn.;  to  Wanskuck,  near  Providence,  and  Woonsocket. 
Many  also  go  to  Bosttm,  JMiiladelphia,  and  Chicago,  and  a  few  to  Pull- 
man. Others  go  to  the  silk  mills  in  New  York  State.  At  Wanskuck 
the  designer,  manager,  and  many  of  the  hands  are  Trowbridge  men.  At 
Fall  Eiver  the  only  woolen  mill  has  a  Trowbridge  man  for  manager,  and 
has  also  several  Trowbridge  operators.  Kockville  is  almost  a  colony 
from  the  Wellshire  town,  and  celebrates  each  year  the  6th  and  7th  of 
August,  which  is  the  yearly  festival  of  the  old  home  here  in  England. 
Those  in  America  report  their  condition  on  that  side  to  their  friends  on 
this  as  a  great  improvement,  and  once  in  a  w^hile  they  get  back  here  to 
speak  for  themselves,  but  they  almost  invariably  return  to  America. 

AGRICULTURAL   LABOR   IN   SOUTHWESTERN  ENGLAND. 

The  southwestern  counties  of  England  pay  less  wages  than  elsewhere 
to  agricultural  laborers.  This  difference,  in  my  opinion,  is  a  survival  of 
conditions  which  have  disappeared,  at  least  in  part;  but  unfortunately 
wages  never  increase  till  the  causes  that  diminished  them  have  been 
so  long  gone  as  to  be  almost  forgotten.  Twenty  or  even  ten  years  ago  it 
might  have  been  truthfully  said  that  laborers  in  Somerset,  Gloucester, 
Wilts,  and  Dorset  got  less  wages  than  were  paid  elsewhere  in  England, 
because  they  were  worth  less ;  in  other  words,  being  of  less  general  in- 
telligence than  their  northern  colaborers,  they  could  not  conduct  even 
their  simple  daily  labors  with  the  same  economy  and  benefit  to  the 
employer.  There  were  several  reasons  for  this  intellectual  inferi- 
ority ;  one  being  the  lack  of  the  oi)portunity  which  was  enjoyed  by  the 
northern  counties  of  drawing  upon  the  brighter  and  better  educated 
Scotch  people,  whose  parochial  schools,  of  early  establishment,  gave 
them  an  inherited  mental  endowment  far  superior  to  their  English 
neighbors.  This  point  was  noted  by  Consul  Jones  in  his  contribution 
to  the  labor  reports  of  1878,  where  he  also  advances  another  reason  for 


624  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

tlie  inferiority  of  southern  laborers  wlien  he  speaks  of  the  policy  pur- 
sued by  the  southeru  landlords  of  forcinji;  their  workmen  into  adjacent 
towns  and  villaj:jes  to  live,  instead  of  accouunodatin^  them  upon  the 
estate ;  such  crowded  association  in  communities  invariably  inducing 
deterioration  of  individual  character. 

Climatic  dilferences  and  the  infusion  of  ditferent  strains  of  blood  from 
different  sources  in  the  far  past  will  also  hel})  us  to  account  for  the  men- 
tal inferiority  of  the  southern  laborer.  But  1  have  said  that  the  condi- 
tions are  now  changed  or  i)artially  changed,  and  by  this  I  mean  that 
there  is  no  longer  so  great  a  dis})arity  in  the  character  of  the  tdlers  of 
the  soil  in  the  north  and  s-uith.  A  wider  diffusion  of  education  has 
wrought  the  change,  though  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  expected  that  the 
education  of  a  single  gener.ition  can  correct  centuries  of  inherited  men- 
tal inactivity.  Nor  by  education  do  1  mean  so  much  the  learning  in  the 
schools  as  that  insensible  absor])tion  of  knowledge  and  ideas  and  that 
quickening  of  the  mind  sure  to  follow  intercourse  with  an  increased 
number  of  fellow  human  beings.  The  compulsory-education  act,  the 
press,  the  railway,  the  introduction  of  machinery,  have  all  helped  to 
broaden  the  laborer's  life.  Canon  Girdlestone,  of  Bristol,  an  admitted 
authority  on  matters  pertaining  to  agricultural  workers,  says  of  them 
in  a  letter  to   the  London  Times  : 

Ever  since  that  time  (18{)<))  lliis  ])aTticular  class  of  nieu  has  been  iu  all  respects 
Ijradnally  inipi'oving.  The  gaps  made  in  ibeir  ranks  by  death  have  been  constantly 
tilled  np  by  young  men  who  have  received  a  good  education  in  the  constantly  improv- 
ing elementary  scliools  of  the  country.  The  result  is  that  English  agricultural  lal)or- 
ers  are  generally  finite  as  well  and  not  unlreqnently  even  better  educated  than  their 
employers. 

The  above  words  are  intended  by  their  writer  to  refer  specially  to  the 
men  of  the  soutliwestern  comities. 

The  effect  of  their  ele\ation  has  been  an  increase  of  wages  in  the  last 
few  years  of  about  $1  per  week.  The  advance  has  been  aided  by  a  large 
depletion  of  the  labor  market  by  emigration  to  foreign  countries  and  by 
a  systematic  exodus  to  the  northern  counties.  Wilts  and  Dorset  have 
not,  however,  ])articipated  in  this  advance,  and  the  result  is  that  wages 
are  here  lower  than  anywhere  else  in  England.  One  being  entirely  in- 
land and  the  other  without  large  sea-port  towns,  and  neither  having 
any  cities  of  even  moderate  size,  they  are  without  the  wholesome  com- 
petition of  maritime  wages  and  town  salaries  and  their  young  men  do 
not  make  room  by  seeking  the  sea  or  the  city.  Table  N  shows  the 
wages  i)aid  in  the  ditferent  shires  in  this  consular  district.  I  have  in- 
cluded Wilts  and  ])orset  under  one  heading,  but  it  may  be  that  wages 
in  Dorset  in  some  cases  are  a  shade  less  than  in  Wilts. 

The  English  farm  laborer  is  about  to  have  the  franchise,  and  one  more 
step  is  practically  taken  towards  the  inevitable  ending,  nianhood  suf- 
frage. But  it  has  not  been  the  importunate  demand  of  the  laborer  that 
has  brought  him  this  boon  and  he  is  comi)aratively  indifferent  to  it. 
This  attitude  towards  his  Government  is  peculiar.  If  I  may  be  allowed 
in  imagination  to  clothe  mental  attributes  with  physical  properties,  I 
should  say  that  his  mind  was  in  swaddling  clothes,  just  born,  and  una- 
ble to  stand  alone,  but  promising  a  lust}'  growth  and  a  vigorous  man- 
hood, destined  i?i  a  few  generations  to  take  an  energetic  part  in  the  set- 
tlement of  nu?nerous  vexed  questions.  But  at  ])ri'sent  he  regards  him- 
self as  something  beyond  and  outside,  with  a,  certain  uncritical  interest 
in  the  conduct  of  the  Government,  and  without  rights  and  privileges 
other  than  the  authorities  may  choose  to  accord  him  as  a  favor.  This 
class  has  no  representative  iu  Parliament,  nor  would  he  presume  to 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  625 

desire  one.  He  would  re^jard  bis  follow  laborer  who  aspired  to  such  a 
plaee  as  an  ui)start  who  must  be  sneered  down  for  waiitin*»-  to  be  better 
than  his  fellows.  He  would  vote  a^aiust  hiiu  every  time  if  one  of  the 
"gentry"  was  his  opponent,  and  he  would  assert  with  fervor  that  he 
wanted  to  be  ruled  by  his  betters  not  by  his  equals.  A  self-educated 
g-entleman,  a  man  of  wide  culture,  told  me  that  the  bitterest  time  of  his 
life  was  when  as  a  young  laborer  he  determined  to  correct  his  ])rovin- 
cial  dialect  and  to  speak  correctly.  He  was  ridicnled  and  contemned 
by  all  for  wanting  to  "speak  fine"  and  "imitate  his  betters."  The  fact 
is  caste  has  ticketed  every  man  in  the  country  into  a  class;  stay  there 
he  must,  nnder  penalty  of  the  envy  of  his  own  and  the  contempt  of  the 
class  above  him.  There  have  been  twelve  annual  meetings  held  in 
Somersetshire  to  agitate  for  the  extension  of  the  franchise  to  the  farm 
laborer,  and  no  great  interest  has  ever  been  aroused  in  the  class  directly 
concerned.  The  last  meeting  was  held  only  last  week,  on  a  legal  holi- 
day. There  was  no  enthnsiasm  over  the  near  accomplishment  of  the 
desired  end,  and  the  bidk  of  the  audience  were  evidently  there  "to  kill 
time."    The  London  Times  the  day  after  pertinently  said  : 

It  offered  a  relief  tVoiii  utter  vacuity,  and  from  their  attendance  ou  a  fair  summer 
day  at  such  a  joyle8s  function  we  may  judge  how  scanty  are  the  amusements  and  how 
narrow  is  the  faculty  for  being  amused  of  the  agricultural  population. 

The  faculty  for  being  amused  is  indeed  narrow.  Their  circumscribed 
round  of  unchanging  duties  is  pursued  without  intermission  almost,  and 
when  time  and  opiwrtunity  for  relaxation  do  come,  as  they  sometimes 
must,  no  proper  advantage  is  taken  of  them.  They  lack  entirely  enthu- 
siasm and  imagination,  and  while  I  have  said  a  good  deal  about  their 
education  and  general  intelligence,  it  is,  after  all,  only  in  comparison 
with  themselves  in  the  past  that  it  is  noticeable,  and  it  can  hardly  be 
said  to  exist  absolutely. 

Machinery  has,  of  course,  supplanted  many  laborers.  On  the  other 
hand,  emigration  and  enlarged  disposition  to  flock  to  towns  and  fac- 
tories has  maintained  the  balance.  Work  is  now  to  some  extent  peri- 
odical where  it  was  continuous,  and  there  is  an  alternation  of  brisk  de- 
mand and  high  wages  and  of  slackness  and  depressed  pay.  This  tends 
to  lower  the  character  of  agricultural  laborers  and  relaxes  the  old  custom 
of  hiring  for  a  long  period.     Still,  most  are  engaged  for  a  year. 

AGRICULTURAL    HIRING  FAIRS. 

There  is  still  suriviving  a  relic  of  old  customs  in  the  annual  "  mops" 
or  hiring  fairs  held  throughout  the  country.  I  attended  one  of  these  in 
the  spring  in  the  little  village  of  Chipping  Sodbury,  in  Gloucestershire, 
but  found  it  radically  changed  from  what  it  was  described  as  being  not 
many  years  since.  It  is  more  an  excuse  for  a  holiday  than  anything  else. 
Thei-e  was  no  standing  of  men  and  women  in  rows  waiting  to  be  hired  ; 
no  indication  that  a  place  was  sought  other  than  a  piece  of  string  around 
the  hat,  and  f  irmers,  laborers,  and  idlers  all  mixed  together  in  the 
crowded  main  street  of  the  little  village.  The  younger  men  when  en- 
gaged replaced  the  cord  in  their  hats  with  gaily  colored  ribbons  and 
stepped  with  their  new  employer  into  the  nearest  inn  or  "public"  to 
sign  a  contract ;  a  new  practice,  as  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that 
many  could  write.  In  the  past  the  agreement  was  sealed  by  the  accept- 
ance of  earnest  money,  which  was  always  spent  during  the  day  and 
made  its  late  hours  a  wild  orgj-. 

But  little  hiring  other  than  boys  is  done  at  these  "mops"  now,  as  a 
good  laborer  gets  known  by  his  neighbors,  and  if  he  changes  employers 
92  A— LAB 40 


626  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

at  all  is  snapped  up  long;  before  tlie  fair.  Usually,  however,  there  are 
some  old  men,  almost  past  their  usefulness,  seeking?  employment,  and 
the  sight  is  pathetic  indeed.  Worn  out,  their  years  gone,  their  muscles 
stiff,  they  are  useless  to  the  employer,  and  canuot  get  a  place.  They 
are  literally  turned  out  to  die,  and  their  only  refuge  is  the  work- 
house, for  the  laborer  can  rarely  save  towards  providing  for  his  old 
ag^.  When  a  pair  of  boots  costs  half  a  w'eek's  wage  and  more,  when 
three  weeks'  work  '»vill  about  buy  a  Sunday  suit,  when  a  ])ound  of  the 
cheapest  meat  represents  the  price  of  two-hours-and-a-half 's  work,  it  is 
evident  there  is  little  margin.  They  will  manage,  however,  a  few  cents^ 
a  week  for  their  mutual-benefit  club,  which  being  founded,  as  I  consider 
all  such  organizations  to  be,  on  an  impracticable  i)rinciple,  sooner  or 
later  fails  and  leaves  them  in  the  lurch.  The  meeting  is  held  weekly^ 
generally  in  the  inn  of  the  nearest  village,  and  is  an  excuse  for  consid- 
erable consumi)tion  of  beer,  ale,  and  stoat,  though  it  is  to  be  said  that 
neither  on  these  occasions  nor  as  a  rule  does  the  farm  laborer  indulge 
quite  so  freely  as  was  once  his  wont.  He  still,  however,  spends  far  too 
great  a  proportion  of  his  earnings  for  drink.  It  is  the  general  custom 
of  farmers  to  allow  from  2  to  4  quarts  of  cider  or  malt  liquor  to  each 
laborer  each  day,  but  some  are  adopting  the  plan  of  paying  a  little  ex- 
tra with  no  allowances  of  any  kind.  Some  farmers  have  told  me  they 
get  more  and  better  work  by  this  latter  plan ;  others,  with  equal  em- 
phasis, have  claimed  better  results  under  the  stimulus  of  an  occasional 
tankard.  Whichever  way  the  truth  may  lie,  it  seems  not  improbable 
that  all  allowances  will  gradually  cease  within  a  few  years  and  all  pay- 
ments be  made  in  money. 

GENERAL   CONDITION   OF   FARM  LABORERS. 

The  farm  laborer  has  participated  in  the  oenefits  resulting  from  the 
newly-excited  interest  of  the  wealthier  classes  of  England  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  poor,  and  a  broad  flood  of  light  has  been  ])oured  upon 
him  and  his  surroundings,  resulting  in  vigorous  efforts  by  individual 
landlords  to  make  him  more  comfortable.  There  is,  besides,  something 
of  a  reversal,  upon  economic  grounds,  of  the  before  mentioned  i)olicyof 
forcing  laborers  into  communities  instead  of  i)roviding  honu\s  on  the 
farms  where  they  work,  and  we  find  comfortable  cottages  rising  upon  the 
estates,  with  a  "  bit  of  garden  "  and,  may  be,  a  place  for  a  i)ig.  The  oc- 
cupant usually  takes  pride  in  his  little  house  and  garden,  notwithstand- 
ing his  tenure  is  precarious,  for  he  only  has  the  cottage  so  long  as  he 
works  upon  the  farm.  His  wife  and  daughters  are  not  regularly  in  the 
fields,  but  oidy  at  harvest,  or  when  there  is  great  pressure  of  work;  then 
they  get  from  25  to  .'55  cents  a  day  (Table  N),  with  an  allowance  of  ale 
or  beer  and  sometimes  food.  His  sons,*  by  law,  must  pass  certain  ex- 
aminations in  the  schools  before  they  leave,  but  sometimes  these  are  so 
elementary  that  boys  of  eight  get  through  them,  though  the  average 
age  is  about  eleven.  In  times  i)ast  ai  farm  laborer  with  tliree  sons  aged 
eight,  ten,  and  twelve,  would  receive  for  their  labor  GO  cents,  $1.20,  and 
$2.18,  respectively.  Now  only  liis  eldest  son  works  and  the  two  young- 
est are  a  weekly  expense  of  a  few  cents  for  schooling  ;  for  it  is  a  theory 
in  this  country  that  the  education  which  we  in  America  try  to  make  as- 
free  as  the  air  we  breathe  must  cost  something  or  its  benefits  will  not  be 
api)reciated ;  and  it  is,  I  think,  indisputable  that  many  parents  here 
would  be  absolutely  indifi'erent  to  the  truancy  of  their  children  if  they 
did  not  feel  that  they  must  get  their  money's  worth. 

*  And  daughters,  too. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  627 

The  farm  laborer's  mental  food  is  snp])lied  by  a  Bible,  usually  an  old 
and  sometimes  a  curious  and  valuable  edition,  Pilgrim's  Progress  or  some 
other  standard  work  of  a  religious  tendenc}',  and  Zadkiel's  Almanac,  a 
charlatan  publication  much  affected  amongst  the  more  ignorant  in  Eng- 
land. Rarely  will  more  books  than  these  be  found  in  his  cottage.  His 
physical  food  is  as  limited  in  variety  as  his  mental,  and  consists  largely 
of  bread  and  the  vegetables  from  his  own  little  plot,  with  an  occasional 
piece  of  cheese  or  some  bacon  or  a  cheap  and  inferior  piece  of  beef; 
this  latter  twice  or  thrice,  maybe,  a  week  in  Gloucester  and  Somerset ; 
not  so  often  in  Wilts  and  Dorset. 

EMIGRATION   OF   AGRICULTURAL   LABORERS. 

There  has  been  a  large  emigration  from  these  counties  to  the  colonies 
and  the  United  States,  but  there  is  growing  up  a  general  and  wide- 
spread belief  amongst  all  classes  of  laborers  in  my  district,  excepting 
those  in  the  factory,  that,  though  wages  are  higher  in  these  new  places, 
one  must  work  much  harder  for  them;  must,  in  fact,  be  "driven  to 
death."  It  is  true  that  more  is  accomplished  in  a  given  time  in  the 
United  States  than  here;  but  the  real  thing,  in  my  judgment,  is  that  a 
higher  degree  of  intelligence  is  expected  there  of  all  classes  of  labor 
and  a  certain  judgment  as  to  economy  of  time,  arrangement  of  work, 
and  such  matters.  Consequently  a  laborer  emigrating  finds  that  he 
can  no  longer  be  an  automaton,  simply  doing  as  he  is  bid  and  no  more, 
but  that  unless  he  "wakes  up"  and  exercises  a  little  judgment  occa- 
sionally, he  must  go  to  the  wall.  Here  he  is  expected  to  do  no  one  thing- 
unordered.  There  he  must  have  some  slight  idea  of  the  general  require- 
ments of  the  situation ;  and  this,  I  think,  is  generally  what  an  English 
laborer  means  by  the  hard  work  across  the  water;  for  there  is  nothing 
so  hard  to  the  human  machine  which  has  never  done  aught  but  obey 
as  to  be  forced  by  circumstances  to  become  sentient  and  rest  sometimes 
on  its  own  judgment. 

LABOR  IN  BRISTOL   AND  IN   THE  UNITED   STATES. 

In  concluding  this  report  I  have  the  following  general  statements  to 
make  in  regard  to  labor  in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol,  and  where 
I  have  made  these  statements  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  with  labor  in 
the  United  States  it  has  been  done  merely  to  render  more  clear  and 
intelligible  the  point  I  seek  to  make : 

(1.)  No  class  of  laborers  is  as  intelligent  as  the  corresponding  class 
in  the  United  States. 

(2.)  In  consequence  of  this  comj)arative  lack  of  intelligence  the  la- 
borer is  not  so  valuable  to  his  employer  as  in  the  United  States.  He 
is  less  receptive  of  ideas,  and  requires  more  oversight  and  more  direct- 
ing and  accomplishes  less  in  a  day. 

(3.)  He  is  improvident,  and  does  not  save.  Sometimes  he  cannot; 
but,  as  a  rule,  he  spends  some  portion  of  his  income  with  bad  judgment, 
which  i)ortion  he  might  lay  by.* 

(4.)  His  wages  are  less  than  in  the  United  States. 

(5.)  There  is  not  a  corresponding  cheapness  in  the  price  of  all  com- 
modities.   Rent  is  cheaper,  but  if  the  laborer  expends  less  in  some 

*A  notable  exception  to  this  statement  will  be  seen  in  Statement  No.  15,  where  a 
laborer  owns  a  valuable  house.  His  family,  to  be  sure,  was  small.  Another  man 
(No.  4)  says  he  saves  12  cents  a  week  for  Christmas.  By  this  he  means  that  his  family 
"dissipate  "  his  whole  year's  saving  of  $5  during  Christmas  week. 


628  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

other  directions  tlian  in  the  United  States  it  is  because  lie  does  without 
or  buys  an  inferior  article,  not  because  the  articles  are  cheaper.* 

(G,)  The  employment  of  women  is  more  fieneral  than  in  the  United 
States.  There  is  some  female  member  contributing  towards  the  su])port 
of  almost  every  laborer's  family. 

(7.)  The  laboring  class  is  not  so  self-respecting  or  respected  as  it  is 
in  the  United  States.t 

In  conclusion,  I  have  much  jdeasure  in  acknowledging  the  courtesy 
of  many  gentlemen  in  my  district,  who  have  in  some  instances  gone  to 
much  trouble  to  aid  me  with  statistics  and  information. 

LOIim  ANDEEWS  LATHROP, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Bristol,  June  30, 1884. 


interviews  with  BRISTOL  WORKMEN. 

Twenty-two  statements,  showing  the  wages  and  manner  of  living  of  Bristol  7nill  operatives  and 

artisans. 

1.    A   WOOL    SCO URE It's   STATEMENT. 

Age,  42  years ;  occupation,  wool  scourer ;  wages,  $4.34  i^er  week  ;  hours  of  labor, 
56;  can  save  nothiug;  lias  fresh  meat  twice  a  week  ;  wife  and  8  children  ;  2  children, 
aged  17  and  18,  receive  at  self-acting  mules  $1.58  each  per  week.  Weekly  expenses: 
rent,  85  cents  ;  fuel,  73  cents  ;  food,  $4.37  ;  clothing,  (30  cents  ;  club  dues,  incidentals, 
schooling,  insurance  for  6  children,  $1.09;  total  weekly  expenses,  $7.64.  (It  will  be 
seen  that  the  outlay  is  14  cents  more  than  the  income ;  in  a  case  like  this  the  food 
supply  must  he  cut  down,  for  nothing  else  can  be  cut  down.) 

2.  A  spinner's  statement. 

A  spinner,  65  yeai-s  old;  wages,  $4.86  per  week  ;  hours  of  labor,  56;  can  save  noth- 
ing; lias  fresh  meat  four  times  a  week  ;  wife  and  7  children  ;  chiUlren  all  married. 
W^eek's  expenses  :  rent,  60  cents  ;  fuel,  48  cents  ;  food,  $3.40;  clothing,  24  cents  ;  club 
dues,  30  cents  ;  incidentals,  6  cents  ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $5.08. 

3.  A  broad-loom  weaver's  statement. 

A  broad-loom  weaver,  35  years  old  ;  wages,  $4.86  per  week  ;  hours  of  labor,  62  ;  can 
save  nothing;  has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week;  wife  and  3  children ;  wife  receives  at 
weaving  $1.95  per  week.  Week's  expenses  :  rent,  79  cents;  fuel,  72  cents  ;  food,  $4.13; 
school,  6  cents;  clothing,  24  cents;  club  dues,  24  cents;  incidentals,  60  cents;  insur- 
ance, 6  cents  per  week  ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $6.84. 

4.    STATEMENT   OF   A   LABORER  IN   AVOOLEN   WASH   MILL. 

A  laborer  in  woolen  wash  mill,  57  years  old  ;  wages,  $2.68  per  week ;  hours  of  labor, 
.58;  saves  12  cents  a  week  for  Christmas  ;  has  fresh  meat  only  on  Sundays;  wife  and 
nine  children,  four  at  home ;  two  boys  ami  one  girl  receive,  as  picker,  carter,  and 

*  Cotton  cloth  and  flannel  are  both  cheaper  in  New  York,  Washington,  or  San 
Francisco  than  in  Bristol.  Men's  clothes  are  souiewhat  cheaper  here,  but  neither  the 
laborer  nor  his  wife  thinks  of  dressing  as  tliey  do  in  tlie  United  States.  Nor  do  his 
children  make  the  same  ai)pfarance.  Meat  is  generally  higher  here  than  in  the 
United  States,  and  at- ])resent  is  just  as  high.  An  inspection  of  Table  U  will  show 
the  names  of  some  curious  meat  products  of  which  he  ])arlakes  from  motives  of 
economy. 

t  The  class  distinction  which  jirevents  their  association  with  anybody  but  them- 
selveshasa  tendency  to  make  them,  wIkmi  they  do  couu-.  intocoutact  with  another  class, 
either  servile  or  impertinent.  But  I  think  this  apparent  want  of  self-respect  is  due 
to  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  this  country  rather  than  to  any  want  of  manliness 
at  heart. 


LAFJOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  629 

piecer,  respectively,  $1.70,  $2.4!?,  $1.22  per  week.  Weekly  expenses:  Rent,  60  cents; 
fuel, 3() cents  ;  food, $.").(;0 ;  clothing,  :5()  cents;  clnb  dues,  twenty  years  in  a  shop  club, 
which  broke  up  last  year;  insurance  for  three  p(;rsons,  6  cents ;  incidentals,  24  cents; 
schooling,  W  cents  ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $7.I5U. 

5.  A  tucker's  statkmknt. 

A  tucker,  25  years  old;  wages,  $".^.90;  hours  of  labor,  5(> ;  can  save  nothing;  has 
fresh  meat  four  times  a  week  ;  wife  and  three  children  ;  wife  receives  as  weaver  $1.2.5 
per  week.  Weekly  expenses :  Rent,  73  cents;  fuel,  48  cents;  food,  $2.cS0;  clothing, 
60  cents;  club  dues,  13  cents;  incidentals,  24  cents;  insurance  for  three  children,  0 
cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $5.10. 

6.  A  CONDENSER  ATTENDANT'S  STATEMENT. 

Condenser  attendant,  40  years  old ;  wages,  $3.40  per  week:  honrs  of  labor,  GO  ;  can 
save  nothing;  wife  receives  $1.4(5;  meals  consist  of,  for  breakfast  and  tea,  bread  and 
butter,  perhaps  an  egg;  for  dinner,  vegetables  and  a  little  meat  of  the  cheaper  kind. 
Weekly  expenses:  Kent,  60  cents;  clothing,  36  cents;  a  new  suit  only  once  in  six 
years;  food,  $3.16;  fuel,  36  cents;  schcol  fees,  18  cents;  club  dues,  6  cents;  inciden- 
tals, 12  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $4.86. 

7.  A  warper's   STATEMENT. 

Warper,  24  years  old;  wages,  $4.86  per  week;  hours  of  labor,  62;  has  fresh  meat 
three  times  a  week ;  wile  and  two  children  ;  wife  receives  as  weaver  $2.18  per  week. 
Weekly  exjjenses:  Rent,  82  cents;  fuel,  43  cents;  food,  $3.65;  clothing,  48  cents; 
club  dnes,  40  cents;  incidentals,  37  cents;  insurance,  4  cents;  servant,  85  cents;  has 
to  hire  servant  to  take  charge  of  children  while  at  work;  total  weekly  expenses,  $7.'''"^ 

8.  A   carder's   STATEMENT. 

Carder,  42  years  old  ;  wages,  $3.90  per  week  ;  hours  of  labor,  55  ;  can  save  nothing  ; 
has  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week;  wife  and  five  children  ;  wife  receives  aa  weaver 
$1.46  per  week;  two  children  work,  ages  19  and  17,  weaver  and  grocer;  weaver,  $1.46 
per  week;  grocer,  food  and  $1.21  per  week.  Weekly  expenses:  Rent,  80  cenrs;  fuel, 
60  cents;  food,  $4.38;  clothing,  $1.34;  club  dues,  24  cents;  incidentals,  60  cents; 
schooling,  6  ceuts;  insurance,  14  cents  per  week  for  seven  people;  total  weekly  ex- 
penses, $8,16. 

9.  A  weaver's  STATEMENT. 

Weaver,  37  years  old;  wages,  $4.86;  hours  of  labor,  62;  saves  about  $2.43  per 
quarter:  has  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week;  wife  and  five  children.  Weekly  ex- 
penses: Rent,  60  cents;  fuel,  37  cents;  food,  $4.38;  clothing,  60  cents;  club  dues, 
37  cents;  incidentals,  97  cents;  schooling,  20  cents;  total  weekly  expen8es,^|7.49. 

10.   A  pressman's   STATEMENT. 

Pressman,  25  years  old  ;  wages,  $4.38  per  week  ;  hours  of  labor,  57  ;  can  save  noth- 
ing; has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week;  wife  and  two  children;  wife  receives  $1.50  per 
week  as  weaver.  Weekly  expenses  :  Rent,  73  cents :  fuel,  30  cents ;  food,  $3.65 ; 
clothing,  48  cents  ;  club  dues,  14  cents  ;  incidentals,  48  cents ;  insurance,  2  cents  per 
week  for  one  child  ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $5.80. 

11.  A  fuller's  statement. 

Fuller,  32  years  old  ;  wages,  $4.86  per  week;  hours  of  labor,  60;  can  save  nothing; 
has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week ;  wife  and  five  children.  Weekly  expenses :  Rent,  61 
cents;  fuel,  36  cents;  food,  $2.92;  clothing,  24  cents;  club  dnes,  30  cents;  incidentals, 
24  cents;  schooling,  18  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $4.85. 

12.  A  dyer's  statement. 

Dyer,  35  years  old  ;  wages,  $4.88  per  week  ;  honrs  of  labor,  55  ;  can  save  nothing  ; 
has  fresh  meat  twice  a  week  ;  wife  and  four  children  ;  wife  receives  at  weaving  98 
cents  per  week.  Weekly  expenses:  Rent,  73  cents;  fuel,  37  cents  ;  food,  $3.90;  cloth- 
ing, very  little;  clubdues,  14  cents;  incidentals,  24  cents;  insurance  for  twochildren 
44  cents;  schooling,  20  cents  ;  total  weekly  expenses,  $5.62. 


630  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

13.    A   BUOAD-LOOM   WEAVKR's   STATEMENT 

Broad-loom  weaver,  26  years  old ;  wages,  §4.13  per  week  ;  hours  of  labor,  G2;  can 
save  nothing ;  fresh  meat  three  times  a  week  ;  wife  and  child.  Weekly  expenses : 
Rent,  43  cents  ;  fuel,  24  cents  ;  food,  $2.92;  club  dues,  24  cents;  incidentals,  37  cents; 
insurance,  4  cents;  total  weekly  expenses,  $4.24. 

14.  A  boot-finisher's  STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  Thirty-six  years. 

Q.   What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Boot-fiiiishor. 

Q.  AVhat  are  your  weekly  wages  f — A.  They  vary  considerably  from  various  causes, 
should  average  $5.83  to  $6.32. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  Busy  times  all  hours,  slack  time  three  or  four 
hours,  should  average,  say  ten  hours. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you  ? — A.  Six,  myself  and  wife  and  four  daughters. 

Q.  Did  you  have  any  money  saved  when  you  married,  and  how  much  ? — A.  No ; 
married  when  I  was  twenty  and  never  really  regretted  it. 

Q.  Do  you  save  any  money  now,  and  how  much? — A.  No;  never  felt  inclined  to 
economize  by  taking  it  out  of  belly  nor  off  of  back  ;  a  dry  bread  diet  don't  suit  me. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ? — A.  Twelve  cents; 
would  gladly  pay  more  for  better  education  if  could  afford  it. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  found  the  compulsory-education  act  a  hardship  to  you  person- 
ally ? — A.  I  have  found  it  sometimes  inconvenient,  but  believe  the  advantages  will 
counterbalance  the  inconvenience. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you  ? — A. 
That  depends  upon  what  employment  they  enter ;  some  employers  pay  such  low  wages 
that  were  it  not  for  parents  girls  must  become  prostitutes. 

Q.  How  often  per  week  do  you  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ? — A.  As  often  as  we  can  ;' 
say  three  times  on  an  average,  may  be  four. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  It  was  $1.21,  but  reduced  lately  to  a  few 
pence  less. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  are  there  in  your  house  ? — A.  Four,  and  a  back  kitchen. 

Q.  How  much  are  your  taxes,  including  poor-rates  and  everything  ? — A.  None ; 
that  a  pay-landlord  pays. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  Yes;  boot- 
machining  partial  employment,  from  $1.21  to  $1.9.5  per  week,  average  perhaps  98 
cents. 

Q.  Do  any  of  the  girls  work,  if  so  what  are  their  wages,  nature,  and  hours  of  labor, 
and  amount  of  earnings  ? — A.  One  out  to  service. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item  ? — A.  As  near 
as  possible:  Rent,  $1.21;  bread,  $1.21 ;  meat,  73  cents;  sugar,  30  cents;  butter,  98 
cents;  eggs,  12  cents;  vegetables,  48  cents;  tea,  24  cents;  coal  and  light,  37  cents; 
clothes  and  boots,  85  cents;  sundries,  37  cents;  trade  club,  12  cents;  sick  benefit 
club,  24  cents  ;  insurance,  8  cents;  schooling,  12  cents;  total  $7.42. 

No  beer,  no  tobacco,  being  a  teetotaler;  pocket  money  has  to  beobt^iined  by  taking 
something  from  necessary  expenditure  or  out  of  sleep,  if  opportunity  offers  ;  who 
would  not  be  a  workingman  ? 

15.  A   wire-worker's   STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age? — A.  Thirty-four  years. 
•  Q.  What  is  your  occupation? — A.  A  wire-worker ;  a  general  hand.     I  make  wire 
blinds,  malt  and  lime  screens,  cages,  meat  safes,  »fec. 

Q.  What  are  your  weekly  wages? — A.  I  work  piece-work.  My  total  earning  last 
year  was  $360.12,  weekly  average,  $6.91 ;  I  am  paid  14  cents  per  hour  when  I  do  day 
■work. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor? — A.  No  fixed  hours;  average  51  per  week. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you  ? — A.  Wife,  aiul  one  son,  agt^d  eight. 

Q.  Did  you  li!i\(r  any  money  saved  when  you  married,  and  how  much? — A.  Forty- 
piglit  dollars  and  sixty-six  cents,  and  my  wife  had  saved  $97.33. 

Q.  Do  you  save  any  money  now,  and  liow  much  '/ — A.  I  saved  $146  ;  paid  it  as  a  de- 
posit on  a  house,  ])ri(;e  $973.30;  borrowed  $87(5  from  a  building  society  and  a  friend 
for  ])erio(l  of  twenty  y(;ars,  ana  am  paying  it  off  at  the  rate  of  $1.32  a  week.  It  is  a 
qu(!stion  what  I  am  now  .saving  ;  may  be  about  $43.80  a  year. 

Q.  How  mncli  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  child's  schooling? — A.  Twelve  cents. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  found  the  compulsorv-educatiou  act  a  hardship  on  you  person- 
ally ?— A.  No. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  child  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you  ? — A.  I 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  631 

cannot  say  for  certain.  I  purpose!  apprenticing;  liiin  to  a  trade  ;  then  his  wages  will 
be  low.     He  may  be  self-snpportinjj;  at  eigliteen. 

Q.  How  often  i)or  weelc  do  yon  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ?— A.  I  could  have  it  every 
day,  but  I  am  a  vegetarian  ;  my  wife  and  son  liave  meat  most  days. 

Q.  What  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  One  dollar  and  fifteen  cents ;  the  rent  of  the 
house  is  $l.i)'->,  clearing  everytliing  ;  but  I  nnike  a  let  of  79  cents  ;  but  I  am  living  in 
the  house  I  am  purchasing  and  i)aying  off  at  $1.32  a  week,  and  pay  poor-rates,  taxes, 
and  ground-rent ;  so  I  have  put  it  that  my  rent  is  $1.15,  just  as  if  I  rented  the  house. 
It  has  six  rooms  ;  I  occupy  four  and  let  two  rooms  for  79  cents  a  week.  My  poor-rates 
and  taxes  are  $24.33,  and  I  pay  $9.73  a  year  as  ground-rent. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  Only  sees 
to  the  home,  which  she  does  very  well,  but  does  not  earn  anything  by  other  work. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  "weekly  expenses,  including  everything  ?— A.  The  fol- 
owing  is  as  near  as  I  can  get  at  it:  Building  society,  $1.34  ;  rates  and  taxes,  48  cents; 
ground-rent,  19  cents  ;  life  assurance,  for  £100,  21  cents  ;  sick-benefit  society,  13  cents ; 
my  aged  mother,  24  cents;  for  literature  membership  to  political  societies,  &c.,  48 
cents;  bread,  40  cents  ;  flour,  14  cents  ;  eggs,  30  cents;  groceries,  42  cents ;  vegetables 
and  fruit,  48  cents ;  meat,  30  cents  ;  beer,  48  cents ;  coal  and  lights,  28  cents ;  milk,  28 
cents;  butter,  f  pounds,  28  cents;  clothing,  98  cents;  extras,  amusements,  &c.,  26 
cents;  total,  $7.67. 

P.  S.  My  income  is  as  follows:  Wages,  $6.90;  letting  rooms,  79  cents;  total,  $7.69. 

16.  A  POTTERY   laborer's   STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  Forty-four. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Laborer  in  a  pottery  in  Bristol. 

Q.  What  are  j^our  weekly  wages  ? — A.  Four  dollars  and  thirty-eight  cents,  and  some 
over  time. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  Six  a.  m.  to  6  p.m.;  time  allowed  for  meals, 
one  and  one-half  hours. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  yon? — A.  Ten, 

Q.  Did  you  save  any  money  saved  when  you  married,  and  how  much  ? — Forty-eight 
dollars  and  sixty- six  cents. 

Q.  Do  you  have  any  money  uow,  and  how  much  ? — A.  No. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ?— A.  Fourteen 
cents. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  found  the  compulsory-education  act  a  hardship  to  you  person- 
ally ?— A.  Yes. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you? — 
Eighteen. 

Q.  How  often  per  week  do  you  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ? — A.  Once  per  week. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  One  dollar  and  twenty-two  cents,  includ- 
ing taxes  and  poor-rates. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  are  there  in  your  house  ? — A.  Six. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  No. 

Q.  Do  any  of  the  children  work  ;  if  so,  what  are  their  ages,  nature  and  hours  of 
labor,  and  amount  of  earnings? — A.  Three  at  work;  ages,  fifteen,  fourteen,  eighteen, 
and  amount  of  earnings,  $3.53. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item  ? — A.  Seven 
dollars  and  ninety  cents — rent,  food,  club-dues,  schooling — take  it  all.  I  turn  nearly 
all  my  wages  over  to  the  missus  every  week. 

17.    A   STONEWARE   DIPPER'S   STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  Thirty-eight. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A  Di])per  in  a  stoneware  pottery. 

Q.  W^hat  are  your  weekly  wages? — A.  Five  dollars  and  ten  cents. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  Six  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  Allowed  for  meals  one 
and  a  half  hours.     Saturday  close  at  4. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you  ? — A.  Six  children. 

Q.  Did  you  have  any  money  saved  when  you  married,  and  how  much? — A.  Four- 
teen dollars  and  sixty  cents. 

Q.  Do  you  save  any  money  now,  and  how  much  ? — A.  None. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ? — A.  Twenty-eight 
cents. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  found  the  compulsory-education  act  a  hardship  to  you  person- 
ally ? — A.  Only  occasionally. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you? — A. 
Eighteen  years. 


632  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Q.  How  often  per  week  do  yon  have  fresh  meat  for  all? — A.  Three  or  four  times  a 
week. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  Seventy-three  cents,  incliuling  taxes  and 
poor-rates. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  are  there  in  your  house  ? — A.  Three. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work?     If  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  No. 

Q.  Do  any  of  the  children  work  ?  If  so,  what  are  their  ages,  nature,  and  hours  of 
labor,  and  amount  of  earnings? — A.  One,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  working  in  a  tobacco 
manufactory,  earns  $1.70  per  week. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item? — A.  Five 
dollars  and  eighty-three  cents,  as  follows:  Rent,  I'.i  cents ;  food, $3. 16;  coals,  37  cents  y 
club,  "24  cents;  school,  28  cents;  clothing,  48  cents;  sundry  items,  57  cents. 

18.    A  POTTERY  laborer's   STATEMENT. 

Q.   What  is  youi*  age? — A.  Forty-eight. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Laborer  in  a  pottery. 

Q.  What  are  your  weekly  wages? — A.  Four  dollars  and  thirty-eight  cents. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  Six  a.  ni.  to  (5  p.  rn. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you  ? — A.  Eight. 

Q.  Did  you  have  any  money  saved  when  you  married,  and  how  much  ? — A.  I  will 
not  answer. 

Q.  Do  you  save  any  money  now,  and  how  much  ? — A.  No. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ? — A.  Twenty  cents. 

Q.  Have  voii  ever  found  the  compulsory-education  act  a  hardship  to  you  person- 
ally ?— A.  Yes. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you  ? — A. 
Eighteen  years. 

Q.   How  often  per  week  do  you  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ? — A.  Once. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  $1.46,  including  taxes  and  poor-rates. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  in  your  house  ? — A.  Five. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  About 
24  cents  per  week  for  washing. 

Q.  Do  any  of  the  children  work  ;  if  so,  what  are  their  ages,  nature,  and  hours  of 
labor,  and  amount  of  earnings  ? — A.  Two  work,  one  fourteen  years,  73  cents  per  week ; 
the  other  twelve,  and  one-half  years,  48  cents  per  week. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item  ? — A.  |5.83, 
expended  in  provisions,  rent,  and  schooling. 

19.    A   POTTERY   KILNMAN'S    STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  Thirty-one. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Kilnman  in  a  stoneware  pottery. 

Q.  What  are  your  weekly  wages  ? — A.  $5.72. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  6  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.,  allowed  for  meals  one  and 
one-half  hours. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you  ?— A.  Three. 

Q.  Did  you  have  any  money  saved  when  yon  married,  and  how  much  ? — A.  $48.66. 

Q.  Do  yon  save  any'mouey  now,  and  how  much? — A.  Yes,  about  $21). 20  per  year. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ? — A.   12  cents. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  found  the  compulsory-education  act  a  hardship  to  you  person- 
ally?—A.  No. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you  ? — A. 
Eightecm  years. 

Q.  How  often  per  week  do  you  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ? — A.  Four  times  per  week. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent  ? — A.  $1.22,  including  taxes  and  poor-rates. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  are  there  in  your  house  ? — A.  Five. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  As  small 
shoj)  l<('ej)cr ;  about  97  cents  per  week. 

Q.  Do  any  of  the  children  work;  if  so,  what  are  their  ages,  nature,  and  honrs  of 
labor  and  amount  of  earnings? — A.  No. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item  ?— A.  $6.08^ 

20.  A  CARPENTER  AND  .TOINER'S  STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  Twenty-eight. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Carpenter  and  joiner. 

Q.  What  are  your  weekly  wages  ? — A.  $7.30. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  9^  per  day. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  633 

Q.  How  large  a  family  liave  you  ?— A.  Wife  and  two  children. 

Q.  Did  yon  have  any  money  Huvod  when  you  marriedaud  how  much  ?— A.  Just  a 
pound  or  two  spent  in  furniture. 

Q.  Do  you  save  any  money  now,  and  how  much? — A.  No. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  d  >  you  pay  for  your  children's  schooling  ? — A.  4  cents  a  week 
for  one  child  only  as  yet. 

Q.  At  what  age  do  you  expect  your  children  to  cease  all  dependence  on  you? — A. 
Do  not  exjxct  them  to  work ;  they  are  both  girls. 

Q.  How  often  per  week  do  you  have  fresh  meat  for  all  ? — A.  As  often  as  we  can  get 
it,  and  that  is  aliont  four  times  or  so. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  weekly  rent?— A.  $2.43. 

Q.  How  many  rooms  are  there  in  your  house? — A.  Nine. 

Q.  How  mueii  are  your  taxes,  including  poor  rates  and  everything?— A.  £13  per 
year  or  thereabouts. 

Q.  Does  the  wife  work  ;  if  so,  at  what,  and  how  much  does  she  earn  ? — A.  She  runs 
a  little  bnsiiu^ss,  but  it  is  hard  to  say  exactly  what  it  brings  in. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses,  putting  in  every  item  ? — A.  Our 
weekly  exjienses  are  quite  an  equivalent  to  our  income  and  sometimes  a  little  more 
and  vice  versa. 

21.  A  GENERAL  LABORER'S  STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  age  ? — A.  35. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  Laborer  (general). 

Q.  What  are  your  weekly  wages  ?— A.  $4.32. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor  ? — A.  56  the  week. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you? — A.  Wife  and  five  children. 

Q.  Did  you  have  any  money  saved  when  you  married  ? — A.  Yes;  $7.30,  and  my  wife 
had  $19.44.     I  have  never  saved  any  since  marriage. 

Q.  How  much  a  week  do  you  pay  for  schooling? — A.  18  ceuts  for  three  children. 
One  has  passed  the  standard,  and  is  at  work  earning  $1.68  per  week  as  a  carriage 
greaser  on  the  Great  Western  Railway.  His  age  is  13.  One  child  is  still  too  young 
for  school.  I  have  found  the  comi)ulsory  education  act  a  hardship,  as  I  could  have  the 
help  of  my  second  boy  now,  and  I  could  have  had  mj^  eldest  at  work  sooner.  Besides,  the 
fees  are  sometimes  hard  for  me  to  pay. 

Q.  How  much  is  your  rent? — A.  $1.32  per  week  for  five-roomed  house,  including 
taxes  and  poor-rates. 

Q.  Does  your  wife  work ? — A.  Yes;  occasionally  she  goes  into  the  factory  to  help 
us  on  a  bit.  Then  she  earns  $2.16  per  week,  but  we  have  to  pay  a  girl  then  84  cents 
to  mind  the  house  and  the  youngest  child.  I  should  say  she  is  at  work  about  half  the 
year,  but  she  does  not  go  unless  we^can't  help  it.  I  could  not  support  my  family  unless 
she  and  the  boy  helped. 

Q.  Will  you  kindly  state  your  weekly  expenses? — A.  As  near  as  I  can  tell,  this  is  it : 
Rent,  $1.32  ;  servant,  42  cents ;  bread,  $1.26  ;  lueat,  48  cents  ;  bacon,  24  ceuts  ;  cheese 
24  cents  ;  butter,  48  cents  ;  milk,  21  cents  ;  vegetables,  12  cents  ;  sugar,  20  cents  ;  tea, 
18  cents;  candles,  14  cents;  coals,  24  cents;  school-fees,  18  cents;  tobacco,  15  cents; 
insurance,  8  cents;  sundries,  54  cents;  total,  $6.52.  My  income  is  $4.32  from  myself, 
$2.16  from  my  wife  half  the  year,  which  makes  $1.08,  and  $1.68  from  my  boy,  altogether 
$7.08.  The  60  cents  difference  between  the  wages  and  exiienses  pays  for  clothes,  and 
so  on.  We  have  10 J  quarterns  of  bread  a  week,  and  we  only  have  fresh  meat  on  Sun- 
days' though  we  have  bacon  or  trotters  or  something  like  that  nearly  every  day.  We 
try  and  never  give  our  children  dry  bread  ;  always  a  bit  of  butter,  or  cheese,  or  jam. 

22.    STATEMENT*   NO.  22,  MADE   BY  THE   V^^IFH   OP   A   PLUMBER. 

Q.  What  are  your  husband's  earnings  ? — A.  Seven  dollars  and  sixty-five  cents  a 
week,  when  he  works  full  time,  which  he  generally  does.  He  gives  me  out  of  this 
from  $1.92  to  $2.88  a  week.     The  rest  he  spends  in  the  public  house. 

Q.  How  large  a  family  have  you? — A.  Six  children.  One  is  at  work  and  supports 
himself.     Three  are  at  school,  and  two  are  almost  babies. 

Q.  Can  you  support  the  family  on  this  sum  ? — A.  No.  I  get  a  little  washing  to  do, 
about  97  cents  a  week,  and  we  get  along  on  this  as  we  can.  We  could  live  very  com- 
fortable if  my  husband  did  not  drink ;  but  I  am  not  worse  off  than  many  of  my  neigh- 

*This  statement  I  procured  at  some  trouble,  as  a  representative  one  of  the  extreme 
improvident  class.  A  large  employer  of  lahor  told  me  that  one  half  his  men  sjient 
each  week  more  than  one-half  their  wages  in  drink,  so  that  this  statement  cannot  be 
regarded  as  very  exceptional.  I  vouch  personally  t^or  its  correctness,  as,  indeed,  I  do 
for  every  statement  presented  here. 


634 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


l)or8.  I  cannot  pay  my  children's  school  fees,  so  I  have  to  go  to  the  poor-rates  for 
that."  My  husbanrt  was  a  teetotaler  for  two  years  once,  and  we  had  everything  com- 
fortal)le.  Of  course,  now  that  he  gives  me  so  little,  we  don't  have  any  more  than  will 
just  do  for  us, 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades  in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TRADES.* 

Bricklayers per  hour. 

Hoii-carriers do . , . 

Masons do . . . 

Tenders do. .. 

Plasterers do. . . 

Tenders do... 

Slaters do... 

Koofers do . . . 

Tenders do . . . 

Plumbers do... 

Assistants do... 

Carpenters do . . . 

Gasfitters do. . . 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers per  week . 

Blacksmiths per  hour. 

Strikers do... 

Bookbinders per  week. 

Brickmakers per  thousand. 

Brewers per  week. 

Brassfounders do.   . 

Cabinet  makers* per  hour. 

Confectioners per  week . 

Coopers per  hour. 

Drivers: 

Teamsters per  week. 

Cab  and  carriage do... 

Street  railways do... 

Dyers do . . . 

Gardeners per  day. 

Jewelers per  week  (about). 

Laborers,  porters,  &c per  week. 

Lithographers do... 

Millwrights do  . . 

Potters do. .. 

Printers do. . . 

Teachers  (public  schools) per  year. 

Sailniakers per  yard. 

Tanners per  week. 

Tailors. per  hour. 

Telegraph  operators per  week. 

Tinsmiths do... 


$0  10 
08 
10 
05 
12 
05 
10 
10 
05 
10 
05 
12 
10 


4  32 
12 
06 

4  86 


4  86 
6  06 

12 
4  32 

14 

4  86 
4  86 
6  10 
3  64 
75 


3  85 

4  86 
6  10 

4  86 

5  59 


5  10 
14 
08 

8  53 


7  30 

6  06 
14 

5  10 
17 

4  86 

5  06 

7  30 
7  30 

87 


4  86 

8  53 

9  72 
14  60 

7  77 


486  00  1 1,458  00 


4  86 

08 

4  86 

4  86 


7  78 

15 

9  73 

6  10 


$0  12 
08 
12 
08 
13 
08 
12 
12 
08 
13 
07 
12 
12 


4  86 

13 

07 

6  80 

2  88 

6  06 

6  06 

13 

4  86 

16 

4  86 
4  86 
6  66 

6  07 
75 

7  30 

4  33 

6  80 

7  30 
7  30 
6  81 

630  00 

02 

6  55 

11 

5  58 
5  46 


■  *  Forty-eight  hours  winter,  fifty- four  summer.  t  Principals. 

•Anybody  can  do  this  in  England,  but  it  is  considered  equivalent  to  being  "on  tbe 
rates,"  and  is  an  indelible  disgrace. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


635 


Comparative  statement  showing  the  hours  worked  per  week,  the  rate  of  wages  per  hour, 
and  the  rate  of  wages  per  iceek  in  the  various  building  trades,  in  twenty  towns  of  Great 
Britain. 


Towns. 


Bristol 

Birjuingham 

Bradford 

Cardiff 

Coventry 

Edinburgh 

Glasgow 

Greenock , 

Hull 

Liverpool 

London 

Leeds 

Manchester 

Northampton 

Nottingham 

Paisley 

Eochdale 

Southampton 

Sheffield     

Staffordshire,     potteries 
district  


Masons. 


Sammer. 


54 

54 

49i 

54 

56J 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52i 

50 

49J 

54 

52 

51 

48i 

56i 

55J 


Ots. 
14 
17 
14 
15 
15 
13 
14 
14 
15 
16 
18 
10 
16 
16 
18 
14 
16 
14 
15 

Hi 


$7  56 
9  18 
6  93 
8  10 
8  47 

6  63 

7  14 
7  14 

7  95 

8  80 

9  45 
8  00 

7  92 

8  64 

9  36 
7  14 
7  76 
7  91 

7  42 

8  05 


"Winter. 


48 

47J 

45 

50J 

51 

45 

40 

44 

47 

45 

47 

50 

44 

50 

42 

42 

(*) 

56^ 

47 

48 


Cts. 
14 
17 
14 
15 
15 
13 
14 
14 
15 
16 
18 
16 
16 
16 
18 
14 
16 
14 
15 


$6  72 
8  11 

6  30 

7  57 
7  65 
5  85 

5  60 

6  16 

6  95 

7  20 

8  46 
8  00 

7  04 

8  00 
7  52 
5  88 


14i  6 


Masons'  tenders. 


Sammer. 


54 

54 

49J 

54 

56i 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52J 

50 

49J 

54 

52 

51 

48J 

56^ 

49i 


Cts. 

8 
10 
10 

9 
10 

9i 

10 
10 

11 

lOi 
12 
10 
10 
10 
12 
10 
10 
8 
10 


$4  32 
5  40 
4  95 
4  86 


"Winter. 


5  77 

6  30 

5  00 

4  95 

5  40 

6  24 

5  10 

4  85 

4  52 

4  95 

48 

47| 

45 

50i 

51 

45 

47 

44 

47 

45 

47 

50 

44 

50 

42 

42 

C) 

56J 

47 


Cts. 

8 
10 
10 

9 
10 

9i 
10 
10 
11 
lOi 
12 
10 
10 
10 
12 
10 
10 

8 
10 


$3  84 
4  77 
4  50 

4  54 

5  10 
4  30 
4  70 

4  40 

5  17 

4  77 

5  64 
5  00 

4  40 

5  00 
5  04 
4  20 


4  52 
4  70 


*  Light  to  dark. 


Towns. 


Brick-laying. 


Bristol 

Birmingham 

Bradford 

Cardiff 

Coventry 

Ediuburgh 

Glasgow 

Greenock 

Hull 

Liverpool 

London 

Leeds 

Manchester 

Northampton 

Nottingham 

Paisley 

Kochdale 

Southampton 

Sheffield 

Staffordshire,  potteries 
district 


Sammer. 


54 

54 

49^ 

54 

564 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52i 

50 

54§ 

54 

54 

51 

48J 


55i 


OU. 
14 
16 
14 
15 
14 
14 
16 
14 
14 
16 
18 
16 
17 


$7  56 
8  64 

6  93 
8  10 

7  91 

7  14 

8  16 
7  14 

7  42 

8  80 

9  45 

8  00 

9  26 


14 

7  56 

16 

8  64 

16 

8  16 

16 

7  76 

14 

7  91 

15 

7  42 

14§ 

8  05 

"Winter. 


48 
45 
45 

51 

42 

40 

44 

47 

47J 

47 

50 

41J 

51 

42 

42 

(*) 

56^ 

47 


Ots. 
14 
16 
14 
15 
14 
14 
16 
14 
14 
16 
18 
16 
17 
14 
16 
14 
10 
14 
15 

14i 


$6  72 
7  20 

6  30 

7  57 
7  14 

5  82 

6  40 
6  16 

6  58 

7  60 

8  46 
8  00 
7  05 
7  14 
6  72 
5  88 


7  91 
7  05 


Hod-carriers. 


Summer. 


54 

54 

49§ 

54 

56* 

51" 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52i 

50' 

54* 

54' 

54 

51 

48J 

56i 


55i 


Cts. 

8 
10 
10 

9 

9i 
10 
11 
10 
11 
lOi 
12 
10 
11 

9 
11 


10 


$4  32 
5  40 
4  95 

4  86 

5  36 
5  10 
5  61 
5  10 
5  83 

5  77 

6  30 

5  00 

6  00 

4  86 

5  94 
4  08 
4  85 
4  52 
4  95 


"Winter. 


8*  4  72 


48 

47i 

45 

50i 

51 

42 

40 

44 

47 

47i 

47 

50 

41i 

51 

42 

42 

(*) 

56i 

47 


Cts. 

8 

10 

10 


10 
11 
10 
11 
lOi 
12 
10 
11 
9 
11 


10 


$3  84 
4  77 
4  50 
4  54 
4  84 
4  20 
4  40 

4  40 

5  17 
5  00 
5  64 
5  00 
4  56 
4  59 
4  62 
3  36 


4  52 
4  70 


4  08 


'  Light  to  dark. 


636  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

Comparative  statement  shoicing  the  hours  worked  per  week,  tf-c. — Continued. 


Towns. 


Bristol 

Birmingham 

Bradford 

Cardiff 

Coventry 

Edinburgh 

Ghisijow 

Greenock 

Hull 

Liverpool 

London  

Leeds 

Manchester 

Northampton! 

Nottingham 

Paisley 

Kochdale 

Southampton 

Sheffield 

Staffordshire,     potteries 
district 


Carpenters  and  joiners. 


Summer. 


54 

54 

49i 

54 

56i 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52^ 

50 

54J 

54 

54 

51 

48J 
56J 
49i 


Ots. 
12 
16 
12i 
15 
14 

■  13 
15 
14 
14 
15 

18 


$6  48 
8  64 

6  12 
8  10 

7  91 

6  63 

7  65 
7  14 

7  42 

8  25 

9  45 


56i   14 


8  72 
7  56 

9  18 

7  14 
7  76 
7  91 
6  93 


Winter. 


48 
45 
49i^ 
50i 
51' 
51 
45 
51 
47 
47i 
r52i 

\m 

50 
47 
51 

h42 
39 

(i) 

56^ 
49i^ 


7  91   50J 


OU. 
12 
16 

^ 

14 

13 

15 

14 

14 

16J 

18 

18 

"Vo" 

14 

17 

17 

14 

16 

14 

14 

14 


$5  76 
7  20 

6  12 

7  57 
7  14 
6  63 

6  75 

7  14 

6  58 

7  83 
9  45 

8  45 

'752" 

7  14 

8  00 
7  14 
5  46 


Plasterers. 


Summer. 


7  91 
6  93 


7  07 


54 

54 

49* 

54" 

56* 

51* 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52J 

49i 

52 

54 


51 

48i 
5Gi 
494 

55J 


OU. 
14 
16 
14 
15 
14 
13 
14 
15 
14 
16 


$7  56 
8  64 

6  93 
8  10 

7  91 

6  63 

7  14 
7  65 

7  42 

8  80 

9  40 

7  92 

8  32 
7  56 


"Winter. 


7  14 
7  76 
7  91 
7  42 


48 

45 

49* 

.50i 

51 

42 

40 

39 

47 

47J 

47 

44 
47 
51 


CU. 


14 

$6  72 

16 

7  20 

14 

6  93 

15 

7  57 

14 

7  14 

13 

5  46 

14 

5  60 

14 

6  58 

16 

7  60 

18 

8  46 

16 
16 

7  04 
7  52 

39 

(*) 
56J 
47 


15       8  25       48        15 


14 

15-16 
14 
15 


5  46 


7  91 
7  05 


7  20 


*  In  the  shop. 


t  Building. 


J  Light  to  dark. 


Towns. 


Bristol  

liirmingham 

Bradf.ird 

Cardiff' 

Coventry 

Edinburgh 

Glasgow 

Greenock 

Hull 

Liverpool  

London  

Leeds 

Manchester 

Northamjiton 

Nott  inghani 

Paisley 

Rochdale 

Southampton 

Sheffield  

Staffordshire,  potteries 
district  


Plasterers'  tenders. 


Summer. 


54 

54 

49i 

54 

56i 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

52  J 

494 

52 

54 


51 

4«i 

494 
55J 


Ots. 

8 
10 
10 

9 

9J 
10 
11 

9i 
11 
11 
12 
11 
114 


$4  32 
5  40 
4  95 

4  86 

5  36 
5  10 
5  65 

4  86 

5  83 

6  05 
6  30 
5  44 
5  98 
4  86 


4  32 
4  85 
4  52 

4  95 

5  55 


Winter. 


Slaters. 


Summer. 


48 

47J 

494 

50* 

51' 

42 

40 

40 

47 

474 

47 

44 

47 

51 


Cts. 

8 
10 
10 

9 

94 
10" 
11 


45 

(t) 
564 

47 

48 


11 
11 
12 
11 
114 


$3  84 
4  77 
4  95 
4  54 
4  84 
4  20 
4  40 

4  86 

5  17 
5  22 
5  64 

4  84 

5  40 
4  59 


4  32 


4  52 
4.70 


4  80 


54 

(*) 

494 

54 

564 

51 

51 

51 

53 

55 

564 

51 

544 


CIS. 
14  $7  56 


51 
494 

(*) 
494 

554 


(*) 
14 
15 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
16 
18 
14 
16 


14 

16 

(*) 

15 

15 


(*) 

6  93 
8  10 

7  91 
7  14 
7  14 
7  14 

7  42 

8  80 
10  17 

7  14 

8  72 


Winter. 


7  14 
7  92 

(*) 

7  42 

8  25 


48 

(*) 

42 

504 

51 

45 

35 

45 

47 

474 

514 

45 

(t) 


45 

(t) 
(*) 
47 

48 


Cts. 
14 

r) 

14 
15 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
16 
18 
14 
16 


14 

16 

C) 

15 


$6  72 
(') 

5  88 
7  57 
7  14 

6  30 
4  90 
6  30 

6  58 

7  60 
9  27 
6  30 


(•) 
7  05 


7  20 


*  Piece-work. 


t  Light  to  dark. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


637 


Comparative  statement  showing  the  hours  worked  per  week,  <fc. — Contiuued. 


Towns. 


Plumbers. 


Summer. 


Bristol 54 

Biriiiin>;ham 56J 

BratU'orJ 49i 

Cardiff 54 

Coveutry 5Ci 

Edinbmgh 51 

Glasgow 54 

Greenock 51 

Hull 53 

Liverpool 55 

Loudon 47 

Leeds :  50 

Mancliostpr j  54J 

I^ortliaiiipton j  54 

Nottingham !  54 

Paisley I  51 

Koclulale !  48i 

Southampton 1  56J 

Sheffield j  4aj 

Staffordshire,      potteries 

district 55i 


OU. 
14 
14 
13 
15 
14 
13 
14 
14 
16 
16 
20 
15 
16 
16 
17 
14 
14 
14 
15 


$7  56 

7  91 

6  43 

8  10 

7  91 

6  63 

7  57 

7  14 

8  48 

8  88 

9  80 

7  50 

8  72 

8  66 

9  18 
7  14 

6  79 

7  91 
7  42 


Winter. 


48 
50i 
49| 

51 

46 

48 

51 

47 

474 

47 

50 

47 

51 

47i 

50 

48i 

56i 

47 


15     8  25       48  15     7  20 


Cts. 
14 
14 
13 
15 
14 
13 
14 
14 
16 
16 
20 
15 
16 
16 
17 
14 
14 
14 
15 


$6  72 
7  07 

6  43 

7  57 
7  14 

5  98 

6  72 

7  14 
I  7  52 

7  60 
9  80 
7  50 

7  52 

8  16 
I  8  07 
i  7  00 
1  6  79 

7  91 
7  05 


Painters. 


Summer. 


54 

56i 

52 

54 

56J 

51 

56 

56 

53 

55 

52i 

56 

54J 

54 

56 

56 

A% 

564 

494 

554 


P^ 


cu. 

14 

14 

14 

14 

134 

14 

14 

14 

14 

144 

17 

14 

14 

14 

16 

14 

15 

14 

16 


$7  56 


91 

28 

56 

62 

14 

84 

84 

7  42 

7  97 

9  80 

7  50 

7  63 

7  56 

8  96 
7  84 
7  42 
7  91 
7  92 


Winter. 


48 

504 

44 

504 

51 

39 

39 

40 

47 

474 

48 

(*) 

47 

48 


15       8  25 


Ota. 
14 
14 
13 
14 
134 
14 
14 
14 
14 

144  I 
17 
14 
14 
13 


$6  72 
7  07 

5  72 

7  07 

6  88 
5  46 
5  46 

5  60 

6  58 
6  88 

8  16 


6  58 
6  24 


5  60 


7  91 
6  30 


7  20 


*  Light  to  dark. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men) — distinguishing  between  ocean  and  coast 
navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.   Average. 


Ocean  navigation  (steam) : 

Mates 

Second  mates 

Boatswains 

Able-bodied  seamen... 

Ordinary  seamen 

Steward 

Cook 

Cabin  boy 

Chief  engineer 

Second  engineer 

Third  engineer 

Donkeymen 

Firemen 

Ocean  navigation  (sail) : 

Mates 

Second  mates 

Boatswains  

Seamen 

Steward 

Cook ;.. 

Cook  ani  steward 

Cabin  boy 

Coast  navigation  (steam)  : 

Masters 

Mates  

Second  mates 

Seamen 

Steward 

Cook 

Chief  engineer 

Second  engineer 

Firemen 

Carpenters 

Donkeymen 

Quartermasters 

Coast  navigation  (sail) : 

Masters 

Mates 

Seamen 

Cook 


$43  80 

29  20 

19  46 

17  02 

4  86 


9  73 
68  13 
48  66 
29  20 
19  46 

18  23 

31  62 
21  89 

19  46 
14  60 
14  59 
14  59 
21  89 


9  73 
7  53 


14  60 
9  75 


7  30 


19  46 
14  59 
17  00 
17  00 


$48  66 
34  06 
20  67 
18  34 
14  59 


77  86 
58  38 
39  00 

20  67 
19  46 

43  79 
29  20 

21  89 


29  20 
24  33 
29  20 


11  00 
8  25 


15  80 
11  00 


7  55 


34  06 
24  33 
17  00 
19  46 


$45  20 
31  60 
20  00 

17  62 
9  73 

29  19 

24  33 
9  73 

73  00 
53  50 
34  06 
20  10 

18  80 

37  70 

25  50 

20  60 
14  60 

21  89 

19  46 
24  30 

7  30 

*25  50 

10  35 

7  75 

6  07 

14  61 
t3  50 

15  20 
10  37 

6  31 

7  30 
6  31 
6  55 

29  19 
19  46 
17  00 
17  00 


'  Some  perquisites  usually  attach  to  this  position. 


And  "  found  "  entirely. 


638 


BABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


printers'  wages. 

Statement  showhuj  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  fiftii-four  hours  to  printers  {compositors ^ 

pressmen,  ^-c.)  in  Bristol. 


Occnpations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Compositors : 

Job  printing 

Weekly  papers 

Daily  i)apers 

Overtime,  per  hour  . 

Macliinenien 

Pressmen 

Boys 

Ste'reotypers 


$5  59 


14 
6  81 


1  22 
6  81 


$7  77 


18 
10  52 


2  92 

8  51 


$6  81 

7  30 

9  23 

16 

7  77 

6  81 
1  70 

7  30 


CHEMICAL  WORKS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-six  hours  in  chemical  toorksin  Bristol. 


Occapations. 


Chambermen 

Kilnmen 

Skilled  laborers 

"Unskilled  laborers 

Furnacemen 

Assistant  furnacemen  (unskilled) 
Engineers 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


$7  02 
7  02 
6  56 

5  59 

6  81 


6  06 


$10  70 

10  70 

8  51 

6  07 

8  76 


8  76 


Average. 


$8  51 
8  51 
7  02 
5  83 

7  78 
5  83 

8  30 


STONEWARE  WORKS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  stoneware  ti'orkers  in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Throwers  * 

Turners  * 

Tli|)pcrs  t 

Kiln  setters  t 

I'liskilled  laborers 
-Boys 


$8  50 
8  50 
4  86  I 
4  86  I 
3  89  1 


$14  60 

14  60 

5  83 

5  83 

4  37 


$9  73 
9  73 
5  34 
5  34 
4  13 
1  70 


*  Must  pay  out  of  their  wages  from  $1.45  to  $2.45  per  week  for  boys  or  steam-power.  Two  boysnec- 
essary,  but  in  one  pottery  here  8team-])ower  has  been  introduced,  dispensing  with  one  boy.  The  op- 
eratives pay  the  principal  24  cents  per  day  each  for  the  steam-power. 

t  One-seventh  of  the  wages  given  accrue  as  overtime.    The  average  would  not  be  $5.34  for  only 

hours  per  wce.k.  ICverytliing  is  ])i((e-work  in  this  trade,  and  there  is  great  scope  for  ability  and 
quickness.  The  ra])i(l  and  skillful  men  who  cau  earn  $15  per  week,  as  a  rule,  will  not  work  full  time, 
and  they  waste  their  earnings  during  their  idleness. 

RAILWAY  EMPLOY]&S. 

Wages  per  tveek  to  railway  employes  in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Locomotive  engineers 
Locomotive  tiremon  . . 
Conductors  : 

Passenger 

Freight 

Porters  t •  . 

Laborers  (navvies)  . . . 


Highest. 


$12  16 

7  78 

9  73 

6  80 

4  86 

5  58 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


639 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty  hours  in,  and  in  connection  wiili,  coal  mines  in  Gloucestershire 
in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol,  England. 

MINES  AND  MINING. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Hewers 

Trammers  and  drivers . . 

Braiicliors 

Ouaettera , 

Repairers 

Road-makers 

Eun;ineers 

Stokers 

Smitiis  and  fitters 

Carpenters  and  sawyers 

Masons 

Laborers 


3  66 

5  58 

4  62 

4  86 

5  46 
5  22 
5  22 
4  86 

4  86 

5  10 
3  64 


$8  01 

4  86 
7  30 

5  22 
5  88 

5  94 

6  56 

5  88 

6  07 
6  07 
5  83 
4  86 


$5  34 
4  62 
0  36 

4  86 

5  22 

5  58 

6  07 
5  58 
5  58 
5  5& 
5  58 
4  13 


SHIP-BUILDINa. 
Wages  paid  per  week  in  the  iron  ship-huilding  and  repairing  trade  at  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Shipwrights 

Iron-workers 

Fitters 

Blacksmiths 

Anjfle-iron  smiths 

Iron  calkers  and  helpers 

Platers'  helpers 

Ship-joiners 

Fitters'  helpers 

Laborers 


$8  64 
8  64 

8  64 
7  92 

9  36. 
7  20 

6  4g 

7  92 
6  48 
5  76 


STEVEDORES. 

Wages  paid  per  day  or  hour,  as  the  case  may  he,  to  stevedores  in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Remai'ks. 

Handling  lumber per  day . . 

Handlinglnmber do 

Handling  mixed  cargoes per  hour.. 

Handling  mixed  cargoes  (steam  winchmen)  per 
hour. 

Hoisting  grain per  100  bushels . . 

Putting  grain  in  hold* do 

Carrying  grain* do 

Warehousemen per  week . . 

$0  97 

1  09 

10 

$1  09 
1  21 

12 

12 

During  winter  months,  7  a.  ra. 

to  5  p.  m.,  IJ  hours  for  meals. 
During    summer   months,    2 

hours  and  20  minutes  rest. 
Light  to  dark. 
Do. 

6 

9 

9 

5  10 

Average  $1.46  per  day. 
Average  $2.19  per  day. 
Do. 

6  56 

Ten  hours  daily. 

*  Vefy  severe  work  ;  men  rarely  stand  it  for  more  than  three  years.  The  average  given  means  in 
all  these  cases  during  .steady  work.  At  present  writing  stevedorVs  are  idle  at  least  oue-third  of  their 
time,  hence  their  true  yearly  earning  is  only  two-thirds  of  what  the  above  figures  would  lead  u.s  tosup- 
])08e  The  employer  insures  all  his  men,  and  when  injuied  they  receive  $7.30  per  week  from  the  com- 
pany. This  may  be  considered  a  fair  average  of  what  they  would  earn.  The  premium  charged  for 
this  is  three-fourths  of  1  per  cent. 


640 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

II.  Factories,  mills,  etc. 


Wages  paid  jyer  weeic  of  fifty-six  hours  in  ivoolen-clofh  factories  in  Troivbridfje,  Wiltshire, 
in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol. 

IFactory  No.  1,  emplovins  COO  hands— 100  men,  400  women,  and  100  lads  and  girls  under  15.    "Weekly 
tumont,  250  pieces  of  cloth,  making  12,500  yards  weekly  or  625,000  yards  annually.] 


Occupations. 


"Wool-sorters 

Scourers per  cwt 

Dyers 

Tuckers 

Carders 

Mule-spinners 

Selt-actors,  spinners 

"Warpers 

Doubl^rs 

"Weavers 

"Washers  and  driers 

Brayers 

Menders,  hurlers,  and  spUers 

Mill  men 

Dresser  with  teazels 

Tenterers - 

Cutters  andbrushers 

Pressers,  steamers,  and  packers 

Engine  drivers 

Engineers 

Loom-fltters 

Carters 

Clerks 


Lowest. 


$1  94 


2 
4  37 

2  91 

3  65 

4  86 
4  86 

6  07 
t2  43 

4  13 
2  18 
4  13 

tl  94 
2  91 

X2  43 
4  37 
2  43 

2  91 

3  65 

7  30 

4  37 
3  65 
7  30 


$2  18 
*8  50 
*7  30 

4  37 
*12  16 

6  80 

6  80 

8  50 

t2  91 

5  82 
3  65 

5  34 
t3  40 

6  07 
*7  10 

5  30 

6  30 

6  07 

7  30 

8  50 
*8  50 

3  89 
12  16 


Average. 


$1  94 
5  10 
5  10 

3  65 
8  50 
5  82 

5  82 

6  30 
2  43 

5  10 

2  91 

4  13 
t2  43 

4  37 
4  37 
4  37 
4  13 
4  86 
4  86 

8  50 

6  07 

3  64 

9  73 


*Foremen. 


t  All  women. 


X  Lads. 


Wages  paid  by  the  week  of  fifty-six  hours  in  woolen-cloth  factories  in  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire, 
in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol. 

(Factory  No.  2,  employing  210  hands — 60  men,  100  women,  and  50  children  under  15.    "Weekly  outturn 
4,500  yards,  or  225,000  yards  annually.] 


Occupations. 


"Wool-sorters 

Scourers 

Dyers 

Tuckers 

Carders 

Mule-spinners 

Self-actors,  spinners 

Warpers 

Doublers 

"Weavers : 

AVomen 

Men 

"Washers  and  driers 

Bracers 

Menders,  burlers,  and  spilers 

Mill  men  or  fullers 

Dressers 

Tentorcrs 

Cutters  and  hrushers 

Prrssi  IS  and  packers 

Eni;inc  drivers 

Engineers 

Loom-fitters 

Carters 

Clerks 

Smith 


Lowest. 


$1  70 
4  37 
4  37 
4  40 

3  89 
6  07 
6  07 

4  86 

3  16 

2  91 
6  07 

4  37 

3  90 
t2  43 

4  37 
♦1  94 

4  37 

tl  94 

4  37 

6  07 

7  30 

6  07 
3  90 

7  30 
7  30 


Highest. 

$2  91 

4  86 

4  86 

3  89 

*12  16 

8  50 

!    8  50 

6  07 

3  40 

4  86 

7  30 

5  10 

5  10 

t2  43 

6  07 

*7  30 

6  07 

*7  30 

6  07 

8  50 

8  50 

8  50 

3  90 

12  16 

8  50  1 

Average. 


$2  43 
4  62 
4  62 

3  89 
8  50 
7  30 
7  30 

4  86 

3  40 

4  37 

6  07 

5  10 
4  86 

t2  91 

4  86 
J  2  91 

5  34 
J2  91 

5  34 

7  30 

8  50 

7  30 
§3  90 
10  94 

8  50 


*  Foremen. 


t  All  women. 


I  Lads. 


§  Standing  wages. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 


641 


Wages  paid  per  rveek  of  fifty-six  hours  in  woolen-cJoth  factories  in  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire, 
in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol, 

[Factory  No.  3,  employing  420  hands— 100  men,  300  women,  and  20  lads.     "Weekly  outturn  7,500  yards, 

or  375,000  yards  annually.] 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average" 


Wool-sorters 

Scourers 

Dyers 

Tiickt'rs 

CardiTS  (roudensers) 

Mule-spinners  

Self-actors,  spinners 

Warpers 

Weavers : 

Women 

Men 

Washers  and  driers 

Brayers 

Barters,  menders,  spilers. 

Millmen  or  fullers 

Dressers 

Tenterers    

Cutters  and  brusliers 

Pressers  and  packers 

Engine  drivers 

Engineers 

Loom-fitiers 

Carters 

Clerks 

Smitii 

Doublers 


$1  94 
4  8G 
3  40 
2  91 

2  91 
8  50 

♦2  30 

3  90 

2  43 

3  90 

4  37 
4  37 

J]  70 
4  37 

§1  21 
2  91 
2  91 
2  18 

2  91 

3  40 

4  37 

3  89 

4  8G 


:2  30 


$1  94 

4  86 
tl2  16 
4  62 
6  30 
8  50 
t2  30 

3  90 

4  13 

4  86 
4  37 
4  37 

J  2  91 
4  37 

t4  86 

3  40 
U4  60 

4  37 

6  07 

7  78 

6  07 
3  89 

12  16 

7  30 
+  2  80 


*$1  94 

*4  86 

4  37 

3  40 

6  30 

*8  50 

J2  30 

*3  90 

3  40 

4  37 
*3  37 
*4  37 
+  2  18 
*4  37 
§1  70 

3  40 

4  37 

3  40 

4  37 
4  86 
4  86 

*3  89 


7  30 
U  43 


*  Standing  wages. 


t  Foremen 


J  Women 


§  Lads. 


Statistics  of  a  ivoolen  mill  in  Trowhridgs,  Wiltshire,  in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol,  shoiv- 
ing  the  number  of  hands  employed  in  the  different  kinds  of  work,  the  wacjes  of  each,  and  the 
average  wages  of  all. 


Occupations. 

No. 

Wages 
per  week. 

Total. 

WOMEN. 

2' 
10 
16 

5 
60 
40 

$2  43 
2  07 

2  43 

3  40 
3  40J 
2  92 

$4  86 
20  70 
38  88 

Self-actor  piecers 

004  30 

Burlers,  menders,  &c 

116  80 

Total 

133 

402  54 

Avei'age  wages 

5  02.6 

XIEX. 

2 
3 
2 
2 
3 
24 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
3 
1 
1 
8 

4  62 

4  62 

3  89 
7  30 

4  86 
4  38 
4  86 

9  24 

13  86 
7  78 

14  60 
14  58 

105  12 
14  58 

6  07 

7  30 
7  30 

10  68 
14  60 

Tuckers 

Weavers 

Brayers 

Dresser,  fore7uan 

Cutter,  foreman ... 

Piessers .                                             

5  34 

7  30 
7  30 

Engine  driveis ... 

Loom-litters  

94  90 

Engineer 

8  51 

Smith 

8  51 

Carders .            ....                     .       

8  51 

68  08 

Total 

59 

332  71 

Average  wages 

5  64 

92  A— LAB- 


-41 


642  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Statistics  of  a  woolen  mill  in  Trotvhridge,  ^-c. — Continued. 


Occupations. 


No.       '^ages 
per  week, 


TotaL 


"Warpers 
Carders . . 
Dressers  . 
Cutters  . 
Smith  ... 
Weavers  . 
Dver 


$1  58 
2  43 
1  94 
1  94 


2  92 


$6  32- 
9  72 

13  58 

11  64 
2  43 

29  20 
1  46- 


Total 

Average  wages. 


74  3& 


2  25i 


Aggregate $809  60 

Average  wages,  men  and  women  together 3  83 

Average  wages,  men,  women,  and  boys  together 3  59.  S 

Statistics  of  anothei  woolen  mill  in  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire,  in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol. 
Table  showing  the  number  of  hands  employed  in  the  different  kinds  of  work,  the  wage» 
of  each,  and  the  average  wages  of  all. 


Occupations. 


No.  I   "^^ees 
per  week. 


Total. 


Wool-sorters 

Carder-feeders 

Selfactor  piecers 

Doublers 

Weavers  

Menders,  burlers,  &c  . 


3 

30 
24 
11 
280 
70 


$1  94 
1  70 

1  82 

2  43 
2  91 
2  43 


$5  8? 
51  00 
43  6& 
26  73 
814  80 
170  10 


Total 

Average 


2  66 


1, 112  li 


Scourers 

Dyers 

Tuckers 

Carders 

Mule-spinners  

Warpers 

Weavers  (broad  looms) . 

Brayers •-.- 

Millers 

Dressers  (teazel  gigs)  •  - 

Tenterers 

Cutters  and  brusbers  .. 
Pressei  s  and  steamers  . 

Packers  

Engine  drivers 

Loom -titters 

Carters 

Clerks 

Engineers 


5  10 
5  10 

3  65 
8  50 

5  83 

6  32 

5  10 

4  13 
4  37 
4  37 
4  37 
4  13 
4  86 
4  86 
4  86 

6  07 
3  65 

7  30 

8  50 


30  60 
45  90 
10  95 
42  50 
116  60 

37  92 
204  00 

12  3» 
8  74 
17  48 

8  74 
33  04 

38  88 
29  16 

9  72 

72  84 
7  30 

73  UO 
17  00 


Total 

Average  . 


816  7e 


5  44i 


Scourers  

Dyer 

Tucker  

Self-actor  piecers. 

Warpers 

Carders 

Doublers 

Weavers 

Brayers 

Dressers  (teazels) 

Cutters 

Carters,  &c 

Millers  


2  19 
2  19 

2  19 
1  82 

1  21 

2  92 
2  4;i 
2  92 
2  43 
2  4;{ 
2  43 
2  43 
2  43 


4  3& 
2  19 
2  19 

7  26 
7  26 

14  60 
7  29 

35  04 
4  86 

38  88 

29  16 
9  72 
4  8ft 


Total  .... 
Average 


70 


167  61 


2  39.6 


Six  hundred  and  thirty-eight  in  all,  averaging  each  $3.28.6,  makes  $2,096.60. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  643 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  Jifty-six  hours  in  a  chocolate  and  cocoa  manufactory  in  Bristol. 


OccupatioDR. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Beginuers 

More  expei'ieuced  hands 

SuperintiMidents 

Time-keeper 

Lads  and  youths 

Younger  lads 

Sagar-boilerst     

"Workers  in  confectionery  departmentt 

Youths  in  confectionery  departmentt  

Machine  box-makerst 

Hand  box-niakerst 

Packerst 

WOMEN.  J 

Cocoa  packers  and  labelers§ 

Younj;  jjirls  with  packers|| 

Girls  engaged  iu  the  chocolate  cream  manufacturing,  packing  in  fancy 
boxes,  &c.^ 


$3  84 
4  86 
6  06 
0  06 
2  43 
97 


2  95 
1  20 


2  43 


6  06 

7  74 
7  74 

3  87 
2  43 
9  00 
9  00 

4  32 
7  62 
7  43 
7  77 


3  07 
1  52 


3  64 


$4  32 
r>  45 
7  30 

7  30 
3  20 
1  68 

8  14 
8  14 
3  96 
7  25 

6  06 

7  43 


3  00 


*  Most  of  the  men  frequently  work  overtime,  and  consequently  earn  more  than  the  rates  specified 
above.  There  are  also  certain  allowances  (including  a  bonu.s  of  12  cents  per  week  to  men  and  6  cents 
to  boys  for  punctual  attendance)  which  are  practically  equivalent  to  an  increase  of  wages  of  about  24 
cents  per  week  to  men  and  12  cents  per  week  to  boys. 

t  All  piece-work. 

X  Many  of  the  women  only  work  fifty  hours.  Then  they  get  as  follows :  Packers,  $1.92  to  $2.67  ;  young 
assistants,  $1.08  to  $1.32;  girls  making  chocolate  creamsand  in  packing,  &c.,  $1.20  to  $2.43  per  week. 

§  Aged  sixteen  to  twenty-five. 

II  Aged  about  fourteen. 

IX.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  hours  in  various  kinds  of  retail  stores  to  males 

and  females  in  Bristol 


Occupations. 


Dry-goods  salesmen : 

Saleswoment . .' 

Head  sewing  women  in  work-room:J: 

Sewing  women§ 

Apprentices  in  work-room|| 

Stationery  salesmen 

Shoe  shop  salesmenlT 

Shoe  shop  saleswomen 

Fancy  stores  salesmen 

Druggists' clerks 

Carpet  and  furniture  salesmen . . . . 

Commercial  travelerstt 

Retail  salesmen  in  all  branches  may  be  considered  to  receive  about  . . 
Ketail  saleswomen  in  all  branches  maybe  considered  to  receive  about 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


$3  72 

1  87 

2  80 
1  45 


4  86 

3  16 
1  70 

4  37 

5  83 
3  16 
9  73 


*$28  00 
9  33 
9  33 
3  40 


10  95 

9  73 

7  30 

10  95 

**9  75 

*19  46 

48  66 


Average. 


$6  06 

3  16 

4  86 
2  18 

24 
7  00 

4  86 
2  92 

6  07 

7  30 

5  34 


3  16 


*  Managers. 

t  Hours  8  to  6  or  7.  In  the  larger  and  better  establishments  all  sleep  and  board  under  same  roof 
as  the  store.  Comfortable  quarters  are  provided  by  the  proprietors.  The  table  linen  and  service  is 
neat  and  even  elegant.  Two  weeks'  holiday  is  generally  given  each  summer,  with  pay,  besides  three 
days  at  Christmas,  one  at  Easter,  one  at  Whitsuntide,  and  one  at  midsummer.  Apprenticing  prevails  ; 
premium  about  $205  in  a  first-okiss  establishment.  Part  of  this  is  returned,  if  deserved,  in  the  third 
year;  but  nominally  wages  don't  begin  till  fourth  year. 

I  Board  and  lodge  on  tlie  premises  usually. 

§  Hours  8.30  to  7.30;  Saturdivy,  4.  One  hour  for  dinner;  one-half  hour  for  tea.  Tea,  bread  and 
butter  found  by  firm  for  this  latter  meal,  but  sewing-women,  unlike  saleswomen,  must  provide  them- 
selves with  breakfast,  dinner,  and  lodging  away  from  the  establishment.  All  work-rooms  are  under 
Government  inspection,  and  a  note  from  any  worker  brings  an  inspector  to  in(iuire  into  grievance. 
The  number  of  workers  is  limited  according  to  space.  Government  very  strict  as  to  hours  of  closing 
on  Saturday.  Other  days,  may  detain  workers  an  aggregate  of  twenty-eight  days  in  the  year  by  fill- 
ing  up  forms  for  inspection. 

II  Apprentices  generally  indentured  for  three  years.  "Wages  as  above  the  first  ye.ar;  after  that  ac- 
cording to  ability. 

II  Women  much  more  employed  in  all  shops  than  in  America.  Many  very  nice-class  stores  are  at- 
tended by  wife  or  daughters  of  proprietor. 

**  Those  who  have  passed  all  three  examinations. 

tt  An  allowance  of  about  $5  per  day  for  all  expenses  is  generally  made. 


644 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND, 

X.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  annum  to  domestic  servants  in  Bristol. 


Occupations. 


I 
Lowest.    Highest.    Average, 


Butlers $97  33 

Footnipn 97  33 

Coachmen i  97  33 

Women  cooks ,  48  66 

Parlor  mnids 48  06 

House  maids  38  93 

Scullery  maids i  29  20 

Pages i  14  60 

General  women  servants* i  39  00 


$486  00 
146  00 
292  00 
146  00 
lie  00 
116  00 
48  00 
97  00 
116  00 


$146  00 
112  00 
146  00 
97  33 
87  59 
73  00 
39  00 
39  00 
77  00 


*  A  mistalien  idea  prevails  in  the  United  States  that  domestic  servants  are  better  in  England  than 
there  :  but  as  a  rule  tbe  best  girls  are  the  country  girls,  who  are  generally  engaged  by  the  laudlords 
or  country  gentlemen  ;  therefore  the  towns  are  ill-supplied.  The  servant  question  is  the  question  with 
housekeepers  in  England  just  as  much  as  in  the  United  States. 

XI.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week,  or  year,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  agricultural  laborers  and  houseliold  {coun- 
try) servants  in  the  consular  district  of  Bristol;  with  or  without  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 


Farm  laborers . 

Do 

Do 


Do. 


Carters 

Boys  to  help  carters 

Women  in  the  field  at  harvest. 
Women  in  the  field  ordinarily. . 


Dairymaids,  per  annum 

Ordinary  house  servants,  per  annum. 

Boys  to  plow,  per  annum 

Piece  woik : 

Hoeing  and  cleaning  wheat 

Hoeing  })eas,  l)eans,  turnips,  roots 

Cutting  wlieat,  stacking,  tying 

Mowing  l)arley,  oats 

Mowing  grass 

Mowing  clover 

Hedging  and  ditching 

Tliatching  a  mow 


Potato  i)lauting  by  hand 

Potato  digging  (includes  sorting) 


SOMERSETSHIRE. 


Farm  laborer. 

Do 

Women  in  the  lield . 


Boys  — 
Cirters 


WILTSHIRE   AXU    DORSBTSHIUE. 

Farmlaborer 

Do 

Do  


$2  91 
2  43 


77  86 
39  00 
48  66 


97 

1  95 

85 


2  91 
2  91 


97 
2  92 


2  43 
2  43 
2  43 


Highest. 


$4  37 
2  91 


97  00 
59  00 
58  00 


1  21 

2  19 
97 


4  37 
4  37 


1  45 
4  37 


3  64 

2  91 

3  64 


Average. 


Kemarks. 


$3  65     Summer,  12  hours  per  day. 

2  91     Winter,  9  houis  per  day. 
4  37     Haymaking  or  wheat  harvest. 

No  food  or  drink,  and  6  cents 
per  hour  after  6  in  the  even- 
ing. 

3  64  Haymaking  or  wheat  harvest 
with  two  meals  and  beer  or 
cider. 

3  10  1  With  cottage,  garden,  and  beer. 

.75  j  Live  in  liouse,  and  all  found. 
2  18     Don't  work  as  a  regular  thing. 
1  14  I  Harvest    or    great     pressure. 
I       Sometimes  food  and  drink  in 
addition. 
And  all  found. 
Do. 
Do. 

Per  acre. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Per  perch. 
Per  mow  of  about  20  tons,  and 

all  found. 
Per  acre. 

Do. 


And  cider  or  ale;  summer,  10 
pints ;  winter,  8  to  9. 

At  harvest ;  sometimes  food 
and  always  drink. 

And  cider"  or  ale ;  somtimes 
food. 

And  found. 

Cottage,  large  garden  or  allot- 
ment, and  cider  or  ale. 


Summer,  10  hours  per  day. 
2  67  '  Winter,  9  hours  per  day. 
2  91   I  Harvest,  12  hours  per  day. 


87  00 
49  00 
53  53 

1 

21 

i 

1 

2i' 
85 
12 
21 

9 
9 

73 
73 

3 

05 

3 

05 

1 

46 

1 
3 

21 
65 

2 

91 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 


645 


Wages  paid  per  week  or  year,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  ayricultiiral  laborers  and  household 
(country)  servants,  tfc — Continued. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Kemarks. 

WlLTSHUlE  AND  DOUSETSHIUE— Cont'd. 

$2  92 

2  66 
1  46 
1  46 

Cottage,  large  garden  or  allot- 
ment,  and  ale,  and  $7.30  at 
Michaelmas. 

Women  in  the  field            

excepting  extra  money. 

Bovs 

$1  21 

$1  70 

food. 

Note. — All  rates  are  per  week  unless  .specified  as  per  annum. 

COST   OF   THE   NECESSARIES   OF   LIFE. 

Table  showing  the  cost  of  the  necessaries  of  life  in  Bristol  and  in  Trowbridge  (a  small  man- 
ufacturing toivn  in  Wiltshire),  particular  attention  being  j^aid  to  those  items  most  in  request 
by  the  working  classes. 


Articles. 


Bristol. 


Trowhridge. 


Rent  of  a  laborer's  cottage  (four  to  six  rooms) 

Linen  (brown  Holland) per  yard. 

Cotton do. .. 

Boots : 

Strong  and  lieavy per  pair. 

Women's  strong  and  heavy do. .. 

Suit :  Respectable  best  suit,  lasts  for  years 

Hats ■. 

Dress  goods: 

Cheaper  kinds  about  one-half  as  much  as  in  tholUriited  States. 

Better  kinds,  about  one-third  less  than  in  the  United  States. 
Bacon  : 

English per  pound. 

American do  .. 

Beef: 

Prime  joint do 

Poorer  joint do... 

Bread 4-pound  loaf. 

Butter per  pound . 

Butteriue do 

Backbones  and  cuttings  from  pigs do... 

Baked  fagots  made  from  liver each . 

Cheese per  pound. 

Cocoa,  poor  quality do 

Cofl'ee,  poor  quality do. .. 

Chitterlings  (made  from  inferior  and  waste  part  of  pigs) do  . . 

Ear  pieces  (pigs) do . . . 

Eggs       per  dozen . 

Fresh  lish  : 

Mackerel each. 

Whiting per  pound. 

Sole do... 

Flounders do. .. 

Herring each . 

Lard per  pound 

Liver do . . . 

Milk per  quart. 

Mutton  : 

Best  parts per  pound. 

Inferior  parts do. .. 

Pork do . . . 

Pig's  feet each. 

Peas,  dried per  quart. 

Rice I'cr  pound . 

Sausages do . . . 

Saveloys  (chopped  cooked  meat) each . 

Sugar per  pound. 

Tripe do... 

Tea do... 

Treacle  or  molasses do. .. 

Trotters  (cooked) each. 


$0  97  to  $1  70 

10  to   24 

8  to    10 

1  70  to  4  86 

48  to  2  43 

9  73  to  14  60 

48  to  1  45 


16  to 


$0  60to$l  45 

10  to  24 

8  to  10 

1  70  to  4  86 

48  to  2  43 

{*) 

48  to  1  45 


20 

18 

14 

14 

26 

24 

20 

18 

12 

10 

26 

25 

18 

18 

04 

04 

01 

01 

25 

$0  14to$0  25 

10 

10 

24 

24 

08 

06 

09 

08 

36 

22 

02 

04 

15 

17 

32 

35 

12 

15 

01 

01 

14 

12 

08 

06 

08 

06 

30 

28 

20 

20 

18 

18 

02 

02 

08 

08 

06 

04 

20 

18 

02- 

02 

05 

05 

12 

10 

48 

48 

05 

05 

02 

02 

646 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


CARLISLE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR-AGENT  BROTVN. 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades  per  toeek  of  fifty-four  hours  in  Carlisle. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TBADEB. 

Brick-laver8 

$6  56 
4  38 
7  29 
4  38 

6  07 

4  86 

5  32 

7  29 

4  86 
7  05 
7  05 

5  59 
5  34 

3  65 
7  29 

5  32 

6  56 
5  83 

4  86 

4  86 
2  92 

14  60 

5  34 
4  38 

6  56 
4  38 
6  07 
2  43 
6  56 

195  00 
6  56 

4  86 
*6  07 

2  44 

5  69 

$9  73 

6  07 
9  73 
5  34 
9  73 

5  34 

7  29 
9  73 

7  29 

8  02 
8  02 

14  60 
7  78 
4  38 
7  78 

7  29 

8  75 

6  56 
6  56 

6  56 
4  86 

29  19 

7  29 
14  60 

7  29 
6  07 

9  73 
4  86 

8  75 
1,  947  00 

9  73 
8  50 

$8  14 

5  22 

8  50 

4  86 

Plasterers 

7  90 

5  10 

Slaters  

6  30 

8  50 

6  07 

Carpenters 

7  53 

Gas-fitters 

7  53 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Eaters 

10  09 

6  56 

4  00 

7  53 

6  30 

«Jab,  carriage,  and  street  

Engravers '. 

Gardeners 

Hatters 

3  65 

7  00 

Teachers,  public  school per  annum.. 

1,  071  00 
8  14 

6  68 

Telegraph  operators 

11  00 
7  30 

6  72 

6  50 

*  And  by  piece-work. 

II.  Factories,  mills,  etc. 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  offifly-four  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Carlisle. 


Occupations. 


Engineers 

Firemen 

Weavers : 

Women  and  girls . . . 

Men , 

Winders 

Tacklers  or  loom-fitters 

Oilers 

Beamers 

Twisters 

Sweepers 

Clerks 

Junior  clerks 

Designers , 

Warpers 

Sizers 


Lowest. 


$6  07 
4  86 

85 

2  43 
73 

6  56 

3  16 
3  65 
3  65 
1  94 

6  07 
1  46 

14  60 
3  65 

7  30 


Highest. 


$8  00 

5  34 

4  38 
4  86 
3  40 
9  73 
3  65 

6  07 
6  07 
2  19 

29  19 
6  07 

29  19 
9  73 
9  73 


Average. 


$7  00 

5  10 

2  60 

3  64 

2  06 
8  14 

3  40 

4  86 
4  86 

2  06 
17  63 

3  76 
21  00 

6  50 
8  50 


I 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

III.  Foundries,  maohine-shops,  and  iron  works. 


647 


Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  fifty-four  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in 

Carlisle. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Titters 

$6  56 

5  34 
3  65 

6  56 
3  89 

5  34 

3  05 

4  86 

6  56 

6  56 

7  05 

3  89 

4  86 

3  89 
2  92 

4  86 

$7  78 
8  02 

5  83 
7  78 
4  62 
7  78 
4  62 

7  78 

6  80 

8  02 
8  02 
4  38 

4  86 
6  56 

5  10 
5  10 

$7  29 
7  29 

5  10 

7  05 

4  38 

6  32 

4  13 

7  05 

6  80 

7  05 

7  53 

4  13 

4  86 

4  86 

4  62 

Carters 

4  86 

ly.   EAILWAY  EMPLOYl&S. 

Wages  paid  per  day,  week,  or  month,  as  may  be,  to  railway  employe's  (those  engaged  about 
stations, as  well  as  those  engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <^'c.) 
in  Carlisle,  England. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

ForetDen  surfacemen  (linemen) 

$5  10 

4  13 
8  51 

5  83 

4  62 

5  10 
4  86 

$5  83 

4  38 
10  21 

7  29 

5  83 
5  34 
5  59 

$5  46 

Under  surfacemen  (linemen)   ., 

4  25 

Drivers 

9  36 

Guards      

6  56 

Porters 

5  27 

"Checkers ..            

5  22 

Carters ..                       

5  22 

y.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Carlisle, 
England,  ivith  or  without  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$219  00 

127  00 

49  00 

78  00 

$244  00 
155  00 
73  00 
117  00 

Average. 


Husbandmen  (married) 

Laborers  (iuclndiug  board) 

Boys  (includiu  tit  board)    

Female  servants  (including  board) 


$231  00 

141  00 

61  00 

97  00 


yi.  Printers  and  printing  offices. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  tveek  of  fifty-four  hours  to  printers  in  Carlisle,  England. 


Occupations. 

Lowest 

Highest. 

Average. 

$5  34 
6  56 

$7  30 
8  75 

$6  32 

7  15 

648  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

CORNWALL. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  FOX,  OF  FALMOUTH. 

Part  1. — Male  Labor. 

(1.)  Bates  of  wages. — These  will  be  found  in  detail  in  the  accompany- 
ino"  seluHlules. 

(2.)  The  cost  of  living. — The  prices  of  what  may  be  termed  the  "neces 
saries  of  life"  maybe  gathered  from  the  following-  quotations,  viz :  Beef^ 
of  good  quality,  20  cents  per  pound ;  mutton,  of  good  quality,  20  cents 
per  pound ;  pork,  of  good  quality,  10  cents  per  pound  ;  bread,  of  good 
quality.  10  cents  per  4-pound  loat ;  eggs,  from  10  to  30  cents  per  dozen  ^ 
milk,  21  cents  per  gallon.  In  towns  in  this  district  85  a  week  for  a 
familj-  may  be  put  as  the  approximate  cost  of  living,  rent  included,  but 
in  rural  districts,  where  house-rent  is  lower,  $1.50  woukl  in  most  cases 
cover  it. 

(3.)  The  present  rates  of  wages  do  not  differ  much  from  those  which 
I>revailed  in  1878,  and  although  animal  food  is  dearer,  bread,  sugar,  tea^ 
coffee,  and  various  other  items  of  the  necessaries  of  life  are  cheaper. 
But  still  I  do  not  think  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  has  much 
improved  in  the  interim,  except  in  the  case  of  educational  facilities. 

(4.)  The  habits  of  the  tcorl-ing  classes. — Owing,  in  great  measure,  to  the 
spread  of  temperance  principles  they  are  for  the  most  part  more  steady 
and  trustworthy,  but  the  smallness  of  the  margin  between  the  cost  of 
living  and  the  wages  earned  is  such  that  the  number  of  those  who  can 
save  money  is  comparatively  small. 

(5,  6,  7, 8.)  With  rare  exceptions,  there  is  no  ill-feeling  manifested  be- 
tween employer  and  employed.  There  'are  no  local  laws  bearing  on 
organizations,  either  of  labor  or  capital,  and  strikes  are  very  rarely  had 
recourse  to.  The  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries 
of  life  wherever  they  please,  no  conditions  in  that  respect  being  usually 
imposed  by  em])loyers.     Wages  are  almost  invariably  paid  in  cash. 

(9.)  Co-operative  societies. — The  number  of  such  societies  in  my  district 
is  very  small.  The  only  one  in  existence  in  this  town  is  in  connection 
with  the  retail  grocery  goods,  but  although  the  society  is  believed  to  be 
successful  I  do  not  consider  it  has  had  any  appreciable  effect  on  that 
branch  of  business  in  the  neighborhood. 

(10.)  The  general  condition  of  the  working  people  is  fairly  satisfac- 
tory. The3'  live  simply ;  their  houses,  except  in  certain  crowded  town 
districts,  are  clean  and  comfortable;  their  food  (with  the  exception 
of  animal  food)  is  cheap  and  wholesome;  their  clothes  are  suitable  to 
the  climate  ;  their  chances  of  bettering  their  condition  are  small,  and, 
unless  by  migration,  they  can  with  (lilliculty  lay  up  anything  for  old 
age;  their  moral  and  physical  condition  contrasts  favorably  with  man^'- 
other  parts  of  England,  and  they  are  well  protected  by  civilizing  in- 
fluences. 

(11.)  The  employers  generally  contract  with  an  insurance  comi)any  to 
indemnify  the  employes  or  their  families  in  case  of  death  or  injury  by 
accident. 

Mining  companies  provide  surgeons  for  attendance  on  the  sick  and 
injured.  Most  employers  in  many  ways  interest  themselves  to  promote 
the  moral  and  physical  well-being  of  their  employes.     The  general  re- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 


649 


lations  between  the  employer  autl  employed  are  cordial  and  satisfac- 
tory. 

(12.)  The  same  as  in  other  parts  of  England,  except  that  party  feeling 
does  not  run  so  high  in  this  district. 

(13.)  A  desire  to  improve  their  prospects,  to  join  relations  abroad, 
and  make  a  better  provision  for  their  families.  Mining  and  farming  are 
the  principal  occupations  of  the  emigrants. 

Part  11. — Female  Labor. 

(1.)  I  have  no  means  of  accurately  estimating  the  number  of  women 
and  children  employed  in  Cornwall  in  industrial  pursuits.  The  statis- 
tics touching  the  mines  and  factories  can  only  be  obtained  through 
Government  sources. 

About  two  adult  females  are  employed  on  each  farm. 

(2.)  Minimum,  24  cents  per  day;  maximum,  48  cents  per  day;  aver- 
age, 30  cents  per  day. 

(3.)  About  y  to  10  hours. 

(4.)  In  most  cases  improving. 

(5.)  Mothers'  meetings,  social,  musical,  and  religious  meetings. 

(G.)  Fire  brigades  in  certain  towns. 

(7.)   Vide  answer  11,  in  case  of  males. 

(8.)  Wages  remain  much  the  same  as  they  were  five  years  ago.  The 
women  do  not  compete  with  men,  and  do  not,  therefore,  reduce  men's 
wages;  the  employment  of  women  has  a  good  effect  on  general,  social, 
and  industrial  conditions. 

(9.)  There  are  so  few  factories  in  Cornwall  it  is  diflicult  to  answer  this 
question. 

The  girls  employed  on  the  surface  at  mines  acquire  a  rough  and  mas- 
culine manner,  but  all  children  have  to  attend  school  a  certain  number 
of  days  per  week, 

HOWARD  FOX, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Falmouth,  July  17,  1884. 


I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  generol  trades  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  Cornwall. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING   TRADES.* 

Bricklayers.     (See  Masons.) 

Hofl-cariiers.     (See  Laborers,  Masons'  Tenders.) 
Masons 

$4  38 
2  92 

4  38 

$7  29 
4  38 

7  27 

.$4  98 
3  40 

Tenders 

Plasterers.     (See  Masons.) 

Tenders.     (See  Masons'  Tenders.) 
Slaters.     (See  Masons.) 
Roofers.     (See  Masons.) 

Tenders.     (See  Masons'  Tenders.) 

5  77 

Assistants 

4  38 

Carpenters. 

4  38 

5  83 

5  93 
7  29 

5  34 

Gas- titters  

G  32 

*  Bricklayers,  plasterers,  slaters,  and  roofers  are  all  classed  as  Seneral  masons  in  this  part  of  Eng- 
land. 


650 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades,  4c. — Continued. 


Occnpations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

OTHER  TKADES. 

$4  38 
3  65 
3  40 

$5  34 
5  83 
3  89 

$4  78 

4  62 

3  71 

4  86 

4  38 

3  65 
2  92 

4  38 
4  86 
6  07 
4  88 

'3  89 

4  38 
6  07 

6  07 

7  29 

8  51 
12  16 

5  34 

3  89 

4  62 

5  34 

6  01 

6  70 

6  56 

Drivers: 

4  50 

6  07 

3  89 

4  88 
2  92 

4  86 

5  34 
4  38 

4  13 

5  01 
2  92 
4  38 

5  83 
7  29 

4  38 
7  01 

5  83 

4  86 

6  07 

5  83 
5  83 

7  29 

4  98 

Jewelers    

6  32 

3  40 

6  07 

4  88 

4  62 

4  62 

Sail  makers 

5  81 

4  38 

Tailors 

5  59 

11.  Factories  and  mills. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  sixty  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  CormvaU, 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$4  38 

$4  88 

$4  86 

Application  for  the  information  has  been  made  to  the  owners  of  other  flour  mills  and  factories  with- 
out success. 

III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in  Corn- 
wall. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  86 

3  40 

4  86 
3  89 

$7  29 
5  11 
7  29 
5  59 

Average. 


Fitters , 

Strikers 

Blacksmiths 
Holders 


$6  13 

4  07 

5  59 
5  26 


IV.  Mines  and  mining. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in,  and  in  connection  ivith,  metal  mines,  in  county  of 

Cornwall. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Underground  men 

per  month.. 

do 

$12  65 

$19  46 

$18  72 
24  33 

Ore  dressers 

do.... 

17  02 

19  46 

18  10 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

V.  Ship-yards. 


651 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  fiftii-four  houra  in  skip-yardu — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 
ahip-huilding — in  county  of  Cornicall. 


Occupations. 


Wood  ship-building  , 
Wood  ship-repairing 


Lowest. 


$5  83 
5  83 


Highest. 


$7  29 
7  29 


Average. 


$6  56 
6  56 


Kone  confined  to  ship-building ;  some  of  the  men  employed  on  old  work  most  of  their  time. 

VI.  Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men) — distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast, 
and  river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam, — in  Cormvall. 

SAILING  VESSELS. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Present 
wages. 

Coasters  : 

$13  38 

9  73 

19  46 

34  06 

Ocean-going : 

14  59 

10  94 

Mates  (chief) 

38  93 

20  67 

STEAM  VESSELS. 


Engineers : 

First 

$96  34 

71  99 

Tliird 

57  41 

$73  00 
48  66 
29  19 
14  59 

$97  33 
68  12 
38  93 
24  33 

85  13 

58  39 

34  06 

Third  officer 

19  46 

14  59 

Ordinarj'  seamen 

10  94 

VII.  Store  and  shop  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  Cornwall  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and 

females  in  Cornwall. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average 
wages. 

Cellar  man 

$4  13 

48  66 
6  07 

$5  11 

170  31 
8  51 

$4  50 
*77  59 

Shop  assistants : 

Retail:  Females,  per  year j 

Males,  per  week 

7  20 

*  With  partial  board. 

652  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

VIII.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  Cornivall. 


Occapations. 


Lowest. 


Higbest.   Average. 


Household  servants  (with  board  and  lodging) per  year. 


$29  19 


$77  59  I        $52  13 


IX.  Agricultural  wages. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  {country)  servants  in  Cornwall. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Household  servants  (vrith  board  and  lodgin":) per  j^ear . .       $14  59 

Agricultural  laborers  (without  board  and  lodging,  but  generally  with  a  | 
plot  of  ground) per  week..  2  92 


Highest. 


$49  87 
4  38 


Average. 


$25  54 
3  52 


X.  Printers  wages. 

statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  offiftg-fonr  hours  1o  priiiters  (compositors,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  <J'-c. )  (71  the  county  of  Cornwall. 


Occupations 

Printers 

Compositors 

PresHiiien 

Proof-readers 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  38 
4  38 
4  38 
4  38 

$6  07 
6  07 
6  07 
6  &7 

Average. 


$5  04 
5  04 
5  04 
5  04 


HARTLEPOOL. 

REPORT  BY  OOXSULAR  AGENT  NEILSOX. 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  54  hours. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$6  80 
4  86 

7  29 

8  20 
7  78 

6  07 
4  38 
C  56 
6  80 
4  86 
4  86 
4  86 
4  86 
6  56 

6  68 

7  29 

$7  29 

5  10 
8  02 
8  75 
8  26 

8  51 
7  29 

7  04 

8  51 

8  26 

6  07 

9  73 
5  10 

7  04 
7  90 

10  21 

$7  04 

4  98 

7  65 

8  47 

8  02 

OTUEU  TUADES. 

7  29 

5  83 

6  80 

7  65 

6  56 

5  46 

7  29 

4  98 

6  80 

7  29 

8  75 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

II.  Machine-shops,  foundries,  &c. 


653 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  fiflfi-fonr  hours  in  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  iron  works  in 
Jlarlltpool  and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Fittera 

$6  80 
7  29 
7  29 

$9  24 

AS  no 

8  99  1            8  14 

9  48               «  '^a 

•    III.  Wages  in  ship-yards. 

Wages  paid  per  iveek  of  fifty-four  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 
ship-building  —in  Hartlepool  and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Platers  

$7  29 
6  80 
6  32 

4  86 

6  07 

5  83 
9  H 

7  04 
4  62 

$9  73 

8  76 

9  24 
6  80 
8  51 
8  99 

10  33 
8  76 
5  10 

$8  51 
7  78 

7  78 

5  83 

7  29 

Fitters 

7  41 

Carpenters 

9  72 
7  90 

4  86 

IV.  Seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  between  ocean  and  coast 
navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Hartlepool  and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 


OCEAX-GOING    STEAMERS. 


Masters 

First  mates 

Second  mates  ... 

Boatswains 

Cooks     

Stewards 

Al)le  si'aracn 

First  i-ni;ineer  .. 
Second  engineer. 
Tliird  engineer . . 
Firemen 


COASTIKG    6TEAMEHS. 


Masters 

First  mates 

Second  mates 

Aide  seamen 

First  engineers. .. 
Second  engineers. 
Firemen 


WOOD   SAILERS,  COASTING. 


Masters 

Mates 

Able  seamen. 


Lowest. 


$72  99 
36  50 
24  33 
20  06 
20  06 
24  33 

19  46 
72  99 
43  80 
29  20 

20  67 


58  40 
34  06 
26  76 
18  49 
53  53 
41  36 
18  49 


38  93 
24  33 
17  03 


Highest. 


$97  33 
46  23 
31  63 

24  33 

25  54 
30  66 

20  67 
82  73 
63  26 
38  93 

21  89 


73  00 
38  93 
29  20 
19  46 
68  13 
64  74 
19  46 


43  80 
25  54 
18  25 


Average. 


$85  16 
41  36 
27  99 
22  19 
22  80 
27  49 

20  07 
77  86 
53  53 
34  06 

21  28 


65  70 
36  50 

27  98 
18  97 
60  84 
48  05 
18  97 


41  36 
24  94 
17  64 


654 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

V.  Store  and  shop  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  iceek  of  about  sixty-five  hours  in  stores,  retail,  to  tnales  and  females,  in  Har- 
tlepool and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 


Grocers . 
Drapers. 


Lowest. 


Highest.   Average. 


$7  29 
7  29 


$6  07 
6  07 


VI.  Household  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  Hartlepool  and  Middlesbro- 
on-Tees. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest 

Average. 

$58  40 
48  66 
48  66 

$97  33 

«77  86 

77  86             63  26 

87  60             68  13 

VII.  Corporation  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty -four  hours  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  towns  of  Hartle- 
pool and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$4  38 
7  29 

$5  58 
8  02 

$4  98 

7  65 

VIII.  Printers'  wages. 

statement  shouting  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  to  printers  (compositors, 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  tj'c.,)  in  Hartlepool  and  Middlesbro-on-Tees. 


Occupations. 


Bookbinders . 
Printers 


Lowest. 


$6  56 
6  56 


Highest 


$7  04 
7  04 


Average. 


$6  80 
6  80 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


655 


HOLYHEAD. 

REPORT  OF  CONSULAR  AGENT  JONES. 
[Referred  to  in  the  Liverpool  report.] 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  Holyhead. 


Occupations. 


BUILDING    TRADES. 


Hod-carriers  ... 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders... 

Slaters 

Roofers 

Tenders  — 
Plumbers 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters , 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 
Strikers., 


Brev 

Butchers 

Cabinetmakers 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters  . 

Cab  and  carriage 

Gardeners    

Horse-shoers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Millwrights 


Lo-west. 


Printers 

Teachers  public  schools. 

Sail-makers 

Tanners 


Tailors 

Telegraph  operators . 
Tinsmiths 


$2  91 

1  27 

3  64 
5  09 

2  91 
5  09 
5  09 
2  91 
7  27 

4  85 

5  82 
4  85 


3  64 

6  06 

3  88 

7  27 

4  37 
4  85 


5  82 
4  85 
4  85 
4  85 
4  85 

4  85 
3  64 

5  82 


$4  37 

8  73 

4  85 

5  82 
3  64 
5  82 

5  82 
3  64 

9  71 

6  06 

7  27 
6  06 


6  06 

7  27 

4  85 
14  56 

5  82 
7  27 

6  06 
4  85 

14  56 

7  27 
4  85 
7  27 
9  71 

14  56 
7  27 

6  06 

7  27 
7  27 
7  27 


Average. 


$3  64 

7  50 

4  00 

5  40 
3  27 
5  40 
5  40 
3  27 

8  50 

5  40 

6  00 
5  40 


4  85 
6  66 

4  36 
10  90 

5  00 

6  06 

5  21 

4  00 
9  70 

5  45 
3  80 

6  00 

7  00 
9  70 
6  06 

5  04 

6  06 

5  45 

6  00 


II.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron-works  in  Holy- 
head. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$7  25 
7  00 

6  54 
3  88 

7  27 

$9  70 
9  50 

10  19 
6  06 

10  19 

$8  47 

8  25 

8  36 

4  97 

8  70 

656 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


RAILWAY  WAGES. 


Wages  paid  per  week  to  railroad  employes  (those  engaged  about  stations  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <^'c.),  in  Holyhead. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$4  85 

6  06 

3  64 

7  07 

4  37 

2  91 

3  88 

$14  56 
7  07 

4  37 
10  19 

-    5  82 
3  64 

5  82 

$9  20 

6  50 

4  00 

8  60 

l-'iriiiicn                                                 

5  25 

3  00 

4  45 

WAGES   IN   SHIP- YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-six  hours,  in  ship-yards,  distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 
ship-building,  in  Holphead. 


Occupations. 


Ship  carpenters  . 


est.   Average. 


$5  82 


$8  49 


$7  15 


Note. — No  ship-baUding  in  district. 

seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men),  distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam  in  Holyhead. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest.    Average. 


Steam  (coastwise) : 

Master 

Mate 

Second  mate 

Ordinary  seaman 

Able  seaman 

Engineer 

Fireman 

Sailing  vessels: 

Master 

Mate 

Able  seaman 

Ordinary  seaman 


$67  97 
48  55 
33  98 
6  79 
23  30 
33  98 
21  84 

29  13 

21  84 

15  77 

9  71 


$77  68 
58  26 
43  70 
14  56 
26  21 
58  26 
24  27 

48  55 
29  13 
19  42 
14  56 


$69  00 
51  50 
38  00 
10  50 

24  75 
46  00 
23  00 

38  80 

25  45 
17  55 
12  15 


STORE  AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  in  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females  in 

Holyhead. 


Occupations.' 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$2  42 
97 

$4  37 
1  94 

1  94 

97 

3  64 
1  69 

Average. 


Drapery : 

Male  assistant  and  found... 
Female  assistant  and  found 
Grocery: 

Male  assistant  and  found. .. 
Female  assistant  and  found. 


$3  38 
1  45 


2  79 
1  30 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

IVagen  paid  per  month  to  houseliold  servantH  (townx  and  citieH)  in  Holyhead 

Occapations. 


657 


Cook , 

Waitress 

Nursemaid  ... 
Scullery  m:ii<l . 


Lowest.  I  Highest. 


Average. 


$4  85  > 

$6  06  1 

$5  45 

2  91 

4  8.5 

3  80 

2  91 

4  85 

3  80 

2  42 

2  91 

2  65 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

frafics  paid  jur  half-i/car  to  at/riciiltural  laborcm  and  houHvhold  {eountrti)  xerrautx  in  Holy- 
head, with  or  without  hoard  and  lodging. 

Occupations.  i  Lowest.  '  Highest.    Average. 

Fi»rm  bailitr $48  55         $)8  26  $53  40 

Farm  laborers   '         33  98           43  70  38  80 

Farm  dairy-maids ;        29  13,        43  70  36  40 

Farm  bovs 1        14  56  i        19  42,  10  95 


PRINTERS    WAGES. 

Statement  fhowiny  the  waycx  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hoiirx  to  printers  {compoxifor!i,2)re>i.snien, 
proof-readers,  cf-t;.,)  in  Holyhead. 

Occupations.  Lowest.    Highest.  Average. 

pSri^'i =^5  82'        $7  27  «S  50 

Pressmea  (machine  men) 5  82            7  27  6  50 

Proof  leaders 6  30             7  27  6.58 


GLOUCESTER. 

KEPOllT  JST  COitMEliCIAL  AGEST  DAVIES. 

I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  from  Jifty-four  to  sixty  hours  in  (lloucester. 

Occapations.  Lowest.  '  Highest. !  Average. 

BUILDING  TKADES.  I 

»■.                     «.  .V.  rf. 

Bricklavera 30  i  4li  ,  35  0 

Hod-carriors 16  1  20  18  0 

Masons 30;  40  |  35  0 

Tenders    16  20  '  18  0 

Plasterers 30  I  40  3.')  0 

Tenders 16  20  '  18  0 

Slaters 25  |  35  30  0 

Roofers  25  35  3(10 

Tenders 16  1  20  18  0 

Plumbers 30  '  40  35  0 

Assistants 18'  24,  210 

Carpenters 25  i  35,  30  0 

Gas-filtors 30  40'  35  ft. 

92    A— LAB 42 


658  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

fVages  paid  per  week  of  from  fifty-four  to  sixty  hours  in  Gloucester — Continued. 

Occupations. 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Stiikers    

Bookbiiideis 

Brick-makers 

Brewers 

ButcheJ  8 

Brass  founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Cigar-makers 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Distillers 

Drivers  

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab,  carriage,  and  street  railway. 

Dyers   

Engravers  

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters  

Horse-shoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Litliograpliers 

Millwrights 

Nail-ruakers  (hand)  

Pottfrs 

Printers  

Teachers  public  schools    

Saddle  and  harness-makers 

Sail-makers 

Steveilores 

Tanneis 

Tailors 

Telegraph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Weavers  (outside  of  mills) 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

s. 

«. 

8.d. 

30 

36 

33  0 

25 

35 

30  0 

18 

26 

22  0 

30 

40 

35  0 

*10 
30 

50 

40  0 

25 

25 

30  I) 

40 

60 

50  0 

30 

40 

35  0 

30 

40 

35  0 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

25 

35 

30  0 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

20 

25 

22  6 

16 

26 

21  0 

20 

25 

22  6 

25 

35 

30  0 

40 

60 

50  0 

30 

40 

35  0 

20 

40 

30  0 

(t) 

(t) 

(t) 

25 

35 

30  0 

30 

40 

35  0 

18 

25 

21  6 

30 

40 

35  0 

25 

35 

30  0 

30 

35 

32  6 

16 

20 

18  0 

25 

35 

30  0 

(t) 

«) 

(t) 

25 

35 

30  0 

20 

30 

25  0 

30 

50 

40  0 

25 

35 

30  0 

30 

50 

40  0 

20 

80 

50  0 

20 

35 

27  6 

25 

35 

30  0 

*  Per  day  daring  the  season.  tNone  in  this  district. 

II.  Factories  and  mills. 


;  £60  to  £300  per  annum. 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Gloucester  district. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest.  Average. 

1 

Weavers 

*I5 
15 
10 
15 

«. 
45 
45 
35 
45 

s.  d. 
30  0 

30  0 

Dyers 

22  6 

Q'wisters 

30  0 

FOUNDRIES,   MACHINE-SHOPS,    AND   IRON   WORKS. 

Wages  paid  per  loeek  of  fifty -four  hours  iu  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  tvorks  in 

Gloucester  district. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

t. 
26 
26 
26 
26 

Highest. 

Average. 

Jitters 

32 
32 
32 
32 

«. 
29 

Machine  hands 

2»- 

Boiler-raakora 

29 

■M(>lil(<r» 

2ft 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


659 


MINES  AND  MINING. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  forty-eight  hours  in, and  in  connection  icith,  coal  and  iron  ore  mines 
in  forest  of  Bean,  Gloucestershire. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest.    Average.- 

Miners  (ordinary) 

20 

1 
».                 s. 
30  1                25 

1 

RAILWAY  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  cfc.,)  in  Gloucester  district. 


Occupations. 


Engine-driver. 

Stoker 

Guard 

Porters  - .   

Plate  layer 

Navvy 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

8. 

8. 

g.d. 

50 

60 

55  0 

30 

35 

32  6 

30 

40 

35  0 

20 

25 

22  6 

30 

35 

32  6 

25 

30 

27  6 

seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men)  distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam,  in  Gloucester  district. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Steam.         Sail 


OCEAN. 

£   s.  d. 

Captain !  14    0  0 

First  mate  7    0  0 

Second  mate j  4    0  0 

Boatuwain I  3  10  0 

Carpenter i  4    0  0 

Steward '  4    0  0 

Cook I  3  10  0 

Seaman,  able 2  10  0 

First  engineer i  14    0  0 

Second  engineer 10    0  0 

Third  engineer 7    0  0 

Donkeyman 4  10  0 

Fireman 4    0  0 

COAST. 

Captain ,  4    0  0 

First  mate 3    0  0 

Boatswain 2  10  0 

Cook  and  steward 3    0  0 

Seaman,  able    2  10  0 

Seaman,  ordinary 10  0 

Boy 10  0 

First  Entrineer 4    0  0 

Second  engineer 3    0  U 

Fireman 2  10  0 


£    s.    d. 


6    0  0 

4    0  0 

3  0  0 

4  0  0 
4  0  0 
3  10  0 
2  10  0 


Highest. 


Steam,    j     Sail. 


Average. 


Steam.         Sail 


£ 


d.    £    8.    d.  I  £    8.    d. 


10    0    0     26    0    0  I  20    0    0  1  20    0    0 


10  0090018  10  0 
000,600500 
4  10  0400j400 
OOOitiOO  5-00 
6  0  0  1  GOO.  5 
4  10  0  4  10  0  I  4 
3  10    0  i     3  10    0  :     3 

20    0    0  1 17    0    0 

12     0    0  1 1  H    0    0 


9  0  0 
5  10  0 
5    0    0 


4     0     0,800 

3     0    0  16    0  0 

2  10     0  !     4     0  0 

3  0  0  i  5  0  0 
2  10  0  .  3  10  0 
1     0     0       1  10  0 

10     0  i     1     0  0 

I     8    0  0 

6    0  0 

3  10  0 


0  0 
0  0 
0     0 


8  0  0 
5  0  0 
4  10     0 


6    0    0  6    0  0 

5    0    0  4  10  0 

4  0    0  3    5  0 

5  0  0^400 
3  10  0  ,  3  0  0 
1  10  0  15  0 
10     0            15  0 

I  6    0  0 

4  10  0 

3    0  0 


£    s. 

15  0 
7  10 
5    0 

3  10 
5  0 
5    0 

4  0 
3     0 


]fOTE.— River  boatmen  (and  on  canals)  Irom  25«.  per  week  to  354.  per  week  ,;  averaj,e,  30*.  per  week. 


660 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND 

STORE   AND    HUOV   WAGES. 


WageK  paid  per  week  of  sirty  hoars;  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  female'^,  in 

Gloucester  district. 


Occupation. 


Wages  in  stores . 


Lowest. 


I 
Highest.  I  Average. 


10 


60 


35 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  annum  to  household  serrants  {towns  and  cities)  in  Gloucester  district. 

Occupations.  Lowest.  |  Highest.  |  Average. 


"Wages,  with  board  and  lodging 


&    g.  d.  \  £    8.  d.  \     £    t.  d. 
50025    00       15    00 


AGRICULTURAL    WAGES. 

Wages  paid  agricnUnral  laborers  and  household  {country)  servants  in   Gloucester  district, 
with  or  without  hoard  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 

1                   J 
Lowest.     Highest,  j  Average. 

Ordinary  laborer  jier  week,  without  board,  &c 

Household  serv-ants,  females,  with  board  and  lodging,  per  annum 

! 

£    g.  d.  I  £    ».  d.       £    s.  d. 
0  15    0       1  10    0         12    6 
800112    00,10    00 

CORPORATION    EMPL0Y:^S. 

TVages  paid 2^<'r  week  of  sixty  hours  In  the  corporation  entplogcs  in  the  citi/  of  Gloucester. 


Occupations. 


Laborers,  cartels,  \-c 


Lowest,  j  Highest  Average. 


.£    s.  d.      £    s.  d.  '•     £    »'.  d. 
0  18    0       1     (I    (I  !       0  lit    0 


PRIN'l'ERS'    W.\GES. 

Statement  showing  the  w.ages  paid  per  week  of  fifty -four  hours  to  printers  {comjiosilor.s,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  ^-c.)  in  Gloucester. 


0((iii):ition.s. 


Printers 

Conipo.sitors.. 
Proofreaders 
Pressmen 


Lowest. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

1 

5 

0 

1 

5 

0 

1 

5 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Hi 

ghe 

St. 

£ 

«. 

d. 

1 

15 

0 

1 

15 

0 

1 

15 

0 

1 

10 

0 

Average. 


£  s.  d. 
1  10  0 
1  10  0 
1  10  0 
15    0 


LABOR    IN    ETTROPE ENGLAND.  661 


HULL. 

It i: PORT  BY  aOXSUL  HOWARD. 

Q.  The  rate.s  of  wai^t's  paid  to  laborers  of  every  class — mecbanical, 
mining,  factory,  public  works,  and  railways,  domestic,  agricnltural, 
&c.  ? — A.  See  statements  1  to  15. 

Q.  The  cost  of  living:  to  the  laboring  classes,  viz,  the  prices  paid  for 
the  necessaries  of  life,  clothing,  rent,  &c."? — A.  Fresh  meat,  $1.20;  ba- 
con, $1.08;  bread,  72  cents  :  vegetables,  (50  cents;  clothing,  $1.20  ;  rent, 
78  cents  per  week. 

Q.  Comparison  between  the  present  rate  of  wages  and  those  which 
prevailed  in  1878  (and  since  that  time)  when  the  last  labor  circular  was 
issued  from  the  Department,  and  between  the  conditions  then  prevailing 
and  which  now  prevail  t — A.  Labor  market  about  the  same  as  in  1878. 

Q.  The  habits  of  the  working  classes — whether  steady  and  trustworthy, 
or  otherwise;  saving  or  otherwise,  and  the  causes  which  principally 
affect  their  habits  for  good  or  evil  f — A.  Lately  working  classes  more 
steady  and  trustworthy ;  great  many  insure  in  case  of  death.  The  only 
evil  to  the  working  classes  is  the  liquor  trafitic,  but  the  majority  are  now 
peeing  the  evil  of  it. 

Q.  The  feeling  which  prevails  between  employe  and emplojer  and  the 
effects  of  this  feeling  on  the  general  and  particular  prosperity  of  the 
community  ? — A.  As  a  rule,  good. 

Q.  The  organized  condition  of  labor ;  the  nature  of  organization  and 
its  effects  ontheadvancemeutand  welfare  of  the  laborers  ? — A.  Organized 
condition  of  labor  at  present  in  a  depressed  state,  owing  to  the  shipping 
trade  being  very  dull  and  causing  a  great  many  to  be  out  of  emi)loy- 
ment.     (No  papers  to  refer  to  for  counter-organization  of  capital.) 

Q.  The  prevalency  of  strikes,  and  how  far  arbitration  enters  into  the 
settlement  of  disagreements  between  the  employers  and  employes,  and 
the  manner  and  nature  of  such  arbitration  ?  The  effects  of  strikes  on  the 
advancement,  or  otherwise,  of  labor,  and  the  general  effect  thereof  on 
the  industrial  interests  effected  thereby  i — A .  Xo  strikes  of  any  impor- 
tance in  Hull  for  some  years.  The  last  one  was  of  very  short  duration, 
and  ended  in  the  masters'  favor. 

Q.  Are  the  working  people  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life 
wherever  they  chose,  or  do  the  employers  impose  anj'  conditions  in  this 
regard.  How  often  and  in  what  kind  of  currency  is  the  laborer  paid! — 
A.  Yes;  the  working  peoi)le  are  free  to  purchase  where  they  like. 
They  are  paid  weekly  in  gold  and  silver. 

Q.  Co-operative  societies  f — A.  No  co-operative  stores  in  Hull  of  any 
importance  to  benefit  the  workingman. 

Q.  The  general  condition  of  the  Avorking  people;  how  they  live,  their 
homes,  their  food,  their  clothes,  their  chances  for  bettering  their  condi- 
tion, their  ability  to  lay  up  something  for  old  age  or  sickness,  their 
moral  and  physical  condition,  and  the  intluences  for  good  or  evil  by  which 
they  are  surrounded  ? — A.  As  a  rule  the  working  classes  in  Hull  are 
steady,  clean,  and  respectable  ;  when  work  is  good  tlie  majority  live  up  to 
their  income;  comfortable  homes  as  a  rule  ;  their  food  wholesome,  and 
they  dress  neatly  and  respectably ;  steady  men  rise  gradually  to  a  bet- 
ter position  ;  a  few  save  a  little  out  of  their  earnings;  a  great  many  are 
members  of  sick  and  funeral  clubs  and  life  insurances,  also  building  so- 


662  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

cieties;  tlieir  moral  and  physical  condition  as  a  rnle  very  fair;  the  in- 
fluence of  religion  and  temperance  at  the  present  time  is  doing  a  deal  of 
good  among  the  working  classes. 

HOW   A    MECHANIC   LIVES. 

Q.  How  old  are  you? — A.  I  am  34  years  old. 

Q.  What  is  your  busiuess? — A.  I  am  a  mechanic. 

Q.  Have  you  any  family? — A.  Yes,  I  have  a  wife  and  four  children;  eldest  9  years 
and  the  younjjfest  one  and  one-half  years. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive  per  week? — A.  fG.T^  the  average  wage  paid  to  a 
mt'chanic. 

Q.  How  many  hours  do  you  work  per  week? — k.  Fifty-threo  hours,  summer  and 
winter. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  meals? — A.  Half  an  hour  for  breakfast  and 
one  hour  for  dinner. 

Q.  Can  you  support  your  family  in  a  respectable  way  on  your  wages? — A.  Yes. 

Q.  Earnings  of  myself  per  year? — A.  $34t).44. 

Q.  Will  you  explain  in  detail  the  uses  you  make  of  this  money  ? — A.  Yes;  I  pay  per 
annum — 

For  rent  of  a  four-roomed  house $43  20 

For  clothing  mvself  and  familv 72  00 

For  food  and  fnel,p.88  per  week,  or 201  76 

Leaving  for  school  fees  and  incidental  expenses _..  32  48 


349  44 


Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  does  your  daily  meals  consist? — A.  For  breakfast,  bread, 
bacon,  and  tea;  dinner,  fresh  meat  and  vegetables  for  the  first  part  of  the  week,  and 
latter  part  soup  and  boiled  bacon;  for  tea,  bread  and  butter;  supper,  if  any,  a  little 
bread  and  cheese. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  save  any  of  your  earnings  for  sickness  or  old  age? — A.  After 
paying  my  weekly  insurance  and  club  money  very  little  i-eniains  to  save.  In  case  I 
am  myself  sick  I  receive  $2.40  2>er  week  from  Tuy  club  for  the  first  six  months  and 
f  1.20  for  the  following  three  mouths.     At  my  death  my  wife  would  receive  $48. 

Q.  What  are  the  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  employes  in  fac- 
tories, mines,  mills,  on  railroads,  &c.,  and  what  are  the  provisions  made 
for  the  work  i)eoi)le  in  case  of  accident?  What  are  the  general  consid- 
erations given  by  the  employers  to  the  moral  and  pliysical  well-being  of 
the  employes?  What  are  the  general  relations  which  prevail  between 
the  employer  and  emi)loyed  ? — A.  In  cases  of  accident  the  employers  as 
a  rule  allow  a  small  weekly  recompense.  The  railway  employes  here 
])ay  a  small  amount  out  of  their  weekly  wages,  which  goes  to  an  acci- 
dent fund.  As  a  rule  the  emj)loyers  in  Hull  use  their  intluence  for  the 
moral  and  ])hysical  good  of  their  employes.  Generally  speaking  the 
masters  and  employes  are  on  good  terms  with  eacli  other. 

Q.  What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingnien,  and  wiiat 
are  their  influences,  through  such  rights,  on  legislation?  What  is  the 
share,  comparatively,  borne  by  the  working  peoi)le  in  local  and  general 
taxation? — A.  The  w^orkingmen  have  full  political  rights;  their  influ- 
ence is  so  great  as  to  return  generally  two  Liberal  members  to  Parlia- 
ment. 

Q.  What  are  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the  working 
people,  and  which  influence  their  selection  of  their  new  homes? — A. 
J^epression  in  trade;  mechanics  are  the  chief  class  of  emigrants;  there 
is  a  very  little  emigration  from  Hull. 


i 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  ()63 


FEMALE   LABOR. 


(1.)  Q.  The  number  of  females  employed  in  Hull  are  as  follows: 

Man u fact u lino;  (about) 110 

Commercial,  &,c 0 

Government  officials  and  clerks  (about) 25 

Teachers  (about) 140 

Hotel  and  boarding-house  keepers  (about) 12 

Laundresses  (about) 60 

Musicians  (about) 6 

Miuinj:: 0 

Agriculture 0 

All  other  pursuits  (about) 2, 000 

(2  and  3.)  Q.  What  are  the  minimum,  maximum,  and  average  wages 
paid  to  female  adults,  and  hours  of  labor? — A.  Manufacturing  from 
$2.10  to  $3.84  per  week  of  5G  hours;  Government  officials,  &c.,  $2.40  to 
$5.28  per  week  of  CO  hours  ;  teachers  (in  schools),  $48  to  I57C,  average 
$430  per  year;  laundresses,  $3.84  per  week  standard  wages;  teachers 
of  music,  $24  per  year  each  pupil ;  all  other  pursuits,  $2.16  to  $4.80  per 
week  of  60  hours. 

(4.)  Q.  What  is  the  moral  and  i)hysical  condition  of  such  employes  *? — 
A.  As  a  rule,  moral,  steady,  and  healthy. 

(5.)  Q.  W'hat  are  the  means  provided,  and  by  whom,  for  the  imjirove- 
ment  of  these  employes! — A.  No  ])ublic  or  private  means  are  provided 
for  their  improvement. 

(6.)  Q.  What  are  the  means  provided,  in  case  of  tire  or  other  dangers, 
for  their  safety  ? — A.  As  a  rule,  good  entrances  in  every  manufactory, 
&c.,  for  escape  in  case  of  fire,  &c. 

(7.)  Q.  What  are  the  i)rovisions  made  by  the  employers  in  regard  to 
sanitary  measures,  and  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  disabled  ? — A.  Sani- 
tary measures  are  very  good.  In  manufactories,  wages  as  a  rule  are 
stopped  in  case  of  sickness;  teachers,  officials,  &c.,  salarj^  paid  while 
ill,  unless  their  place  has  to  be  filled  up. 

(8.)  Q.  Has  there  been  any  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the 
wages  paid  women,  and  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  or  other- 
wise? What  are  the  effects  of  emj)loyment  of  women  on  the  wages  of 
men,  and  on  general  social  and  industrial  conditions? — A.  Yes;  wages 
increased  in  regard  to  teachers  and  Government  officials;  necessaries 
of  life  about  same ;  no  difference  in  the  wages  of  men,  but  causes  less 
meii  to  be  employed. 

(9.)  Q.  What  is  the  state  of  education  among  the  women  employed, 
and  among  their  children  ;  and  what  are  the  general  effects  of  employ- 
ment (in  factories,  mills,  stores,  &c.)  on  the  family  circles,  especially  as 
concerns  the  children  of  such  employes,  and  on  their  moral  and  physical 
condition,  and  on  their  children?  Education — fair  on  average. — A. 
The  great  majority  of  the  female  employes  in  Hull  are  single. 

EDW^AED  HOWARD, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Hull,  July  12, 1SS4. 


664 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


I.  General  trades. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-three  hours  in  Hull, 


Occnpations. 


BUILDING   TUADKS. 


Lowest.  'Highest.    Average 


Bricklayers* 

Hod-carriers* 

Masons*  

Tenders 

Plasterers* 

Tenders 

Slaters'' 


.$3  60 


(f) 


Roofers* 

Tenders  . . . 
Plumbers* 

Assistants 
Carpenters*  — 
Gas-fitters*  ... 


OTUEK  TUADES. 


Bakers* 

Blacksmiths.  ... 

Strikers 

Bookbinders*  . . 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass  founders  . 
Cabinetmakers. 
Confectioners*.. 
Cigar-makers.- . 

Coopers 

Cutlers . 


7  68 
4  32 


6  24 

5  28 

6  00 
5  76 


C) 


Distillers 

Drivers: 

Draj'men  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railways 72  hours. 

Dyers 

Engravers 

Furriers 

Gardeners 

Hatters 


Horse-.thoers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 60  hours. 

Lithographers 

Millwrights* 

Nail-makers  (hand) 

Pott  ers 


6  00 

(I) 

5  04 
5  04 
4  56 


(t) 
5  04 


6  48 
4  80 
4  84 


Printers  

Teachers  jjixblic  schools 

Saddle  and  liarness-makers. 

Sail  makers 

Stevedores  

Tanners 

Tailors 

Telegrapti  operators 

Tin.smiths 

"Weavers  (outside  of  mills)  . 


C) 

C) 
7  20 
4  80 


7  20 
7  20 
4  32 
4  80 
2  40 


(t) 


$7  42 
5  91 
7  95 
4  80 
7  42 

(t) 
7  90 
7  68 

(t) 
7  68 

(f) 
7  44 
7  68 


6  12 
9  12 

5  04 

6  12 
10  80 

7  20 

8  40 
7  90 
6  00 


7  20 

(t) 

7  20 
7  20 

5  52 

6  12 
5  52 

CI 


7 

7 

7 

5 

6 

7 
(t) 
(t) 

8  40 
10  80 

6  48 

9  60 
9  60 
9  60 

12  00 
8  40 
5  76 


(t) 


(1) 


(t) 


40 


9  12 

6  12 

7  44 

6  72 


C) 


7  20 
6  12 


C) 


5  28 
5  28 


O 


(I) 

o 


8  40 
8  40 


7  20 
7  70 


C) 


*  Standard  wages. 


t  Apprentices. 


I  None  employed  in  TTull. 


FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-lhree  hours  in  factories  or  mills  in  Hull. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  I  Highest.    Average 


Pressmen  in  oil  mill* 

Parers  in  oil  mill 

Grinders  in  oil  mill' 

Engine-drivers  in  oil  iiiill 

Foreman  in  steam  saw-mill 

Men  in  steam  saw-mill 

Encrine-driver  in  steam  saw -mill* 


.$4  80 


6  00 

7  20 
5  28 


'  Standard  wages. 


NoTK.  — Xo  factories  of  any  kind  in  Hull. 


$5  28 


7  20 

8  40 
6  12 


$7 


6  00 


5  76 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


665 


III.  Foundries,  machine-shops,  etc. 

Wages  jHiid  per  week  of  fiflij- three  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  works  in 

Hull. 


Occnpations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

1 

$14  40 

8  40 

16  80 

Fitters     

$7  20 
7  20 
7  20 
4  80 
4  08 

(t) 

$8  16 
8  16 

7  92 
6  72 
6  12 

(t) 

7  20 

7  20 

7  20 

5  52 

4  56 

(t) 

10  80 

6  72 
4  56 

8  40 
5  52 

7  20 

4  80 

16  80 

8  16 
4  80 

8  88 
5  76 

8  16 

5  52 

8  64 

7  20 

7  92 

1 

14  40 

*  Standard  wages. 

t  Commence  at  96  cents  and  rise  24  cents  per  week  per  annum  to  $2.40  per  week. 


RAILWAY   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  {those  egaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  tfc.)  in  Hull. 


Occnpations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Engine  drivers,  passenger i  $12  00  $24  00 

Firemen,  passenger I  7  20  15  00 

Guards,  passenger 9  60  16  80 

Ticket  collectors,  passenger i  (t)  (J) 

Porters,  passenger ,  4  80  |  6  00 

Lainp-cloaners,  passenger |  4  80  |  6  00 

Station-masters,  passenger i  9  60  t  28  80 

Booking-clerks. 4  50  9  60 

Parcel's  office  clerks '  (t)       ,  (t) 

Engine-drivers,  goods I  12  00  ,  24  00 

Firemen,  goods i  7  20  !  15  00 

Guards,  goods  '  9  60  ■  16  80 

Porters,  goods 4  80  |  6  00 

Lurrymen,  goods i  (t)       I  (t) 

Clerks,  goods i  4  16  14  40 


Average. 


According  to  journey. 


t  Standard  wages. 


(*) 
(*) 
(*) 
$6  00 


5  04 


WAGES  IN   SHIP-YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty -three  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and 
wood  ship-building— in  Hull. 


Occnpations. 


lUON  SHIP-YARDS. 

Platemen  and  riveters  

Laborers 

Apprentices 

WOOP   SHir-YARDS. 

Shipwright 

Calkers  

Pitch-boilers , 

Apprentices 


'  Standard  wages. 


6G6 


labor  in  europe england. 

seamen's  wages. 


Wages  paid  prr  month  to  seamen  {ojiceri  and men) — distinguishing  bettveen  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  Hull. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Per  month. 

Masterof  steam,  oceau '  $72  00 

Mate  of  steam,  ocean 43  20 

Secoud  mate  of  steam,  ocean 36  00 

Carpenter  of  steam,  ocean 36  00 

Boai  swain  of  steam,  oeeiin ,  28  80 

Steward  and  cook  of  steam,  ocean  22  80 

Eu}:ineer  (chief)  of  steam,  ocean '  64  80 

Engineer  (second)  of  steam,  ocean 43  20 

Donkeyman  of  steam,  ocean .  28  80 

Able-bodied  seamen  and  firemen  of  ■ 

steam,  ocnan.  ea^h  |  26  40 

Mastei-,  sailinji  ship,  oceau '  48  00 

Mate,  sailins;  ship,  ocean    ..   !  33  60 

Second  n)ate.  saiiinfT  ship,  ocean ■  24  00 

Boatswain,  sailing  ship,  ocean j  24  00 

■Carpenter,  sailing  ship,  ocean j  28  80 


Average. 


Per 


Steward,  sailing  ship,  ocean 

Cook,  sailing  ship,  0(-ean | 

Able-bodied    seamen,    sailing  ship, 

ocean " I 

Ordinary  seamen,  s;iiling  ship,  oceau  .| 

Master,  steam,  coastwise  i 

Mate,  steam,  coastwise 

Second  mate  and  carpenter,  steara,  j 

coastwise,  ea<h i 

Boatswain,  steam,  coastwise 

Stewaid  and  cook,  steam,  coastwise.. 

Engineer,  cl)ief,  steam,  coastwise 

Second  engineer,  steam,  coastwise  ... 

Donkeyman,  steam,  co.istwise  

Able-bodied    seamen    and    firemen, 

steam,  coastwise,  each . 


month. 

$28  80 

24  00 

14  00 

9  60 

57  60 

38  40 

28  80 

26  40 

19  20 

48  00 

38  40 

26  40 

22  08 


STORE   and   shop   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  seventy  hours  in  stores,  ivholcsale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females. 


Occapatious. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  32 

3  84 
5  28 

$6  00 

7  20 

7  20 

Hosiers : 

Male 

5  76 

2  40 
1  68 
6  00 

3  84 

3  84 

2  40 

7  20 

6  72 

5  76 

Stationers : 

Male           

4  32 
1  92 

1  92 

2  40 

5  76 

3  84 

Tobacconists  : 

3  84 

Confectioners : 

4  32 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  pi r  month  or  ijear  to  household  servants  {towns   and  vities)  in  IIuU  and  neigh- 
borhood. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

ITinhest. 

$120  00 
76  80 
57  60 
48  00 
72  00 
57  60 

$168  00 

do 

86  40 

do.... 

67  20 

do.... 

57  60 

Cooks* 

do  ... 

96  00 

do.... 

76  80 

Butlers* 

do  ... 

192  00 

19  20 

33  60 

do  ... 

28  80 

do 

19  20 

'  With  board  and  lodging 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


667 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  lahorerx  and  household  (counlri))  servantHin  the  ririnity 
of  Hull,  with  hoard  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

$120  00 
67  20 
28  80 
67  20 
57  60 

.*168  00 

96  00 

72  00 

86  40 

C7  20 

CORPORATION  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Hull. 


Oi'cupationa. 


Town  clerk's  department 

Boioiifih  eiipiiieer's  depaitmeut  .. 
Boroiifrli  treasurer's  department  . . . 
Borough  .accountant'^  department 

Sanitary  department  

Water- works  department : 


Boys 


Woikmeu 

Cierks,  &c. . . 
Coal  department. 


Per  day. 

$3  12 
1  20 
7  38 
6  00 
1  80 

1  44 
4  80 

2  40 

Per 
month. 


.$91  20 
64  61 
36  92 
23  54 
46  04 


45  60 
16  14 


PRINTERS'  WAGES. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  sixty  hours  to  printers  (compositors,  pressmen, 

proof-readers,  c)'c.)m(  Hull. 


Occupation.^. 


Printers  and  compositors  . 

Pressment 

Proof-readers 


Lowest. 

(*) 


Highest. 
$7  20 


D 


9  60 


•  Standard  wages. 


tNone  ;  all  done  bj-  machinery. 


KIDDERMINSTER. 


REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  MORTON. 

Houses  occupied  by  artisans  are  of  two  classes  :  tlie  one  reuted  at 
from  4s.  to  4s'.  Orf.  a  week,  contain  a  cellar,  two  rooms  on  ground  floor, 
and  two  bedrooms,  with  the  use  of  a  wash-house  jointly  with  three 
other  houses.  These  houses  are  occupied  by  ordinary  weavers  and 
laborers.  The  other  class  are  rented  at  from  5s.  (Sd.  to  Is.  a  week,  and 
contain  a  cellar,  two  rooms  on  ground  floor,  three  bed-rooms,  and  a  sepa- 
rate wash  house  adjoining  the  back-room. 

The  rule  enforced  here  is,  that  there  shall  be  at  least  one  privy  or 
water-closet  to  every  three  cottages. 


66*8  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

The  habits  of  the  artisans  are  generally  steady  and  trnstwortliy,  and 
the  existence  of  several  land  and  bnilding'  societies,  to  which  weekly  or 
monthly  payments  are  made  indnces  habits  of  saving. 

The  tendency  of  the  artisan  class  of  late  years  has  been  to  expend 
money  in  Saturday  or  ^Monday  excursions,  to  the  damage  of  the  i)ublic- 
house  interest,  which  of  late  has  been  much  depressed. 

In  Kidderminster  an  association  denominated.  "  The  Kidderminster 
Power  Loom  Carpet  Weavers  Mutual  Defense  and  Provident  Associa- 
tion," has  existed  for  some  years,  and  has  now  an  invested  capital  of 
over  £9,000.  This  association  almost  entirely  controls  the  cari)et  trade 
of  the  town,  with,  in  my  opinion,  a  most  disastrous  ettect.  In  many 
firms  no  man  who  is  not  a  member  of  the  association  is  allowed  to  be 
taken  on  under  penalty  of  the  wliole  of  the  society  hands  being  imme- 
diately withdrawn.  During  a  partial  strike  which  existed  in  Kidder- 
minster, during  the  early  part  of  this  year,  assaults  upon  non-members 
were  freely  committed ;  in  some  cases  their  houses  were  wrecked,  and 
the  employers  at  whose  works  the  strike  took  place  were  daily  mobbed. 
They  also  received  threats  of  a  most  serious  character,  and  were  under 
special  i)olice  protection  for  several  weeks.  The  cause  of  the  strike  was 
the  emi)loyment  of  female  labor  upon  an  entirely  new  woven  fabric  in- 
troduced by  the  offending  firm,  and  which  is  onl.v  used  for  curtains  or 
ceilings,  and  was  in  no  way  connected  with  the  carpet  trade.  Had  the 
strike  succeeded  a  new  industry  (which  was  much  needed)  would  have 
been  lost  to  the  town. 

The  artisans  are  wholly  paid  in  sterling,  and  are  free  to  purchase 
every  description  of  necessaries  where  they  choose. 

There  is  in  the  borough  an  industrial  co  operative  society,  which  is 
mainly  supported  by  artisans,  and  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condition, 
possessed  of  extensive  shops,  a  bakery  and  butchery  establishment,  also 
a  tavern  and  large  room  for  meetings  and  entertainments;  the  whole 
comprising  a  large  block,  having  frontage  to  two  streets,  A  recent  bal- 
ance sheet  accompanies  this  memorandum. 

I  am  informed  by  the  retail  tradesmen  in  the  borough  that  their  busi- 
ness profits  have  been  seriously  affected  by  the  co-operative  stores,  and 
several  of  them  have  issued  lists  of  prices  for  cash,  competing  with  the 
stores,  so  that  the  general  public  are  now  enabled  to  obtain  goods  at 
lower  prices.  I  would  remark  that  the  working  classes  generally  in  this 
borough,  when  they  are  fairly  careful,  are  comfortably  housed,  dressed, 
and  fed,  though  of  course  there  are  many  exceptions. 

The  hours  of  work  in  the  carpet  trade  are  fifty-six  hours  i)er  week. 
The  number  of  male  weavers  employed  in  the  Kidderminster  trade  is 
about  1,400.  I  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  number  of  women  and 
girls  em])loved  in  the  town,  but  it  is  verv  large. 

JAS.  MORTON, 

Confinlar  Agent. 

United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Kidderminster;,  27th  May,  1884. 


labor  in  europe england. 

1.  General  trades. 

fVqges  imid  in   Kidderminiiter,  per  week  of  !r>(U  lioum.' 


669 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Brick  layers   per  hour 

Hod  carriers do. . 

Masons  do. . 

Tenders do . . 

Plasterers do . . 

Tenders do. . 

Slaters do  - 

jRoofers do  . 

Tenders  do  . 

Plumbers  do  . 

Assistants do. . 

Carpenters do   . 

Gas-fitters do . . 

Bakers ..do.. 

Blacksmiths do  . 

Strikers do. 

Millwrights do     .  j 

Draymen per  week . . !        $4  50 

Cab-drivers  and  coachmen do  ...]         4  86 

Gardeners,  good  -  -  do . . .  j  C  00 

Horseshoers do ! 

Laborers,  porters,  <fec do . . 

Teachers,  male per  annum 

Teachers,  female do 

Primers per  week 

Tailors do... 


Highest.    Average. 


$0  13| 

8J 
14i 

8 
13 

8J 
14 
14 

84 
14 

8 
14 
14 


$5  00 
"  7  so' 


13 
8 
18 

4  75 

5  10 

6  75 
6  50 
4  00 


486  00 

291  00 

6  25 

6  00 


1,215  00 

777  00 

12  50 

8  50 


*  Based  upon  one  penny,  oqiuiling  two  cents. 
Wa(/e8  paid  in  and    in  connection   with   M'^fifirx.   Fairlxinks,   Lavender  .f  Son,   in  WalmU. 


Occupations. 

Lowest.    Highest. ;  Average. 

Harness-makers  (3  employed) 

I 
$6  41           $9  00             $7  45 
3  40           17  01               7  81 

Saddlery  triniraiugs  ( 10  eniployed)    

Bit-makers  (6  employed) 

4  58             7  83               6  27 
4  16             8  29               5  73 

*0f  the  above  the  loweet  is  an  idler,  who  will  not  work  :  and  the  highest  an  exceptionally  fine  side- 
saddle maker. 

FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 

Watjen  paid  in  factories  <>r  niilh  in  Mexsr-s.  Dixon'is  carpet  factorii,   KidderminHter. 
f  \V;-ek  of  1ifty..Hi.\  limir.H.  ] 


Occupations. 


Lowest.     Highest.    Average. 


Engineers per  annum 

Dyers do....'  $729  00  $972  00 

Color  makers do...  729  00  972  00 

Blacksmiths  and  machinists »--per  week..'  7  29  9  72 

Loom  tuners do...  9  72  14  .58 

Foremen do 7  29  14  .58 

"Weavers  (full  work) do 7  29  10  92 

Printers  (women) do ;  3  90  4  86 

Setters  (women) do 4  86  5  35 

€reelers do....  3  90  ,  4  37 


.$972  00 


9  72 
9  72 


670 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  the  borough  of  Kidder- 
minster. 


Cooks  (female)  . ... 

Houseinaids 

GrooiiiH  (ouUloor)  . 

Coachiucii 

Nurses  (domestic). 


Occnpations. 


Lowest. 


$58  00 

38  00 

225  00 


48  50 


Highest 


Average. 


$121  50        $100  00 
75  00  I  60  00 

260  00  ! 

,        350  00 

97  00    


CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  to  the  co-oporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Kidderminster,  per  week  of  ."le  hours. 


Occupations. 


Engineer  

Assistant  engineers  .. 

Stokers 

Streets,  foreman 

Turncock       

Driver  of  steam-roller. 

Bricklayers 

Scavengers 

Carters    

Foreman  of  nightmen . 
Night  men 


STORE  AND  SHOP  WAGES. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Men  at  the  countei-  . . . . 
Women  at  the  counter. 
Women  (dressmakers) . 


$0  60 
60 
60 


$17  00 
7  25 
7  25 


$11  75 
6  75 
4  37 
6  75 

6  25 

6  25 

7  25 
4  12 

4  62 
7  25 

5  12 


6  00 
3  75 
3  75 


LEEDS. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DOOKERY. 

In  submitting  herewith  what  I  believe  to  be  an  interesting  report  on 
labor,  &c.,  in  this  consuhir  district,  I  have,  as  usual,  to  complain  of  the 
great  difticulty  in  obtaining  such  statistics.  In  fact,  it  is  impossible  to 
get  up  these  reports  without  incurring  a  large  and  serious  expense. 

People  here  are  not  accustomed  to  giving  away  anything,  and  they 
certainly  will  not  tell  one  the  wages  they  i)ay  in  their  factories,  mills, 
&c,  So  the  (Hily  way  to  get  these  wages  is  to  adoi)t  the  tedious  and 
expensive  method  of  seeing  the  various  laborers,  and  obtaining  the  de- 
sired information  from  them.  I  beg  that  the  thanks  of  the  Department 
may  be  given  to  Mr.  Benjamin  Pickard,  secretary  of  the  Miners'  Asso- 
ciation, for  information  kindly  furnished  me  regarding  miners'  wages. 
No  thanks  are  due  to  any  one  else.  I  have  found  it  impracticable  to 
follow  the  exact  lines  laid  down  in  your  several  circulars,  but  I  have 
done  my  best  to  make  the  repmt  an  intelligent  and  a  correct  one.  You 
will  see  it  is  one  which  has  required  a  great  deal  of  labor. 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES,  COUNTY   OF   YORK. 

For  observations  as  to  the  average  wages  I  have  divided  this  large 
county  into  four  tiivisions — the  eastern  division  and  the  southern  divis- 
ion of  the  West  Riding,  the  East  Hiding,  and  the  North  Hiding.  I  find 
from  personal  observation  in  each  division  that  there  is  very  little  real 
difference  in  the  amount  of  money  paid  for  the  hire  of  farm  servants,  at 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


671 


the  same  time  the  number  of  working^  hours  per  day  are  a  shade  less  in 
the  North  Riding.  The  only  reason  for  this,  so  far  as  I  am  able  to 
judge,  is  that  the  holdings  are  of  much  less  acreage  than  in  the  other 
three  Ridings,  with  less  arable  and  more  grass  laud,  and  consequently 
require  less  labor.  Also,  as  a  rule,  the  laboring  man  in  the  North  Rid- 
ing has  to  pay  rent  for  his  cottage  (though  merely  nominal).  In  the 
West  Riding  the  laborer  in  many  instances  has  his  coals,  bed,  potatoes, 
and  milk  found,  but,  to  take  the  whole  county  as  a  basis,  it  is  the  ex- 
ception to  the  rule.  The  extra  wages  paid  during  the  harvest  season 
are  the  same,  or  nearly  so,  in  all  the  ridings,  namely,  10s.  per  week  for 
four  weeks  above  the  ordinary  wage. 


Occupation. 


Laboring  man : 

First per  week.. 

Second do 

Foreman  of  farm per  year. . 

Second  man do . . . 

Third  plowman do 

Plowboy do 

Sbepiierd per  week.. 

Blacksmith per  day. . 

Joiner do 

Cowman per  week.. 

Groom per  year.. 

Servant-girl do . . . 

Scullery-maid do 

Thraabinsr-macbine  men per  day.. 

Women  (to  hoe  or  gatbeiing  stones,  &c.) Ao 

Boys  fifteen  years  old,  to  A<>  same  as  women do 

Girls  ten  to  twelve  years  old,  to  do  same  as  boys,  gather 

stones,  &,c per  day . . 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters per  week . . 


Lowest.     Highest. 


£  s.  d. 

0  IG    0 

0  15    0 

25    0    0 

17    0    0 

14    0    0 

10    0    0 

0  17     0 

0    4    0 

0    4    0 

0  17    0 

13    0     0 

12     0    0 

8    0    0 

0    2    6 

0     10 

0    10 

0    0    9 


*Uab  and  carriage do. 


Street  railways j    0  32    0 

Conductors perday..|    0    3    6_ 


£  s.  d. 

0  18    0 

0  15    0 

35    0     0 

20    0    0 

16    0    0 

14    0    0 

0  18    6 

0    4     0 

0    4    0 

0  18    0 

16    0    0 

16    0    0 

10    0    0 

0     3    0 

0    13 

0     10 

0     10 

0  23     0 

0  17     0 

0  35    0 
0    3    9 


Kemarks. 


With  cottage ;  no  board. 
No  cottage  ;  no  board. 
With  board  and  lodging. 

Do.  " 

Do. 

Do. 
And  a  cottage. 
With  two  pints  of  beer. 

Do. 
With  a  cottage. 
With  board  and  lodging. 

Do. 

Do. 
With  two  pints  of  beer. 
And  no  board. 

Do. 

Do. 

No  stated  number  of 
hours. 

Less  1«.  per  week  to  har- 
ness men  for  cleaning. 


*Cab  and  carriage  drivers  receive  the  following  fees,  namely,  for  weddings  5«.,  for  funerals  2*.  6rf., 
and  when  employed  by  time  3s.  6d.  per  day. 

STREET   RAILWAY   WAGES. 

Conductors  and  drivers  of  the  street  railways  work  at  least  fifteen 
hour  per  day  for  six  days  in  the  week.  On  Sundays  fewer  cars  are 
run  also,  beginning  late  and  stopping  early.  ]t  will  be  noted  that  in 
proportion  to  the  hours  of  labor  this  is  perhaps  the  worst  paid  class  of 
labor  to  be  found  in  the  country.  The  men  are  not  well  clothed  and 
appear  poor.  They  are  permitted  by  the  company  to  publicly  importune 
the  customers  of  the  various  lines  of  railways  just  before  Christmas  for 
"tij)S."  All  the  money  thus  collected  is  put  into  hotchpot  and  then 
divided  equally  among  drivers  and  conductors. 


PRINTERS,   BOOKBINDERS,    &C. 

Wagse  paid  per  week  of  55|  hours. 


Occupations. 


Bookbinders  . . 

Engravers 

Lithographers 
Printers 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

s. 

s. 

20 

36 

30 

50 

16 

40 

2C 

40 

3ft 
40 
30 
32 


672 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  forty-eight  hours  to  the  corporation  envployes  in  the  town  of  Leeds. 


Descriptiou  of  employment. 


Night-8oil  men 

Scavenjiers  * 

Foreman  of  each  department 


Lowest.    I   Highest. 


&  s.  d. 
0  18  0 
0    18    0 


£    s.    d. 


Cartmen  J 

Plumbers: 0      4    0 

Pipe-layers  : 0      4    0 


*2«.  extra  Saturday  night  and  Sunday  morning. 


t Per  annum. 


;  Per  dav. 


Superintendent j ,tl30 

Destructor  men | 1 

AVater-trouj;h  closet  men 1 

Cartwright  and  blacksmith 1 

Road-scrapers 1 

Cartmen    0    18    0    ,      1 

Stokers  (gas) j 1 

Coal  wheelers j     1      0    0 

Smiths: i     0      4    4     1 

Strikers 1       0    0     i 

Joiners j 

Purifiers  : 

Bricklayers  § 

Laborers I    1      0    0    j 


10  0 

0  0 

08  0 

04  0 

0-J  0 

0  0 

1  () 
5  0 


0 

4 

8 

1 

10 

0 

0 

» 

8* 

0 

0 

84 

3  8 

4  8 
4     4 


J  Per  hour. 


TELEGRAPH   OPERATIVES. 

Males  commence  with  12.9.  per  week  and  are  raised  duriug  the  first  year 
to  14s.,  when  they  have  to  pass  au  examination.  If  successful  they  then 
receive  16s.  a  week,  which  is  increased  weekly  by  Is.  6</.  until  it  reaches 
-35.S'.;  from  this  time  it  is  increased  weekly  by  2s.  until  it  reaches  50s. 
After  this  they  are  eligible  for  apjiointments  varying  from  £150  to  £1,200 
per  annum. 

Females  commence  with  10s.  a  week  and  are  increased  to  12s.  during 
the  first  year,  when  they  have  to  pass  an  examination  ;  if  successful  they 
get  a  weekly  increase  of  Is.  per  week  until  it  reaches  18«.  per  week,  then 
an  increase  oi'  2s.  per  week  until  it  reaches  2Gs.  per  week,  and  from  this 
2s.  increase  weekly  until  it  reaches  32s.  per  week,  wlii(;h  is  the  highest 
they  get. 

Males  work  eight  liours  a  day,  Sundays  included.  Females  work  the 
same,  but  not  on  Sundays. 

Messengers  receive  Id.  \)vv  message. 


GENERAL    TRADES. 
Wages  paid  jHT  hour  to  workmen  in  Leeds. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Higljest. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

Pence. 

7 

4J 

7 

5 

8 

,'> 

7 

3 

8 

5 

7A 

8 

4 

Pence. 
8 

5i 
0 

7 

9i 

7 

?* 

6 

84 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


673 


Potters,  turners,  throwers,  jiiid  plate-makers  receive  24,v.  to  42s.  per 
week  of  54  hours;  tinsmiths,  called  tin-plate  workers  (men),  society- 
wage,  2Ss. 

Prices  charged  by  master-builders. 


Occupationa.                            Wages. 

Occupationa. 

Wages. 

Pence. 
Mason per  hour. .             10 

Laborer do 6 

Bricklayer do 9J 

Laborer do . . .                 6 

Carpenter  and  joiner do 9 

Laborer do 6J 

Pence. 
Slater per  hour..                 9^ 

Laborer do 6i 

Plumber do  ..                  9| 

Laborer do 5 

Plasterer do 11 

Laborer do 8 

STORE   AND    SHOP   WAGES. 
Wages  per  week  of  six  days  in  stores  {wholesale  or  retail)  to  males  and  females,  in  Leeds. 


Occupations. 


Orocers  and  tea  dealers  : 

•  'SJMen , 

'^■"HBoys 

Boot  and  shoe  dealers : 

Men 

Women 

Boys 

Clothiers : 

Men    

Boys 

Hatters  and  hosiers : 

Men 

Women 

Boys     

Booksellers  : 

Men 

Women 

Boys 

Ironmongers,  <tc. : 

Men 

Boys  

Chemists  and  druggists : 

Men 

Women 

Boys  

Stationers  : 

Men 

Women 

Boys 

Fancy  goods,  &.c. : 

Men 

Women 

Boys  


Lowest. 


Highest. 


«.  d. 

21     0 
3     6 

».     d. 
30    0 
7    0 

21     0 
16    0 
3    6 

32     0 
16    0 
6    0 

21     0 
5    0 

66    0 
16    0 

26    0 
10    0 
4     0 

40    0 
16    0 
8    0 

20    0 
]0    0 
4    0 

40    0 
20    0 
7    0 

20    0 
4    0 

50    0 
*10    0 

25    0 
8    0 
3     6 

45    0 
14    0 
6    0 

30    0 
12     0 

3     6 

1 

50    0 
21     0 

7    0 

24    0 
7     0 
4    0 

35    0 
18    0 
8    0 

*  To  twenty  years  of  age. 
RAILWAY  EMPLOTl^S. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employe's  (those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those 
engaged  on'Jhe  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <fc.)  in  Leeds. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  I  Highest. 


<TQard 

Porter    

Signalmen 

Clerks,  booking,  parcels,  <fec. 

Lampmon 

Engine-drivers 

Fireman 

Cleaners 

Fitters  

Laborers 


g. 

d. 

s. 

d. 

22 

0 

27 

6 

16 

0 

19 

0 

22 

0 

30 

0 

5 

9 

50 

0 

15 

0 

18 

0 

30 

0 

45 

0 

18 

0 

27 

0 

6 

0 

15 

0 

21 

0 

32 

0 

18 

0 

19 

0 

92  A— LAB 43 


674 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE KNGLAND. 


WORSTED   MILLS. 
Wages  paid  hi  irorsted-mlUs  in  Yorkshire 2)tr  ueek  of  Jiftji-air  hours. 


Occupations. 


Wool-sorting: 

Foreman  

Other  men 

Combing : 

Foreman 

Fettlers   

"WooUiers 

Girls 

Drawing : 

Foreman 

Girls  

Spinning: 

Foreman  (usually  by  piece) . 

Boys  and  girls    

Dressing: 

Foreman 

Other  helps 


Amount. 


8.  d. 

35  0 

24  0 

70  0 

24  0 

24  0 


Occupations. 


42 

0 

]2 

0  1 

35 

0 

8 

6 

30 

0 

24 

0 

Weaving:  *.  i. 

Tuner 42  0 

Assistant 24  0 

Weaver* 

Knollers 12  0 

Peichers 12  0 

Mechanic's  shop: 

Mechanic 28  0 

Engine: 

Engine  man 40  0 

Carriers : 

Foreman 24  fr 

JSextman i  21  • 


*  Always  by  piece. 

FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE   SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty -four  hours  in  foundries  and  machine  shops 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.   Avenge. 


s.    d. 


g.    d. 


33 
12 

0 
0 

30  lOi 
8  9i 

28 

0 

28  0 

36 

0 

30  10 

20 
32 
11 

0 
0 
0 

19  7i 

29   A 

9  6 

32 
9 
34 
12 
19 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

25  7H 
6  114 

31  eg 

18  \ 

20  e 

21 

0 

21  0 

28 

0 

28  e 

32 

0 

29  • 

23 

0 

20  » 

29 

6 

29  6 

24 

0 

19  e 

!  s.  d.\ 

Model-maters 29  0  i 

Apprentices 5  0 

Joiners   28  0 

Smiths 27  0 

Strikers '  19  0  | 

Fitters |  24  0  [ 

Apprentices i  7  0 

Turners 20  0  j 

Apprentices I  5  0  ' 

Molders 29  Oi 

Apprentices i  4  0 

Molders,  laborers 18  0 

Brassfitters ;  20  0 

Foundry  engine  man [  21  0 

Foundry  blast  tender I  28  0 

Core-makers !  26  0 

Fettlers '  20  0 

Painters i  29  6 

Laborers I  14  0 

\ [ ! 

Note. — The  averages  in  the  third  column  are  believed  to  be  correct. 
LEEDS   CIGAR-MAKERS. 

Journeymen  receive  from  2s.  to  2s.  6d.  per  100  cigars.  They  make  from 
1,200  to  2,000  cigars  i)er  week,  therefore  earning  a  wage  of  from  £1  4s. 
to  £2  per  week. 

Joiirneywomen  receive  from  10^/.  to  Is.  (id.  per  100  cigars,  earning 
from  10s.  to  25s.  per  week. 

In  cigar  works  they  serve  an  apprenticeship  from  four  to  seven  years, 
and,  to  commence  with,  receive  (id.  per  100,  earning  about  Gs.  per  week, 
and  until  their  apprenticeship  has  been  served  their  earnings  will  not 
exceed  12s.     This  refers  to  boys.     Girls  receive  (id.  to  dd.  per  100. 

WAGES   PAID   IN   IRON   AVORKS   IN   LEEDS. 

Drmving  out  hammers. — The  head  hammerman  takes  his  work  at  a 
price  iier  ton  for  different  articles.     The  earnings  vary  considerably, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


675 


according  to  description  of  work.  It  may,  however,  be  taken  that  this 
class  of  workman  can  earn  for  a  full  week's  work  from  £8  to  £\'J;  his 
assistants  are  fnrnaceman,  £4  to  £3  ])er  week;  under  hammerman,  8s. 
to  U)s.  per  day  ;  stuff-enders,  os.  to  O.v.  per  day ;  leverers,  4.s\  to  rts.  ]wr  day. 

Ball  fur narcH. — The  hammerman  and  furuaceman  are  jiartners  and 
take  the  work  by  the  ton.  Their  wages  average  lOs.  to  12.s'.  per  day. 
Underhand  men  earn  5,s'.  to  O.s.  per  day. 

Boiler  plate  mill. — Roller  (contractor  fpa id  by  ton)  earns  £8  or  £10 
per  week  ;  his  assistants  are,  furnaceman,  to  whom  he  pays  £1  ])er  day ; 
under  roller,  £L  per  day ;  under  hands,  3,s'.  M.  to  7.S'.  per  day. 

Bar  mill. — Roller  (paid  by  ton) ;  the  earnings  vary  considerably  from 
£4  to  £8  i)er  week.  He  employs,  furnaceman,  Ss.  to  ^s.  per  day  ;  other 
assistants  (skilled),  Is.  to  Oa*.  per  week ;  other  assistants  (laborers),  4s.  to 
5s.  per  day. 

Puddler. — Forehand  puddler,  by  tonnage,  £2  10s.  to  £3  10s.  per  week  ; 
forehand  nobbier,  by  tonnage,  £2  10s.  to  £3  10s.  per  week;  middle  hand, 
4s.  per  day;  boy,  Is.  Of/,  per  day. 

Sundries. — Steam-hammer  drivers,  men,  21s.  to  25s.,  boys,  6s.  to  10s.  per 
week ;  engine-men,  2Gs.  to  30s.  per  week  ;  boiler  firers,  about  20s.  per 
week ;  fitters  and  turners,  28s.  per  week ;  slotters  and  drillers,  20s.  to  24s. 
per  week;  joiners,  24s.  to  28s.  per  week;  cartmen,  19s.  per  week;  yard 
laborers,  2s.  Gd.  to  3s.  3d.  per  day. 

DYERS. 

Wages  paid  dyers  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  Leeds. 


Occupations. 


Operative  dyers 

Crabbers  and  singers  : 

Men 

Boys  

Pressers* 

Firers  

Dyers  : 

Men 

Boys. 


Stretcbeis  (piece-work,  women) . 
Stitcbers  (piece-work,  women) .. 


*  Piece-work;  average,  3d.  per  piece.  tPer  100  pieces  of  stuff. 

Pattern  dyers,  blue  dyers,  and  black  dyers,  foremen,  generally  from  £100  to  £500  per  annum. 


RATE   OF  WAGES   PAID   FOR   MAKING  BEST   YORKSHIRE   IRON. 

Refining  iron. — Is.  8^?.  per  ton  (pays  1  man  4s.  per  day  and  1  boy  2s. 
9rf.  per  day). 

Puddling. — 10s.  per  ton  (28  cvvt.  a  day),  and  the  puddler  pays  one 
middle  hand  4s.  per  day,  one  boy  2s.  per  day. 

Drawing  blooms,  d-e.,  at  hammer'. — 1,  heated  work,  at  2s.  9d.;  2,  heated 
Work,  at  4s.  3d.',  3,  heated  work,  at  4s.  9rf.;  4,  heated  work,  at  Os. ;  tyre 
blooms,  Gs.  lOd.  Fagots  for  making  into  axles,  6s.  lOd.  Slabs  to  700 
pounds  weight,  6s.  5*-/. ;  from  700  to  3,000,  7s.  Sd.;  extra  on  slabs  to  900 
pounds,  Sd.  each  ;  above  900  pounds,  Is.  5d. 

This  work  is  taken  by  the  piece  by  both  hammerman  and  furnace- 
man, each  have  the  prices  stated  and  pay  their  own  men.  The  hammer- 
man pays  1  second  hand  7s.  Gd.  per  day;  one  staff ender,  5s.  Gd.  per 
day ;  one  leverer,  4s.  Gd. ;  and  one  boy,  3s.  per  day.  The  furnaceman 
pays  one  ball  furnaceman  7s.  Gd.  i)er  day,  and  three  firers  4s.  per  day 
h. 


676  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Axle  finishing  at  /lamwer.— Small  axles,  21s.  Qd.  per  ton  ;  large  axles, 
25s.  per  ton. 

The  haniraermau  takes  the  whole  of  this  price  and  pays  both  ham- 
mermen and  furnacemen,  say:  1  under  hand,  7s.  Qd.  per  day;  1  fur- 
naceman,  Us.;  1  staft-euder,  5s.  6(?. ;  8  firers,  4s. ;  1  leverer,  4s.  6d. ;  1 
boy,  3s. 

Crank  maMng. — 80s.  per  ton. 

The  crank-makers  pay  all  out:  2  furnacemen,  9s.  per  day;  1  under 
hand,  9s.;  1  stafi'ender,  5s.  6<Z. ;  1  leverer,  4s.  6rf. ;  1  boy,  3s.;  the  fur- 
nacemen help  at  the  hammer. 

BoUing  bar  iron. — Rounds,  flats,  and  squares  any  size,  5s.  6d.  per 
ton;  T  and  angle  irons,  7s.  3d.  per  ton. 

L.  The  roller  has  the  whole  and  pays  1  furnaceman  8s.  per  day  ;  1  bolter- 
down,  Os.  per  day ;  2  catchers,  4s.  6d.  each ;  3  boys,  averaging  2s.  9^. 
per  day. 

f  \Guide  mill  (per  ton). — Above  three-quarter  inch  diameter  or  square, 
OS.  9rf. ;  three  quarter  inch  diameter  or  square  or  under,  9s.  9d.;  three- 
eighth  inch  diameter  or  square  or  under,  13s.  ^d. 

Tyre  rolling. — bs.  Sd.  per  ton.     The  roller  paying  all  out. 

RATE   OF   WAGES   PAID   FOR   MAKING   COMMON   YORKSHIRE   IRON. 

Puddling per  ton..   Is.  6d. 

Daily  yield cwt . .  25 

1  under  liand  to  pay per  day . .   '.is.  6d. 

Plate  mill. 

t.    d. 

Plates per  ton . .  10  0 

Sheets — 

^iuch  up  to  I2u  G 1'^  0 

12vvGtol4 14  0 

14tol6wG 16  0 

16to20wG 18  0 

Fuiiiacemau  gets  (in  the  pouud) 7  0 

Roller  j)ay8  the  shearer per  ton . .  2  0 

Roller  pays  for  help per  day . .  18  0 

Furnaceman  pays  for  help do 8  6 

Shearer  pays  for  help do 13  0 

Bar  viill. 
Roller— 

For  bar  iron per  ton . .     6    0 

For  angles do 7     0 

For  T-iron do 9     0 

Two  furnacemen  receive  6s.  in  the  pouud  to  divide ;  roller  pays  for 
help  26s.  per  day. 

Shingles:  s.  d. 

Fagots per  ton . .  14 

Slabs do 1     6 

Fagot  roller do 1     4 

He  pays  for  help per  day . .  11     0 

GLASS  BOTTLE  FACTORY. 

I  transmit  hereunder  a  list  of  the  wages  paid  in  a  glass  bottle  factory 
in  this  district,  and  I  have  it  from  one  of  the  workmen  that  they  are 
the  best  paid  laborers  in  England.  I  think  no  one  will  doubt  it  after 
seeing  the  earnings  given  below,  and  I  must  say  that  the  party  who 
gave  me  the  information  was  well  dressed,  fairly  well  educated,  and 
altogether  produced  the  impression  that  he  was  getting  on  well  in  the 


LABOR    IN    P^UROPE ENGLAND.  677 

world — a  bottle- iiuiker.  He  is  a  "  union"  man,  and  says  the  people 
employed  in  glassmaking  are  somewhat  equally  divided,  but  that  all 
work  together  on  amicable  terms,  irrespective  of  union  and  non-union. 
Further,  that  no  strike  of  importance  has  occurred  for  several  years, 
and  I  do  not  wonder  at  this  when  the  glass  workers  earn  so  much  bet- 
ter wages  than  other  laborers.  I  am  further  informed  that  glass-workers 
in  the  United  States  earn  still  higher  wages,  and  that  many  have  emi- 
grated from  here  on  that  account.  I  can  myself,  to  some  extent,  bear 
this  out,  for  I  have  been  asked  by  owners  of  glass  works  to  testify  to 
their  respectability  in  cases  where  they  have  given  good  characters  to 
people  leaving  their  glass  works  for  America,  the  owners  stating  in  the 
character  that  so  and  so  is  only  leaving  (to  their  own  regret)  for  the 
purpose  of  bettering  their  condition.  I  have  letters  to  this  effect  fiom 
owners. 

Before  going  into  the  question  of  wages  I  may  as  well  state  what  is 
already  known  to  the  trade,  that  in  glass  works  labor  is  divided  into 
shifts  as  to  time,  i.  e.,  six  hours  per  shift,  and  into  "  chairs"  as  to  divis- 
ion of  labor.  In  England  the  "  chair"  consists  of  only  four  people,  the 
bottle  maker,  blower,  apprentice,  and  the  boy.  But  in  America,  to  the 
first  two  above  mentioned,  I  am  told,  are  added  ten  boys,  making,  all 
told,  twelve  persons  to  the  chair  instead  of  four.  But  I  am  also  in- 
formed that  the  product  in  America  is  not  only  quite  twice  as  much  per 
chair,  but  of  superior  quality  as  compared  with  here ;  and  that  the 
American  system  was  tried  in  this  country  some  years  ago,  but  did  not 
give  satisfaction  because  conventionality  or  conservatism  })revented 
its  getting  a  fair  trial.  All  the  wage  rates  1  give  in  connection  with 
this  industry  are  average  rates,  as  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  other  rates, 
and  these  rates  even  do  not  come  under  the  proper  description  of  stated 
wages,  because  the  larger  wage-earning  class  in  the  glass  works  get 
paid  by  the  piece — or,  rather,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 
But  1  have  it  from  a  bottle-maker  that  he  receives  2s.  -id.  per  move,  that 
the  blower  receives  2s.  per  move — a  move  meaning  two  gross  of  bottles; 
and  he  says  that  the  average  earnings  per  chair  composed  as  under,  per 
week  of  48  hours,  is : 

«. 

Bottle-maker 46 

Blower 40 

Apprentice*  5 

Boy 5 

"Packers" are  paid  3d.  per  crate,  large  and  small,  and  earn  a  wage 
according  to  capability  and  willingness. 

t. 

The  averauje  earning  beiug per  week . .  20 

Common  laborers  in  the  yard  receive do  ....   18 

Women  employed  in  the  warehouse  washing  bottles,  arranging  glass  stoppers,  &c., 

per  week 8 

Furnacemen    per  week . .  27 

Furnacemen  may  earn  extra do 2 

Mold-makers  : 

Foreman do 34 

Others do 25 

WAGES   PAID   PER    WEEK   OF   FIFTY-FOUR    HOURS   IN   LEEDS. 

Men  are  paid  by  the  hour,  and  according  to  the  class  of  work  they  are 
engaged  on  they  earn  from  25.<f.  to  50*'.  per  week.     Women  are  paid 

*  The  apprentice  gets  5».  the  first  >'ear  and  rises  Is.  per  year  as  long  as  his  appren- 
ticeship lasts,  SOS  that  being  an  undetinable  something,  noaverage  (;au  be  arrived  at. 


678  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

according;  to  the  amount  of  work  they  do,  and  they  earn  from  7s.  Gd.  to 
15s.  per  week.  Four  years  ago  men  u.sed  to  earn  £6  a  week,  but  there 
was  a  lock-out  and  wages  reduced  to  present  rates. 

A  YORKSHIRE    IRON   REFINER'S   STATEMENT. 

I  obtained  the  information  given  below  from  a  man  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  what  is  commercially  known  as  "best  Yorkshire"  iron, 
where  wages  are  higher  than  in  the  "common  "  iron  mills.  He  ex- 
plained to  me  that  he  pays  6d.  per  week  to  a  "sick"  club  and  while  sick 
he  receives  lOs.  per  week  from  the  club.  Should  he  die  his  wife  receives 
£10,  and  should  his  wife  die  he  receives  £1.  He  also  contributes  dd. 
])er  week  to  a  mechanics' aid  society  under  somewhat  diii'ereut  conditions. 

Question.  How  old  are  yon  ? — Answer.  Forty-nine. 

Q.  What  is  your  business  ? — A.  Iron  refiner. 

Q.  Have  you  a  family  ? — A.  Yes,  four  children  ;  the  eldest  a  boy  eighteen  years  old 
and  the  youngest  a  girl  eight  years  old. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive  a  day  ? — A.  I  work  by  the  "  piece,"  receiving  Is.  8d., 
per  ton  for  refining  iron,  and  earn  on  an  average  8s.  id.  per  day. 

Q.  How  many  hours  per  day  are  you  required  to  work  for  such  wages  ? — A.  I  work 
ten  and  a  half  hours  per  day,  but  only  get  on  an  average  four  days  work  per  week, 
making  my  total  earnings  33s.  4rf.perweek. 

Q.  How  much  time  are  you  allowed  for  your  meals? — A.  The  blast  is  continually 
going  so  that  there  is  no  stoppage  of  work  for  meals. 

Q.  Can  you  support  your  family  upon  such  wages  ? — A.  I  do. 

Q.  What  do  the  united  earnings  of  yourself  and  wife  amount  to  in  a  week? — A.  My 
own  amounts  to  3s.  4  d.  ;  my  eldest  son*  to  7s. ;  eldest  daughter  to  4s.  6rf.  ;  wife  earns 
nothing,  making  total  earnings  of  family  44s.  lOd.  per  week. 

Q.  Will  you  explain  in  detail  the  uses  you  make  of  this  money? — A.  For  rent,  48. ; 
for  food  and  fuel  per  week,  food  245. ;  fuel  Is.  9d.  •  for  boots  and  shoes  for  self  and 
family,  2s.  ijd.  ;  for  school  tax,  7d.  per  week  for  two  children  ;  for  dues  to  mechanics' 
aid  society,  Is. ;  for  beer,  1  pint  per  day,  at  'M.^ls.  9(?. ;  leaving  for  school  books,  doc- 
tor's bills,  and  incidentals,  Is.  9d,  per  week.  There  are  no  charges  for  schools,  as  they 
are  furnished  free  of  cost. 

Q.  Of  what  kind  of  food  do  your  daily  meals  consist? — A.  Bread  and  butter  and  tea 
or  coffee  for  breakfast.  Fruit  pudding,  potatoes,  and  meat  or  bacon  for  diuner.  For 
supper  same  as  for  breakfast;  children  get  no  supper  occasionally. 

Q.  Are  you  able  to  save  any  portion  of  your  earnings  for  days  of  sickness  or  old 
age  ? — A.  No ;  I  only  manage  to  keep  body  and  soul  together. 

MINES   AND   MINING. 

W'ttf/e-s  i)((i(l  per  day  or  week  of  from  bank  to  hank,  nine  hours  in,  and  in  connection  with,  coal 
and  ironstone  mines,  in  the  South  and  West  Hidings  of  Yorkshire. 


Occupation. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

8.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 
4    11 

Traiiiiiiers  and  lillers 

3     6 

1  6 

2  10 

3  0 

1     10 
-.'.    6 

4  0 
4     6 
7    0 

3 

4     7 
4     6 
4    0 
4    6 

6  6 

7  6 
11     6 

4  6 
2    3 

4    0 

Offhaiirts 

4    0 

2    C 

4    0 

Firetii<Ts 

• 

5     • 

5     6 

9    6 

Milling  engineers*  

Top  Jiands | 



4  0 
3     0 

1  0 

5  0 

2  6 

4  6 

5  0 

3  0 

6  0 

4  6 

4    0 

Banksuien  and  sci'eenerin 

4    0 

Boys 

1    • 

Engine  tenters 

5    3 

Offhands , . 

3    6 

*  Varies  from  £100  to  £1,000  per  year. 
*  The  eldest  son  works  as  an  apprentice  in  tiio  file  trade,  and  the  girl  in  a  clothing 
manufactory  at  sowing-miuhine. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  679 

The  av^eragfo  (;o1iiium  above  is  believed  to  be  correct.  In  fact,  wher- 
ever aveniftes  are  given  in  this  report,  they  are  correc-t.  I  have  not 
often  attempted  to  give  the  averages,  becanse  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
if  not  impossible  to  give  them  correctly'. 

(rENERAL   AVACfES   AND   COST   OF   LIVING   IN   LEEDS. 

In  the  iron  trade  there  has  been  no  change  of  any  importance,  be- 
cause where  a  rise  on  a  sliding  scale  to  the  extent  of  5  per  cent,  has 
been  obtained  it  was  of  no  substantial  benefit,  as  it  was  shortly  followed 
by  a  fall  of  5  per  cent.  I  am  told  that  2  per  cent,  would  cover  any  dif- 
ference between  wages  now  as  compared  with  wages  six  years  ago. 
This  refers  specially  to  workmen  engaged  in  works  which  turn  out  the 
best  class  of  iron,  the  said  iron  being-  a  specialty  in  this  district,  and 
therefore  the  rate  of  wages  for  the  purposes  of  the  comparison  are  not 
so  reliable  as  in  the  large  and  numerous  establishments  in  the  Stafford- 
shire iron  district.  Furthermore,  these  men  have  had  no  union  through 
which  they  could  agitate  for  an  advance  in  their  wages,  since  1864,  when 
the  masters  were  so  successful  in  outliving  a  general  strike  that  the 
union  was  completely  broken  up,  and  there  has  jirevailed  more  of  a  feel- 
ing of  ''unity  of  interest"  between  masters  and  men  in  consequence  of 
the  break-up  of  the  union,  No  further  strikes  have  taken  place ;  the 
men  seem  to  be  contented,  and  while  the  iron  trade  may  not  be  posi- 
tively prosperous,  still  it  presents  all  the  elements  of  soundness. 

These  remarks  as  to  wages  are  inapplicable  to  the  engineering  por- 
tion of  the  iron  and  steel  trade,  as  there  is  a  quasi  strike  for  higher 
wages  now  going  on  therein,  or  perhaps  I  should  say  a  strike  for  a  min- 
imum rate  of  wages.  There  is  a  union,  to  which  many  of  these  men 
belong,  and  the  union  has  ordered  their  men  out  of  those  works  where 
a  minimum  rate  of,  I  understand,  2Ss'.  per  week  is  not  recognized.  These 
are  all  more  or  less  skilled  mechanics.  I  understand  that  some  of  the 
union  men  have  refused  to  leave,  and  therefore  the  strike  is  not  gen- 
eral, even  among  union  men.  The  union  allows  the  strikeis  IJr.S'.  per 
week  while  out  of  work,  and  the  secretary  resides,  I  am  told,  in  London. 
1  learn,  upon  good  authority,  that  the  wages  in  the  iron  trade  here  are 
undoubtedly  lower  than  in  other  towns  of  this  kingdom  where  the  iron 
industry  is  predominant,  and  it  is  contended  that  this  should  be  the 
case,  because  the  industries  of  Leeds  are  so  varied  that  the  whole  of  a 
family  may  obtain  employment,  the  females  and  children  who  could  not 
work  in  iron  foundries,  &c.,  getting  work  in  woolen  mills,  &c.  This 
argument  seems  so  far-fetched,  however,  that  I  cannot  admit  it  to  be 
a  reasonable  one.  It  seems  to  be  nothing  else  than  one  of  those  pecul- 
iar advantages  which  capital  is  sometimes  in  a  position  to  take  of  labor, 
and,  adopting  the  same  principle,  the  woolen  manufacturers  would  be 
able  to  screw  down  the  wages  of  girls  employed  in  their  mills. 

Regarding  various  small  trades,  I  may  say  that  masons,  joiners,  plas- 
terers, slaters,  plumbers,  and  painters  get  a  wage  of  from  32s.  per  week 
down,  according  to  circumstances.  These  men  are  usually  controlled 
by  a  master  who  undei  takes  a  job  of  work  for  a  certain  sum,  paying  the 
men  their  wages  and  taking  himself  whatever  profit  or  loss  may  result 
from  the  job.  If  the  work,  however,  is  to  be  paid  by  the  day,  it  must 
usually  be  arranged  just  the  same,  though  the  master  who  employs  the 
men  charges  so  much  per  hour  for  their  wages  and  then  pays  the  men 
something  less,  the  difference  going  into  the  master's  pocket,  which, 
with  his  profit  on  material  supplied,  constitutes  his  pay.  In  so  far  as 
I  know,  the  men  seem  to  submit  to  the  deduction  without  reluctance, 


680  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

for  the  reason,  perhaps,  that  it  beiuy;  "  custoin"  is  laore  likely  to  insure 
them  frequent,  if  not  permanent,  employment  than  if  they  trusted  ta 
their  own  exertions  to  find  work.  Therefore  in  taking  note  of  the  scale 
of  wages  in  these  small  trades,  one  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  real 
laborer  receives  a  trifle  less  than  quoted  rates  on  a  certain  class  of  work. 
A  plumber  for  instance  will  very  likely  make  (id.  per  day  out  of  each 
of  his  men's  wages. 

Others  of  this  class,  in  a  still  smaller  way  of  business,  have  appren- 
tices, who  do  the  work  under  superintendence,  but  as  the  wages  or 
terms  are  so  various,  as  well  as  purely  of  a  private  character,  I  need 
not  consider  the  matter  here. 

From  what  I  have  been  able  to  learn  I  should  say  the  cost  of  living 
has  not  involuntarily  increased.  There  has  been  very  little  change  in 
the  cost  of  any  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  or  in  the  price  of  rents  during 
the  past  six  years.  But  coals  are  appreciably  dearer,  and  beef  is  Id.  a 
pound  more  expensive.  I  am  told,  however,  that  the  workingman  of 
to-day  insists  upon  eating  more  meat  than  formerly,  which,  of  course, 
enhances  to  that  extent  the  cost  of  living.  But  as  this  is  a  voluntary 
action,  a  departure  from  his  customary  diet,  I  believe  it  will  not  prop- 
erly enter  into  consideration  for  the  comparative  purposes.  The  work- 
ing man  also  spends  more  money  on  beer  than  formerly,  but  then  he  has 
long  been  accustomed  to  stint  every  connection  of  his  in  order  to  gratify 
this  ambition,  and  I  feel  sure,  under  whatever  circumstances  he  may 
be  placed,  the  last  man  in  the  world  he  will  "go  back  upon''  is  the 
brewer.  As  to  the  contentment  of  laborers  with  their  wages,  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  speak  with  any  degree  of  confidence.  Upon  general 
principles  one  might  truly  say,  they  are  never  contented  when  possessed 
of  the  least  degree  of  education ;  but  the  question,  I  opine,  is  not  to  be 
decided  upon  such  principles.  Then  what  standard  are  we  to  take,  or 
how  are  we  to  start,  much  less  decide?  If  from  what  one  sees  and  hears,^ 
1  answer  there  is  very  little  discontent  in  this  district  among  laborers^ 
excepting  in  the  engineering  branch  of  the  iron  trade,  referred  to  be- 
fore. And  1  think  where  no  organized  unions  exist  sucli  will  be  the 
case  everywhere.  Whether  their  condition  has  been  ameliorated  is  a 
still  more  difficult  question  to  answer,  but  in  this  town,  I  should  unhes- 
itating say,  it  has  decidedly  improved  ;  and  to  give  credit  to  whom  it  is 
due,  I  must  say  the  sanitary  authorities  have  done  something,  but  the 
school  board  has  done  the  great  part  towards  it.  The  numerous  well- 
managed  and  well-attended  schools  of  this  description  in  J^eeds  are 
alone  sufficient  testimony  that  the  condition  of  the  laboring  man  has 
been  benefited  without  regard  to  the  (juestion  as  being  incident  to 
wages. 

TRADE   UNIONS. 

It  is  quite  imi>ossible  to  form  an  intelligent  o|)inion  as  to  whether  trade 
unions  are  beneficial  or  otherwise.  The  unionists  maintain  that  they  are, 
without,  however,  giving  any  reasonable^I)r()ofs,  and  the  masters  are  still 
more  perverse  in  the  opposite  direction.  Some  unions  have  been  com- 
pletely broken  up  through  strikes  by  the  combination  of  employers. 
Yet  others  exist,  and  even  seem  to  do  some  good  if  not  actually  to 
flourish;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Working  Engineers'  Society,  em- 
bracing machinists,  millwrights,  smiths,  and  pattern-makers,  which 
society  on  the  1st  of  January  last  numbered  .■)0,-il8  Jiiembers  in  424 
branches.  These  branches  were  distribute*!  as  follows:  England,  305  f 
Scotland,  41  ;  Ireland,  14  ;  Australia,  10;  India,  1;  New  Zealand,  3  f 
Queensland,  1  ;  Canada,  (5;  Malta,  1;  United  States,  41;  and  France^ 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  681 

1.  The  total  income  of  this  society  for  the  year  amouuted  to  £1.'U,G49 
2s.  5rf.,  whi(;h  was  derived  from  the  usual  weekly  levy  of  3^/.  per  mem- 
ber, from  admission  fees,  from  interest  on  balance  in  hand,  and  from 
extraordinary  levies  upon  members  as  emergency  requires.  Last  year 
these  extraordinary  levies  amounted  to  3s.  3d.  per  member,  while  in 
1879  they  amouuted  to  23.s'.  per  head.  The  total  expenditure  during  last 
year  was  £124,724,  leaving  a  surplus  to  the  good  of  nearly  £10,000, 
which,  added  to  the  balance  in  hand  from  previous  years,  makes  £  1 78,125, 
or  an  average  value  of  £3  10.s'.  Id.  per  member  in  the  hands  of  the  society. 
The  society  has  been  in  existence  thirty-three  years,  and  a|)pears  to 
have  been  well  managed.  They  try  to  be  faithful  to  their  mission  as  a 
great  trade  union,  expect  to  lose  money  in  occasional  battles  against 
employers,  but  what  they  lose  in  cash  tliey  hope  to  gain  in  privilege  and 
independence.  They  believe  that  the  elevation  of  the  masses  is  not  to 
be  achieved  by  the  individual  acting  solely  for  himself,  but  only  by  the 
united  action  of  the  many  ;  in  other  words,  without  combination  labor 
is  powerless. 

As  between  masters  and  men,  1  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  the  men 
display  lar  more  reason  at  the  beginning  of  most  of  the  wage  disputes, 
but  less  as  the  dispute  progresses.  Something  may  be  said  in  favor  of 
many  of  the  uuisters  in  such  cases,  who  are,  no  doubt,  on  the  verge  of 
bankruptcy,  being  unable  to  pay  higher  wages,  but  who  will  lock  out 
their  men,  and  by  doing  so  even  gain  additional  credit  from  their  bank- 
ers.    I  prefer  not  to  sa^'^  that  fav  orable  something. 

A.  V.  DOCKERY, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Leeds,  June  19,  1884. 


LIVERPOOL. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  PACKARD. 

Having  given  the  considerable  amount  of  attention  to  the  Depart- 
ment's circular  under  date  of  February  15,  1884,  which  it  required,  and 
sought  and  obtained  from  a  large  number  of  the  principal  employers  of 
labor  in  my  consular  district  such  information  on  the  subject  of  wages 
and  incidental  matters  as  they  could  aftbrd,  I  now  have  the  honor  to 
present  as  the  result  the  appended  statistics  and  the  following  observa- 
tions, which  I  feel  warranted  in  saying  may  be  relied  upon  as  an  accu- 
rate representation  of  the  facts  the  Department  has  thought  tir  to  have 
so  inquired  into. 

GENERAL   LABOR   CONDITIONS   IN   LIVERPOOL. 

Liverpool  has  been  stigmatized  by  being  called  ''  the  black  spot  on 
the  Mersey,"  and  to  the  direct  and  indirect  influence  and  eft'ects  of  intoK- 
icating  drinks  that  opprobrious  appellation  is  mainly  if  not  altogether  at- 
tributable. It  is  therefore  interesting  and  gratifying  to  be  able  to  report 
that  a  considerable  increase  of  success  has  attended  recent  efforts  todivert 
from  indulgence  in  intoxicants  the  grades  of  people  most  addicted  to  and 
the  greatest  sufferers  from  them,  and  that  there  is  a  very  api)arent  and 
substantial  movement  towards  remedying  the  immediate  consequences 
of  <lrink  and  its  concomitant  evils,  which  have  been  deemed  to  prevail 


682  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

to  an  excejjrioDiil  extent  in  this  o:reat  port.  The  inuuicipal  {rovernnient, 
availing?  itself  of  powers  coufei  red  by  modern  lejiishition,  has  laid  hold 
of  the  evil  of  insanitary  dwellings  to  some  j)nrpose,  and  will  probably 
energetically  prosecute  its  operations  towards  sweei)ing  it  away.  It 
cannot,  however,  be  said  that  there  has  been  a  sufficient  recognition  of 
the  necessity  of  supplementing  this  destructive  process  l)y  providing 
suitable  dwellings  for  the  ejected  inhabitants  of  the  abodes  wisely  de- 
stroyed, and  the  local  government  has  yet  to  direct  its  attention  to  the 
difficulties  involved  iu  the  circumstance  that  the  wretched  class  of  people 
it  was  to  deal  with  are  too  poor  to  pay  rents  proportionate  to  the  cost 
of  suitable  buildings.  The  effect  of  the  demolition  of  insanitary  dwell- 
ings thus  far  seems  to  have  been  to  drive  the  occupants  into  buildings 
of  a  little  better  type,  with  the  result  that  they  have  speedily  reduced 
their  new  habitations  into  a  condition  as  bad  or  nearly  so  as  those  from 
which  they  have  removed.  Private  philanthropy  has  also  exerted  itself 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  lowest  class  of  the  i^opulation  often 
spoken  of  as  the  scum  of  the  people,  and  has  struck  a  most  telling  h\o\r 
at  their  drinking  habits  and  degradation  by  the  establishment  of  British 
workman  public-houses  upon  temperance  principles,  which  have  become 
extremely  pojjular  from  being  carried  on  upon  a  system  exactly  adapted 
to  meet  the  true  needs  of  the  multitude  in  shelter  and  good  food  as  well 
as  non-intoxicating  and  harmless  beverages.  It  will,  perhaps,  tend  to- 
wards conveying  a  correct  idea  of  these  houses  to  state  that  they  supply 
a  good-sized  cup  of  tea,  cocoa,  or  coffee  for  1(^.  (2  cents),  which  of  course 
includes  milk  and  sugar.  In  connection  with  the  movement  I  have  been 
speaking  of,  it  is  worthy  of  mention,  though  a  little  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  communication,  that  the  drinking  usages  of  the  classes  above  those 
included  in  the  term  "laboring  people"  have  been  most  successfully 
abated  by  the  institution  of  well-conducted  and  excellent  temperance 
€afes,  which  admirably  fulfill  their  purpose  and  are  very  much  appre- 
ciated. An  important  feature  of  these  enterprises  is  that  they  are  a 
commercial  success,  and  have  quite  dispelled  the  formerly  prevalent 
idea  that  philanthropy  and  profitable  investment  had  no  possible  con- 
nection. In  the  train  of  the  progress  I  have  indicated  are  naturally 
and  steadily  following  thrift,  better  physical  health,  and  imi)rovement 
of  chara<;ter.  Happily,  too,  there  is  a  tendency  towards  a  better  un- 
derstanding between  capital  and  labor,  of  which,  in  this  locality  in  par- 
ticular, a  long  immunity  from  strikes  may  be  regarded  as  evidence. 
Trades  unions  are  gradually  receding  from  the  hostility  they  assumed 
towards  employers  and  learning  to  respect  and  entertain  wise  counsels 
that  once  they  ignored,  an<l  the  relations  between  employers  and  em- 
ployed are  in  consequence  becoming  much  less  strained,  if  not  entirely 
altered,  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned. 

I  shall  send  herewith  copies  oi' the  constitutions  of  some  of  the  trades 
unions  hereabouts,  that  they  may  speak  for  themselves,  especially  in 
reference  to  arbitration. 

Working  people  in  this  country  are  perfectly  free  from  constraint  of 
any  kind  in  regard  to  their  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  ex- 
penditure of  their  earnings  being  in  no  w^ay  controlled  or  interfered 
with  by  their  employers,  and  they  always  receive  their  wages  in  the 
current  coin  of  the  realm,  there  being  no  English  bank  notes  under  five 
pounds  sterling. 

Workmen's  co-operative  societies  have  not  taken  root  in  this  district, 
and  if  any  exist  they  are  exceptional  and  unim])ortant. 

British  legislation  has  within  the  last  few  years  somewhat  narrowed 
the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  nonliability  on  the  part  of  employers 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  f)83 

ill  cases  of  accidents  to  their  work  people  on  the  grounds  of  a  coininon 
eiojiloy  by  creating  a  responsibility  for  the  adequacy  and  stability  of 
machinery,  materials,  and  gear;  and  notwithstanding  it  has  remained 
within  the  power  of  employers  to  contract  themselves  out  of  the  enact- 
ment on  the  subject,  and  they  have  generally  taken  advantage  of  their 
position  in  that  respect,  good  has  resulted  from  the  change  of  law,  as  the 
necessity  for  making  provision  against  such  contingencies  as  injury  to 
life  and  limb  in  the  performance  of  labor  has  been  indirectly  by  means 
of  it  forced  upon  the  attention  of  employers  with  a  good  effect  in  the 
institution  of  mutual  arrangements  in  the  nature  of  insurance. 

The  dwellings  of  the  laboring  population  of  Liverpool  and  its  environs 
varj"  much  in  all  other  respects  than  that  as  a  rule  they  are  not  tenement 
but  distinct  houses  in  streets  or  courts  at  the  rear  of  streets,  having  en- 
trance from  them  by  means  of  passages. 

The  common  class  of  unskilled  workmen  in  Liverpool  find  employment 
as  dock  laborers  by  the  day  or  parts  of  a  day  as  wanted,  not  as  a  rule 
making  a  full  week's  work.  The  working  classes  of  Liverpool  are  mainly 
industrious,  thrifty,  and  are  rapidly  acquiring  the  necessary  education 
under  the  operation  of  the  recent  education  act,  but  it  must  be  confessed 
tha;t  this  city,  like  many  other  large  sea-ports,  contains  a  considerable 
number  of  improvident  and  intemperate  working  people.  There  is  en- 
couragement to  thrift  in  England  in  the  facilities  and  security  al4"orded 
for  it  by  post-ofUce  savings  banks,  in  which  even  a  dei)osit  of  the  equiv- 
alent of  24  cents  may  be  made.  In  Liverpool,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  many  other  places,  there  is  an  excellent  and  deservedly  popular  sav- 
ings bank  of  long  standing  founded  upon  a  basis  that  makes  its  safety 
fully  assured. 

In  parliamentary  boroughs  workingmen,  householders,  have  tlie  par- 
liamentary, municipal,  and  school-board  franchise,  and  a  bill  is  now  be- 
fore the  House  of  Commons  for  extending  the  iDaiiiamentary  franchise 
to  agricultural  laborers  who  occupy  houses  in  counties. 

The  share  borne  by  British  workingmen  in  general  and  local  taxation 
is  not  much,  if  at  all,  complained  of,  and  may  be  regarded  as  being  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  due  proportion  with  that  borne  by  the  middle 
classes. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  manifest  that  the  condition  of  British  working- 
men  has  improved  and  continues  to  gradually  improve. 

Many  circumstances  have  contributed  to  theij-  advancement.  The 
progress  of  education,  both  compulsory  and  voluntary,  is  one  of  them. 
Philanthropic  agencies  are  another,  and  have  done  a  great  d&dl  towards 
ameliorating  their  condition.  The  extension  of  political  rights  has  prob- 
ably done  something  in  that  direction  ;  whilst  to  the  increase  of  wages 
in  times  of  prosperity  the  improvement  under  notice  is,  it  is  appre- 
hended, chietly  attributable. 

LABOR    CONDITIONS    IN    HOLYHEAD. 

In  connection  with  the  labor  circular  dated  February  15,  1884,  I 
have  received  from  Mr.  John  Jones,  consular  agent  at  Holyhead, 
tables  showing  the  rate  of  wages  paid  for  labor  in  consular  district. 
Mr.  Jones  reports  that  the  rates  of  wages  paid  to  laborers  of  every  class 
average  from  6  shillings  ($1.46)  to  18  shillings  ($4.38)  per  week,  and  have 
not  materially  altered  since  1878.  The  cost  of  living  in  the  towns  and 
villages  is,  as  a  general  rule,  very  reasonable  and  moderate,  owing  to 
the  large  quantity  of  provisions  imported  from  America. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  generally  are  steady  aiul  trust- 
worthy, and,  as  a  rule,  saving,  owing  to  their  religious  tendencies.     The 


684 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


feeling  between  employe  and  employer  is  very  satisfactory.  There  is 
no  organized  condition  of  labor,  and  strikes  do  not  occur,  there  being 
no  extensive  works.  The  people  are  free  to  purchase  their  necessaries 
of  life  wherever  they  choose,  without  interference  of  their  employers. 
They  receive  their  wages  weekly  in  current  English  money.  There  are 
no  co-operative  societies.  The  general  condition  of  the  working  class 
is  good,  their  homes  are  comfortable,  and  they  do  not  live  over  their 
means,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  moral  people,  enjoy  good  health,  and  live 
to  a  ripe  age.  They  are  very  social,  and  zealous  towards  religious  du- 
ties. The  cost  of  keeping  a  family  of  a  wife  and  six  children  of  the  labor  - 
ing  class  perweek would  be  on  an  average  about  $5.  The  workingmen 
have  their  own  independent  political  rights,  and  are  not  interfered  with 
by  employers  in  this  respect.  Their  taxes  are  generally  included  in  the 
rent.  They  do  not  emigrate  in  large  numbers,  but  the  few  that  do,  do 
so  on  account  of  having  relatives  who  have  previously  emigrated  and 
are  now  doing  well.  They  consist  of  laborers  for  agricultural  purposes, 
quarrymen,  coal  miners,  and  railway  men. 

There  is  no  female  labor  emploj^ed  except  for  household  duties  and 
domestic  servants.  Education  among  the  women  is  generally  good,  and 
they  incline  themselves  and  bring  up  their  children  in  religious  duties. 

STEPHEN  B,  PACKARD, 

GonsuL 

United  States  Consulate, 

Liverpool,  June  16, 1884. 


GENERAL   TRADES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  for  labor  in  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


Building  trades: 

Bricklayers 

Hod-carriors 

Masons 

Masons'  tenders 

Plasterers J 

Plasterers'  tenders 

Slaters  

Plumbers 

Plumbers'  assistants  or  apprentices 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

Bakers 

BlarkHniilhs 

Black.Hiiiitlis'  strikers 

Book-liiuders 

Boot  trade : 

Riveters  

Kttors 

Pegmen 

Clickers 

Machinists  (women) 

Brick-iuakers : per  1,000 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Coopers 

Drivers : 

Draymen  and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

rttreet  railways 

Engravere 

Gardeners 


6  56 
5  83 

7  29 
0  75 
7  2» 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  p«r  week  for  labor  in  Liverpool — Continued. 


685 


Occupations. 


Hours  per 
week. 


Hatters  (silk)  :  j 

Finishers per  dozen . .  Piece  work, 

Bodj'-makerB do 

Shapers do j 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 55 

Lithographers 54 

Printers 54 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 53 

Sail-makpps 54 

Tailors  : 

Men Piece  work. 

Women 

Teachers  (school  boai'd)  : 

Head  mastcis <  Per  year. 

Head  mistresses ' 

Certiticd  masters | 

Certitipd  mistresses 

Uncertified  masters ; 

ITncertified  mistresses 


Lowest. 


Tinsmiths 
Tobacco-makers : 

Cavendish 

Cigars 

Cigars  (women) 

Roll-spinners  (women) 

Cigarette-makers  (women). 

Upholsterers 

Upholsterers  (women) 

Watch-makers: 

Finisher 

Examiner 

Jobber 

Clock-maker 

Clock-jobber 


$2  19 

2  68 
1  22 

5  10 
8  27 
8  27 

6  07 
8  75 

4  86 

3  65 

705  64 
389  32 
364  85 
267  65 
218  99 
145  99 
6  32 


6  07 
2  92 
2  97 

1  46 

8  75 

2  43 

9  73 
9  73 
9  73 
8  51 
8  51 


Average. 


3  16 

1  70 

6  56 
8  27 
8  27 

10  22 

8  75 

9  73 

7  29 

1,  226  35 
705  64 
632  64 
437  98 
369  85 
218  99 

8  75 

7  29 
10  34 

7  29 

2  92 
5  83 

8  75 
2  43 

14  57 
14  .59 
19  46 

9  73 
9  73 


$5  83 
8  27 

8  27 

7  78 

8  75 

7  41 
5  47 

1,  041  43 
554  78 
427  98 
340  65 
291  99 
194  66 

8  27 


7  90 
3  89 
1  70 

1  95 

8  75 

2  43 

12  16 
12  16 
12  16 
8  51 
8  51 


STEYEDGRE  WAGES. 


Wages  paid  for  dock  labor  for  loading  and  discharging  vessels  at  Liverpool,  of  fifty-three 
hours  per  week, ins,  from  7  a.  m.  to  T)  p.  jh.  each  day,  except  Saturday,  when  work  it 
finished  at  4}).  vt. 

Laborers : 

Per  day $1  22 

Extra  work per  hour..         16 

Porters : 

Per  day 1  09 

Extra  work per  hour . .         14 

Weighers,  markers,  &c.  : 

Per  day 1  22 

Extra  work  per  hour..         16 

Stevedores : 

Per  day 1  70 

Extra  work per  liour . .         24 

Foremen  for  all  the  above  labor  : 

Per  day $1  34  to  1  70 

Extra  work per  hour. .         18  to      24 

Coal-heaver.s per  ton . .       »2| 

Laborers  for  discharging  salt  from  flat's  hold  to  flat's  deck  receive  from  4^  cents  per 
ton  per  man,  and  from  two  to  four  men  are  required  for  each  flat,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  flat  and  depth  of  her  hold  ;  for  instance,  a  flat  carrying  70  to  80  tons,  pays  5 
cents ;  a  flat  of  100  tons  pays  6  cents ;  a  flat  carrying  120  to  150  tons  pays  8  cents  per 
ton  per  man  :  and  barges  carrying  200  to  300  tons  pay  from  10^  cents  to  12  cents  per 
ton  per  man.  After  the  salt  is  on  the  flat's  deck  from  her  hold,  the  ship  pays  for  put- 
ting it  on  board  and  stowiug. 

*$1.22  each  man  additional  for  a  night's  work.  These  men  will  sometimes  earn  as 
much  as  $14.60  a  week. 


686 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  foundries,  machine- sltops,  and  iron  uorks  in  Liv- 
erpool. 


Occupations. 


Lowest,    niglicst.    Average. 


FOUNDRY. 

Brasa-uiolders $10  95 

Iron-nioldei  s     8  27 

Dressers  molders 6  32 

Laborers 4  86 

MACHINESHOi". 

Brass  or  iron : 

Turners 7  05 

Drillers o  10 

Planers 5  34 

Slotters 5  34 

Grinders 8  27 

Sere  wers 5  10 

Fitters 6  81 

Brass-finisher 7  78 

Iron-finisher 7  78 

Pattern-makers 7  05 

Joiners  8  02 

Fitters'  laborers 4  38 

BOILER-SHOP. 

Platers  and  angle-iron  smiths 9  00  | 

Riveters 8  27  i 

Holders-up 6  81 

Smiths 7  29  ] 

Strikers 4  62  | 

Laborers 4  62  ] 


$10  95 

$10  95- 

9  73 

9  24 

6  56 

6  32 

5  58 

5  34 

9  00 

8  27 

7  29 

5  34 

8  51 

5  83 

8  27 

6  07 

8  27 

8  27 

6  56 

5  83 

9  00 

7  53 

9  48 

8  82 

8  27 

8  02 

8  27 

8  21 

8  27 

8  27 

6  07 

4  86 

9  73 

9  48 

8  27 

8  27 

6  81 

6  81 

9  48 

8  02 

5  58 

5  34 

5  10 

4  m 

MINES   AND   MINING. 

Wages  paid  per  day  or  iveek  of  forty -eight  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  lead  mines  in 
j\'Orth  Wales,  Liverpool  consular  district,  and  salt  mines  in  Cheshire. 

LEAD  MINES. 


Occupations. 


Sinking  shafts per  week. 

Driving  levels  and  stoping -. do... 

Engine-drivers : 

Pumping* do. .. 

Windin;^* do... 

Engineers,  for  repairs  t  do . . . 

Sawyers  t  per  day. 

Car])enters  t do... 

Smiths! do. .. 

Ore-wa.shers  : 

Overlookers!  per  week. 

Men  t per  day . 

Boys  t do  .  - 

Trammers,  underground  * do... 

LaTiding,  surface* do 

Filling,  underground* do... 

Day  work,  .surface t do... 


Highest.    Average. 


$4  50 
4  01  I 

4  38  1 
4  14  ! 

4  86  ' 
73 
81 

81  : 

5  83  i 
61  ! 
42  . 
73  i 
55 
73 
55 


$4  50 
3  83 


4  26 


4  14 

4  68 
67 
73 
71 

5  40 
55 
31 
77 
55 
64 
52 


SALT  MINES. 


Engine-drivers per  -week. 

Miners do... 

Boys do . . . 

Salt- boilers do... 

Smitlis  and  boiler-makers do 

Ship  carpenters do... 

Joiners do 

Brick-layers do. .. 

Laborers do... 

Bargemen do... 

Barge  engineer do... 


6  81 
5  83 

2  92 
5  83 

5  34 

6  32 
5  83 

5  83 

3  28 

7  29 

6  81 


*  Eight-hour  shifts. 


I  Ten- hour  shifts. 


LABOR    IN    EUKOPE ENGLAND. 


687 


RAILWAY   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  to  railwai/  employes  {those  on/aged  about  stations,  as  tvell  as  those  engaged  on  the 
engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <J'C.)  in  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


Permanent  way  department : 

Masons    per  day. 

Bricklayei's do . . 

Carpenters.  do . . 

Pavers  do . . . 

Gangers do . . 

Blacksmiths do... 

Joiners do... 

Platelayers  do.. 

Laborers do. . 

Ballast  guard do. . 

l,«coruotive  department: 

Dri  ver.s do . . . 

Fireiuen do  . . 

Cleauers per  week 

Turners do  . . 

Fitters do  . 

Laborers do  . . 

Foremen do. . . 

Telegraph  department : 

Linemen do. . . 

Messengers do  . . 

Clerks per  annum . 

Coaching  department: 

Horse-drivers per  week. 

Porters do . . . 

Parcel-porters do . . . 

Foremen  do. .. 

Ticket-collectors do. .. 

Guards do . . . 

Police  department: 

Signalmen do  .. 

Pointsmen do . . . 

Gatemen do. . . 

Goods  department : 

Porters do . . . 

Booker do . . . 

Deliverer do. .. 

Foremen do  .. 

Shipper do. .. 

Loader do... 

Sheeter do . . . 

Traffic  department : 

Brakesman do . . . 

Shunters do . . . 

Foremen  shunters do  .. 

Detective  department : 

Sergeant do... 

Watchmen do... 

Gatemen do. .. 

Carriage  department : 

Examiners per  day. 

Lampmen do. . . 

Washers     do. .. 

Wagon  department : 

Kepairer per  week . 

Joiner do  . . 

Smith do . . . 

Striker do... 


Lowest. 


Highest.    Average.. 


$0  97 

1  22 

1  22 

97 

73 

97 

1  05 

93 

36 

93 

1  22 
73 

2  19 
7  29 
5  10 

4  38 
9  73 

5  10 
1  70 

145  99 

5  34 

4  26 

5  10 

6  07 

4  86 
6  07 

5  10 

4  86 

3  65 

5  10 

6  81 
6  32 
6  07 
6  81 

6  07  ( 
5  83  t 

5  58  ' 

5  58 

6  81 

6  32 

5  83  ! 
5  83  1 

1  05  ! 
49 
77 

5  10  i 

5  34  . 

6  32 

4  62 


$1  42 

1  34 

1  22 

1  01 

1  09 

97 

1  22 

1  09 

85 

97 

1  82 
97 
5  83 
8  27 
8  27 


$1  20 

1  28 

1  22 

99 

91 

97 

1  14 

1  01 

61 

95 


1  52 
85 
4  01 
7  78 
6  69 


5  83 

5  11 

10  34 

10  04 

7  90 

6  50 

2  43 

2  07 

340  65 

5  34 

5  34 

4  26 

4  26 

5  46 

5  28 

8  51 

7  29 

6  07 

5  47 

9  73 

7  90 

7  29 

6  20 

5  83 

5  35 

5  10 

4  38 

5  83 

5  47 

6  81 

6  81 

6  32 

6  32 

8  51 

7  29 

6  81 

6  81 

6  07 

6  07 

5  83 

5  83 

7  90 

6  74 

6  68 

6  13 

7  90 

7  36 

7  29 

6  81 

6  07 

5  95 

5  83 

5  83 

1  09 

1  07 

89 

69 

89 

83 

6  81 

5  96 

7  53 

6  44 

7  05 

6  69 

4  62 

4  ei 

688 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


SHIP-YARDS. 
Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  ship-yards — iron-ship  building — in  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.  I  Highest.    Average. 


Platers 

Platers'  helpers 

Riveters  

Holders-up 

Kivet  boj'H 

Calkers 

Clippers 

Drillers 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Fitters 

Carpenters 

Joiner 

Laborers 

Painters 


$9  24 

$9  24 

$9  24 

4  86 

5  83 

5  35 

7  78 

9  24 

7  78 

6  32 

7  78 

6  32 

1  46  1 

1  95 

1  58 

6  81  1 

9  24 

6  81 

7  78 

9  24 

8  51 

4  86  1 

-   7  17 

5  46 

8  27 

8  7.5 

8  51 

4  38 

5  83 

5  83 

5  83  1 

8  27 

8  27 

8  02  , 

10  22 

9  12 

8  02  ( 

9  12 

8  57 

4  62 

5  83 

5  23 

7  78  1 

7  78 

7  78 

seamen's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men),  distinguishing  between  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam,  in  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


Steam,  to  Mediterranean: 

First  mate 

Second  mate   

Third  mate 

Able  seamen 

First  engineer  

Second  engineer 

Third  engineer 

Firemen 

Steam,  to  Atlantie  : 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

Third  mate 

Able  .seamen 

First  engineer. 

Second  engineer 

Third  engineer 

Firemen 

Steam,  to  East  Indies : 

First  mate 

Second  mate  

Third  mate 

A  ble  seamen 

First  engineer 

Second  engineer  

Third  engineer 

Firemen  

Steam,  to  West  Indies  : 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

Thii  d  mate 

Seamen 

First  engineer 

Second  cn^iinoer 

Tliird  engineer 

Firemen  

Sailing,  to  North  America  : 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

Seamen  

Sailing,  to  South  America  : 

First  mate  .  

Second  mate  

Seamen 

Sailing,  to  Mediterranean  : 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

Seamen 

Coasting: 

First  mate 

Second  mate 

Seamen  (find  their  own  victuals). 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average 


$53  53  '      $68  13 


34  00 
24  33 


29  19 
21  89 


43  79 
29  19 


34  06 
24  33 


$63  26 
48  66 
34  06 
14  59 
72  99 
63  26 
51  09 
19  46 

60  83 
53  53 
43  79 
19  46 
87  59 
72  99 
58  39 
21  89 

68  13 
.58  39 
34  06 
14  59 
97  33 
72  99 
48  66 
19  46 

00  82 
41  36 
34  00 
14  59 
77  86 
58  39 
43  79 
14  02 

38  93 
26  76 
14  59 

31  63 

23  11 
13  38 

29  19 

24  33 
13  38 

*7  29 
*6  08 
*6  81 


*  Per  week. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


689 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (totvns  and  cities)  in  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


C 

Kitc-hen-niaids 

House-maids 

Houso-maids'  assistants  . 
Waitress 


SculliT.V-maid  ... 
Lauutli-ymaid. .. 

Nurse,  upper 

Nurse,  aasistaut. 

Governess 

Butler 

Footman 


Lowest. 


Lady  liousekeepers $145  99 

Cook  housekeepers 87  86 

ks 77  86 


48  56 
68  13 
48  66 
77  86 
48  66 
77  86 
68  13 
43  79 
77  86 
145  99 
87  59 


Highest. 


$729  97 
291  99 
291  99 

97  33 
121  65 

82  73 
121  66 

58  39 
145  99 
170  32 

77  86 
486  65 
389  32 
145  99 


Average. 


$243  32 

121  66 

107  06 

68  13 

87  69 

68  13 

97  33 

53  53 

97  33 

107  06 

68  12 

145  99 

243  32 

121  66 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants  in  Liverpool 

consular  district. 


Occupations. 


Teaniman  (with  board) per  annum.. 

Cowman  (with  board) do... 

Cowman  (without  board) per  week. . 

Woikmau  ( witliout  l)i)ard) do 

Dairy -maid  (with  board)    per  annum.. 

Tapper  d;iiry-mnid  (with  board) do 

Clieese-uiakor  (with  board) do 

Boys  (with  board) . .  do   . . . 

Boys  (without  board) per  week.. 


Lowest. 


48  66 
3  16 
3  65 

34  06 

97  33 

24  :!3 
1  46 


Highest.    Average. 


$97  33 

87  59 

4  38 

4  38 

68  13 

194  66 

34  06 
1  95 


$72  99 
68  13 

3  89 

4  01 
53  53 

121  66 

29  19 
1  70 


printers'  wages. 

Stalement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  iceek  of  fifty-four  hours  tojyrinters  (compositors,  press- 
men, proof-readers,  <^c.)  in  Liverpool. 


Occupation. 


Lowest, 


Job  printing: 

Foreman 

E.stalilished  liands 

Newspaper  department  (hours  not  fixed  ;  night- work  principally) : 

Foremen 

Compositors  

Piece-work  hands 

Stereoty pers    

Machinists,  foremen 

Machinsts : 

Proof- readers 


CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  to  the  Mersey  docks  and  harbor  board  employes  in 

the  city  of  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

.$8  39 

$8  75 

$8  57 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

8  39 

7  29 

8  02 

7  65 

8  75 

8  75 

8  75 

8  75 

8  75 

8  75 

8  39 

8  75 

8  57 

7  29 

8  75 

8  02 

7  29 

8  75 

S  02 

8  02 

8  39 

8  20 

Shipwrights 

Joiners 

Wheelwrights 

Hand-Lawyers 

Painters 

Plumbers  

Gas-litters  

Millwiights,  viz  : 

Pattern-makers 

Turners  and  titters 

Blacksmiths 

Tinsmiths 

92a— LAB 44 


690 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifly-foitr  hours,  4'C. — Coutinned. 


Occupations. 


Millwriplits— CniitiniU'd. 

Copprismitlis 

Drillers  an<l  scrt-wers 

SniitliH'  aKsistants 

Boiler-niiikers,  viz : 

Aiiiile  iron  aud  piaters 

Kivitiu's 

Holdcrsup 

Assistants 

Founilryiucn  (iron  and  brass),  viz: 

Moltlcrs 

Corp-uiakers 

Dressers 

Furnace-men 

Laborers 

Masons,  vi?, : 

Stone  dressers  and  setters 

Wallers 

Bricklayers 

Sliiti'is  and  plasterers 

I'aviors 

Paviors'  Lilioiera    

Knpfinenian  at  .stationary  engine 

Firemen  at  stationary  engine 

Seamen  on  dredgers,  bar<;e8,  and  flats 

Seamen  on  sbore-gang  

Rock-get teis  aud  quarrymen 

Laborers : 

Navvies,  wagon-fillers,  &c 


Lowest. 


Higbest.    Average. 


$8  75 
.5  83 
5  34 


8  75 
8  27 

7  05 
(i  oG 
5  34 

8  75 

8  02 
0  00 

9  00 
7  78 

5  34 
7  65 
G  07 

6  81 
5  58 
G  19 

5  40 


$8  76 
5  83 

5  34 

9  24 
8  27 

6  50 
5  34 

8  75 

8  03 

7  05 
C  58 
5  23 

8  75 
7  84 

9  00 

9  00 
7  78 
5  22 
7  39 

5  83 

6  44 

5  58 

6  01 

5  28 


Wages  paid  per  week  o/51|  hours  to  the  corporation  en}plo!i<?s  in  the  city  of  Liverpool. 


Occupations. 


JioTonib  engineer  department: 

District  foremen    per  week . . 

I'aviors per  d.\v. 

I'aviois'  ganger.s ..do 

Paviors'  apprentices* per  week . . 

Masons per  day . . 

Masons'  apprentices* per  week . . 

Bricklayer-s    per  day.. 

Brieklaiy  ers'  apprentices' per  week . . 

Laborei's per  day  . 

Watclimeii do 

Carpenters  do 

Wlieolwriulits do 

Blacksmiths do 

Printers do.. 

Engine  drivers do... 

J5oot  makers do 

Pitcb-boilermen •. do 

SCAVBXGING  STUEET.s. 

Divisional  inspectors per  week.. 

District  inspectors do. .. 

Scavenge: s jier  day.. 

Boys     ..     do 

Troiigli-closot  flnsliers do  . . 

Dry  a.sb])itiucn  ...   do 

Day  tiiimen do 

Steam-hoi)pei-  crew per  week.. 

Steam  fiatmeu do 

SLikbles: 

Horse-keepers per  week . . 

Staldemen per  day.. 

Carters do 

Carters'  teanisnien   do 

Foreman  \vlie»'lw  right per  week.. 

Wlieelwriulits ])er  day.. 

Blaeksiuitha do 

Strikers do 

Kngine-drivers do 

Paintei-«   do 

Night  men do 

Kight  tipmen do 

Water  engineer  department : 

Fitters     per  week. . 

Ttostiug  UttiugM do 

*  Increased  yearlj. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


.$0  24 


9  73 

8  27 

65 

28 


05 
6  56 


8  27 
97 


1  26 
03 


7  29 
4  tiC 


1  34 
1)7 


10  95 

8  75 

73 


69 
12  16 


11  19 

1  05 


1  42 
1  01 


8  27 
7  78 


Average. 


$9  73 
1  30 
1  42 


1  34 


85 
81 
1  70 
1  30 
1  34 
1  23 
1  22 
1  28 
1  05 

10  34 
8  51 
G9 
28 
79 
81 


9  36 

7  2fl 

9  73 
1  01 

97 

1  09 

11  19 

1  38 

I  34 

97 
1  30 
1  30 
1  05 
1  0» 

7  n 

«  39 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  691 

Wages  paid  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  city  of  Liverpool — Continued. 


Occupatious. 


ScAVi.VG  STKEKTS— Continued. 

Water  enjrineor  department — Continued. 

Turners per  week . 

SmitliH  do 

Strikers do 

Joiners do 

Plumpers • do 

Painters do 

Engine  repairers do 

Pipe-Iayera do 

'      Laborers do 


Lowest. 


$7  53 
6  32 
5  K3 
C  32 
(J  32 
5  10 
5  58 
5  58 
4  38 


Highest.   Average. 


$8  02 
8  27 
5  83 
7  78 
7  29 

7  78 

8  51 
7  29 
5  34 


$7  78 
7  29 

5  83 
7  05 

6  81 

6  44 

7  05 
6  44 
4  86 


FOOD  PRICES   IN   LIVERPOOL. 

The  tbllowinjr  ivS  a  fair  average  retail  price  of  the  several  articles 
named,  aud  which  are  used  by  the  working  classes  of  Liverpool  aud 
vicinity: 


Kinds. 


Bsgs per  dozen.. 

Pickles,  one-half-piut  bottles 

Sugar per  pound. . 

Tia do.... 

Coffee do 

Baron do 

Batterine do 

Butter -do 

Dripi>in<j do 

Ch(!fce do 

Hatn.  wliole do 

Mutton,  tinned do  ... 

Beef,  tinned. do 

Rice    do 

Macaroni do 

Sago   do 

Tiipioea do 

Treacle do  — 

Sirup d') 

Barley,  pearled do 

Leiitil.s    do 

Hai  ieot  beans  do  . . 

Dried  peas do 

Split  ]>eaM do. . .. 

Dates,  drii>d do 

Fi^js.  dried do 

Dani.KOii  preserves do  .. 

Greeu-^iifTi' ijie-^erves     do  ... 
Orau^re  ni:iruialade  preserves, 

per  pound  ...         

Veal per  pound . . 

Tripe d.. 

Pork do . . . 

Sausagea do 

Lamb  (fore-quarter).,  .do 

Lamb  (biudquarter)  ..do 

Fowls per  pair . . 

Dueks , do 

Eabbit« do 

Hares do 

Geese do  ... 

Herrings  and  bloaters  each.. 

Kippers per  pair.. 

Codfish per  pound.. 

Salmon do 

Brill do... 

HaliViut do 

Till  hot do 

Soles  do 

Efls,  freshwater do 

Conger do 

Flukes do.... 

Sstlni'in  trout do 

Whiting do 


Lowest.  :  Highest. 


$0  15 

10 

4 

32 

24 

12 

12 

24 

12 

12 

17 

14 

14 

4 

12 

6 

5 

3 

5 

5 

5 

4 

5 

4 

6 

8 


10 
16 
12 
16 
16 
20 
20 
1  22 
1  22 


1  22 

1  22 

2 

5 

8 

36 

49 

49 

49 

36 

12 

12 

4 

4 


$0  18 

12 

7 

89 

40 

20 

24 

32 

16 

22 

24 

16 

16 

8 

16 

8 

12 

4 

6 

6 

6 

6 


16 
14 
12 

13 
20 
14 
20 
20 
24 
24 
1  46 

1  ']6 
73 

3  65 

2  43 

4 
0 
12 
61 


Kinds. 


Haddock,  fresh per  pound 

Haddock,  dried  and  smoked, 
per  pound 

Blackberries,  preserved, 
per  pound 

Cut  rants,  preserved  potind. 

Raisins do. .. 

Almonds,  valencias  ..  do     . 

Bread,  biown,  4  potmd  loaf. 

Bread,  white,  4  pound  loaf. 

Flonr per  0  jionnds. 

Oatmeal per  pound . 

Potatoes per  10  pounds. 

Cabb.ages each. 

Catrots per  pound. 

Turnips do  .. 

I'arsnips do  .. 

Caiilitlo  wer each . 

Khtiliarb dozen  heads. 

Tomatoes per  pound. 

Beets per  dozen. 

Chen ies per  pound. 

Strawberries do  . . 

Green  peas per  peck.. 

Gooseberries...  per  pound. 

Blackcurrants   .     do  .. 

Red  and  white  currants,  per 
pound 

Aiiples per  pound. 

Pears do... 

Oianges per  half  dozen. 

Coal per  ton . 

Beef per  pound . 

Mutton do... 

CLOTHING. 

Sunday  suits from . 

Good  suit 

Working  clothing  : 

Trousers 

Vests 

Coats 

Jackets 

Bouts  : 

Men's 

Kovs' 

Gills' 

Women's 

Shirts 

Socks  

Drawers 

Uuder.shirts 

Hats 

Caps 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$0  06 

$0  08 

4 

10 

12 

15 

7 

10 

6 

10 

24 

32 

12 

15 

10 

15 

20 

24 

4 

9 

8 

10 

2 

5 

2 

4 

0 

6 

2 

4 

3 

.  8 

25 

75 

12 

25 

2 

75 

6 

16 

8 

32 

12 

30 

4 

8 

12 

16 

12 

16 

25 

12 

3 

12 

9 

18 

2  55 

4  01 

14 

20 

16 

20 

4  86 
7  29 

61 

2  07 

36 

1  46 

2  92 

4  86 

61 

1  22 

1  22 

2  55 

49 

1  58 

49 

1  58 

61 

1  58 

46 

1  19 

12 

36 

61 

85 

61 

85 

24 

12 



692  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


LONDON. 

BEPORT  BT  COSSULGEXERAL  MERRITT. 
EXPLANATORY. 

lu  accordance  with  the  iustnictions  accouipauying  the  labor  circular 
dated  February  15,  1884,  I  have  the  honor  to  su\>niit  herewith  my  re- 
port, covering-  the  information  called  for  in  the  jurisdiction  of  this  con- 
sulate-general. There  is  also  ai)pended  a  (;omparative  statement  show- 
ing the  average  wages  paid  in  England  and  Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
as  tabulated  from  the  returns  of  the  consuls.  It  has  been  found,  how- 
ever, impossible  to  tabulate  in  the  same  form  the  fourteen  special  tables, 
beginning  with  the  wages  of  factory  and  mill  operatives  an(l  ending  with 
those  of  printers,  as  will  be  readily  perceived  by  consulting  the  different 
consular  returns  under  these  heads.  In  an  investigation  of  this  scope, 
based  upon  a  circular  intended  to  be  so  elastic  as  to  embrace  the  local 
peculiarities  of  each  country  and  district,  it  is  but  natural  that  consular 
reports  should  vary  greatly  in  stating  wages  under  a  given  head,  as 
they  are  influenced  on  the  one  hand  by  the  amount  and  form  of  the  in- 
formation obtainable,  and  on  the  other  by  the  prominence  given  to  a 
general  local  industry.  Manchester,  for  example,  lays  stress  on  cotton 
employes,  Sheffield  on  cutlery,  andTunstall  on  i)ottery,  under  the  topics 
of  Factories,  Mills,  and  Workshops,  and  it  will  pass  without  saying  that 
a  general  average  based  upon  such  data  would  be  misleading.  A  greater 
difficulty  arises  in  the  matter  of  the  form  in  which  statistics  may  be  pre- 
sented. Even  in  such  comprehensive  heads  as  l*rinters  and  Corporation 
employes,  upon  which  full  information  is  given,  the  different  wages  of 
the  grades  or  persons  thereunder  cannot  be  satisfactorily  tabulated,  as 
the  consuls,  necessarily  acting  without  concert,  show  a  great  variety  in 
the  form  and  particularity  of  their  statements.  I  therefore  suggest  that, 
if  it  is  deemed  essential  to  strike  a  general  average  in  special  trades, 
the  center  most  identified  with  a  single  industry  be  taken  as  best 
representative,  and  that  for  all  wages,  special  and  general,  in  Great 
Britain,  Dundee  appears  to  me  to  stand  as  the  fairest  example. 

TRADE   CONDITIONS   OF   LONDON. 

Centuries  ago,  when  London  was  l)ut  a  fraction  of  its  i»resent  size,  it 
was  said  not  to  l)e  a  city  but  "a  provinc^e  covered  with  houses."  Year 
by  year  its  inherent  princii)le  oi"  growtli  has  moNcd  with  accelerated 
l)rogress,  widening  its  vast  territory,  multiplying  its  inhabitants,  and 
adding  to  its  enormous  wealth  until  it  would  appeal'  that  no  limit  can  be 
set  to  its  future  greatness.  In  )<s81  the  i)opulation  with  the  metiopoli- 
tan  area  was  3,814,571 ;  within  what  is  known  as  the  15 mile  radius  it 
amounted  to  4,500,000,  or  one-sixth  of  the  population  of  I'^ngland  and 
Wales,  while  the  space  ])rotected  by  the  metro])oIitan  i)olice  covers  no 
less  than  700  scpmre  miles.  "  Its  statistics,"  says  Mr.  Herbert  Fry,  "  are 
all  uj)on  such  a  gigantic  scale  that  if  they  were  related  of  some  remote 
and  ioieign  place  we  would  stand  ama/ed  at  the  revelation  of  them." 
Like  all  large  cities,  it  presents  in  a  marke<l  degree  the  contrast  of  great 
wealth  and  distressing  poverty;  of  districts  second  to  none  in  health- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


693 


fulness,  and  slums  of  the  vilest  description;  of  thousands  of  well-i)aid 
artisans,  and  thousands  of  half  starved  workmen.  Its  cliarilies  are  vast 
and  manifold  ;  it  is  the  radiatiujj;-  center  of  benevolent  systems  that  al- 
leviate the  distress  of  the  i>oor  witliin  its  gates  and  throughout  the 
world;  its  professional  tliieves  would  make  an  army,  and  it  commits  a 
thirdof  the  crimesof  the  Kingdom.  Toits  characteras  thecominon  mart 
and  banking  center  of  the  world,  it  adds  that  of  being  a  universal  niauu- 
facturer  as  well  as  a  receiver  of  industrial  products.  A  glance  through 
the  Trade  Directory  of  London  shows  how  (tomprehensive  and  varied  are 
the  manufactories,  foundries,  and  workshops  which  add  to  the  production 
of  the  great  special  trade  centers,  weaving  jute  as  at  Dundee,  spinning 
cotton  as  at  Manchester,  and  forging  metals  as  at  Birminghaui.  In  so 
vast  a  field  as  this  it  is  natural  that  the  broad  contrasts  exhibited  in 
and  commercial  life  should  make  themselves  manifest  in  the  prices  paid 
social  for  labor;  and  while  it  can  be  stated  as  a  general  proposition  that 
wages  are  higher  in  London  than  elsewhere  in  Great  Britain,  it  will  also 
be  found  that  in  the  lower  trades  and  districts  "starvation  rates"  is  too 
complimentary  a  term  to  apply  to  the  wages  paid  to  the  unfortunate 
laboring  victims  of  the  greed  and  fierce  competition  of  trade.  Work 
is  cheaper  on  the  Surrey  than  on  the  Middlesex  side  of  the  Thames,  and 
dearer  in  the  West  End  than  in  the  East.  The  city  proper,  a  small  but 
all  important  district  of  G32  acres,  pays  highest,  while  wages,  well  main- 
tained throughout  the  West  End,  drop  off  as  they  approach  the  suburbs. 
A  large  manufacturer,  who  employs  many  hundred  hands,  and  who  a 
few  years  ago  removed  his  factory  from  the  East  End  to  the  W^est  Central 
district,  told  me  that  although  he  paid  by  piecework,  the  wages  for 
the  same  work  cost  him  10  per  cent,  more  than  in  his  former  location. 
With  these  considerations  in  view,  it  will  be  seen  how  difticult  a  matter 
it  is  to  formulate  an  adequate  representative  average,  as  it  is  not  the 
average  of  one  city,  but  twenty  cities  rolled  into  one.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  the  wage  statistics  herewith  presented  have  been  com- 
piled with  care,  and  are  substantially  correct.  The  investigations  of 
the  consuls  have  been  so  painstaking  and  elaborate  that  on  some  of 
the  general  topics  of  the  circular  I  have  discarded  the  material  which 
I  have  collected,  as  being  merely  cumulative  of  what  they  so  well  pre- 
sent, and  therefore  unnecessary  of  repetition.  The  mass  of  informa- 
tion which  they  furnish  is  so  great  that  I  beg  to  make  my  remarks  ou 
the  different  heads  as  brief  as  the  circumstances  of  each  case  will  allow. 

PARTICULARS  OF  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  PEOPLE  OF  BRITAIN. 

The  1881  census  of  England  and  Wales  gives  these  particulars  of  the 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants,  which  are  important  collateral  facts  in 
a  study  of  wages  : 


Class. 


Males. 


Females. 


Professional ; |  450,955  1%,  120 

Domestic 258,  508  1,  545,  302 

Commercial j  960,601  19,467 

Agricultural 1,318,344  ,  64,840 

Industrial 4,795,178  i  1,578,  189 

Indefinite  and  non-productive i  4,856,256  \  9,930,619 

Total  I  12,639,902  ;  13,334,537 


Total. 


647,  045 
1,803,810 

980. 128 
1,383,184 
6,  373,  367 
14,  786,  875 


25,  974,  439 


694  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

The  following  are  the  priucipal  subdivisions  of  the  industrial  class: 

Persons  working  and  dealing  in — 

Books,  jirints,  and  niaps 105,042 

Machines  and  implements iJti7, 976 

Honses,  Inrnitnie,  and  decorations 7H6,  {360 

Carriage  and  harness «7, 174 

Ships  an<l  boats 54,080 

Chemicals  and  compounds 4o,  015 

Tobacco  and  pipes 22, 175 

Boanl  and  lodging 115,  (J55 

Spirit  lions  drinks 65,052 

Food 44H,664 

Food  and  lodging  (total) 629,  ;?71 

Wool  and  worsted 2',i'i,  25(> 

Silk 63,577 

Cotton  and  Hax 584,470 

Unspecified  material 170,  :545 

Textile  fabrics  (total) 1,053,648 

Dress 981,  105 

Animal  snbstances (iH,  2"2 

Vegetable  snbstances 16(>,  745 

Mines 441.272 

Stone,  clay,  and  roa-d-making 193,  OSS 

Eart lien  ware  and  glass 74,  407 

Iron  and  steel 3()I,  343 

General  and  nnspecified  commodities 816,243 

Refuse  ma tters 14,  339 

KATES   OF   WAGES. 

For  the  rates  of  wages  of  workers  of  every  class,  I  have  to  refer  to 
th(^  ai)peii(le(l  tables.  The  rates  ^iven  represent  in  general  the  wages 
paid  lor  the  lull  time  of  six  days  in  a  week,  and  are  therefore  erroneous 
if  we  are  to  judge  the  workiiiginan\s  i)osition  IVoiuthe  beginning  of  the 
year  to  the  end,  unless  he  has  had  continuous  work  and  been  bh'ssed  with 
his  lull  health  and  strength.  Shutting  down  of  nuUs,  working  at  short 
time,  (hnmkenness,  and  sickness  are  always  active  reducing  his  earnings, 
while  the  interest  on  his  debts  never  sleei)s,  his  rents  run  on,  and  his 
food  and  clothes  must  be  obtained  wlietlier  work  is  abuntlant  or  shudi. 
In  the  coiisideialion  of  this  topic  in  the  Considar  Report  No.  10,  I)e- 
cend)er,  iSSi,  I  showed  its  impoilaui-e  by  referen(;e  to  thi;  statistics  kept 
by  the  Noitluunberland  .Miners'  [Jnion  Asso(;iation  dining  the  reign  of 
high  wages  on  theTyne,  when  the  h>ss  fiom  (hiiiikeness  ah)ne  amounted 
tot)^  per  cent;  while  from  all  causes  inducing  loss  of  time  it  was  jiointed 
out  that  in  the  pottery  districts  the  diffei'ence  between  the  real  and  ap- 
parent wages  was  20  per  cent.  Dr.  Farr  estimates  that  the  loss  of  time 
l)er  inhabitant  averages  5  |)er  cent,  a  year  from  sickness  alone.  Again, 
there  aie  trades  which  from  their  veiy  nature  can  only  be  ])ursued  at 
certain  si'asons  of  the  year.  The  honse-i)ainters  in  l;ondon  estimate 
their  working  season  at  six  or  seven  months  from  spring  to  autumn, 
after  which  there  is  little  or  no  work  for  them,  and  if  they  labor  at  all 
it  is  in  a  casual  way  at  whatever  their  hands  hud  to  do.  1  was  informed 
by  an  old  painter  that  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  of  ])ainters  to  labor 
at  their  trade  in  the  sumnu'r  season,  and  after  that  to  engage  in  tallow- 
candle  making,  which  could  not  well  be,  carried  on  in  hot  weather.  This 
now,  he  said,  is  all  changed  sint^e  the  use  of  i)arattine  came  in,  as  it  can 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  695 

be  made  into  candles  the  year  around,  ajid  tlie  ])ainters  now  have  no 
complementary  trade  which  they  can  follow.  These  illustrations  present 
the  inii)ortant  ditterence  between  real  and  apparent  wages,  which  F  wisli 
to  eini)hasize. 

Under  the  head  of  Government  employ  I  have  given  the  full  salary 
list  of  the  foreign  otfice,  which  is  the  best  paid  of  the  Government  de- 
partments, and  also  several  branches  of  the  i)ost-ot!ice,  whi(;h  is  said 
to  represent  the  other  extreme.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  salaries  and 
wages  i)aid  in  the  British  civil  service  differ  from  those  of  the  United 
States  in  this  important  particular:  that  the  higher  positions  arc  far 
better  compensated,  and  the  lower  far  worse.  Policemen  and  letter- 
carries  in  London  are  paid  from  $301)  to  $375  a  year,  while  in  large 
American  cities  the  wages  of  the  same  classes  average  twice  and  three 
times  these  amounts. 

COST   OF   LIVING  IN   LONDON. 

Cost  of  living  in  London,  in  so  far  as  that  refers  to  the  necessaries  of 
life,  food,  clothing,  &c  ,corresi)on(ls  so  exactly  with  the  tables  given  by 
the  consul  at  Liverpool  on  the  subJ(M.'t  that  I  beg  to  refer  to  them  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  prices  here.  The  great  imports  of  American  and  other 
produce  in  late  years  have  materially  reduced  the  cost  of  the  working- 
man's  food  especially,  and  as  the  first  and  ]irincipal  jxirts  of  huuling 
are  Liver|)Ool  and  London  the  effect  of  the  cheapness  of  i)rice  has  been 
paiticularly  felt  in  these  centers.  English  fish  find  their  leading  mar- 
ket in  London,  and  soconcenti'ated  has  been  the  fish  monopoly  tiiat  it  is 
Lo  uncommon  thing  to  see  fish  dearer  in  the  maritime  towns  off  whose 
shores  they  were  caught  than  in  London  itself.  One  of  the  great 
objects  of  the  late  Fisheries  Exiiibition  was  to  instill  into  the  minds  of 
workingnuMi  the  advantages  of  fish  as  a  prominent  article  of  diet,  but 
bow  far  the  lesson  has  been  taken  to  heart  I  am  unable  to  say,  as  the 
Englishman  is  essentially  carnivorous  in  his  tastes,  and  ])relers  a  chop 
or  a  steak  at  far  higher  cost,  even  if  he  can  ill  att\)rd  to  spend  the 
money.  Among  the  common  laborers  and  the  lower  poor,  fish,  next  to 
bread  and  cheese,  has  long  been  the  main  reliance,  fried  lish  shops 
being  a  feature  of  all  the  low  «piarters  of  London.  With  bread  at  3 
cents  a  pound,  tea  and  sugar  lower  than  were  ever  known,  and  with  a 
downward  tendency  in  nearly  all  other  commodities,  the  condition  of 
the  Lon(h)n  workman  ought  not  to  l)e  uncomfortable  if  he  had  the  pru- 
dence of  the  Scotch  or  continental  workman.  Untbrtunately  there  is 
no  luitional  food  in  general  use  exce[)t  meat,  which  is  expensive.  lu 
America  and  Italy  t[)ere  is  corn;  in  Ireland,  potatoes;  in  Scotland, 
oatmeal ;  in  China  and  India,  rice;  and  in  France  there  is  the  consum- 
mate knowledge  among  the  ])Oort*r  classes  of  making  a  souj)  which 
costs  abnost  nothing  and  yet  is  palatable  and  nutritious.  Even  Samuel 
Smiles,  the  author  of  "Thrift"  and  "Self  Help,"  with  his  higii  opinion 
of  tlie  in<lustry  of  the  English  artisan,  says,  "He  might  be  more  com- 
foitable  and  independent  in  his  circumstances  were  he  as  prudent  as  he 
is  laborious,  but  im|)iovideiice  is  unhappily  the  defect  of  his  class." 
Going  liiick  to  the  time  of  Daniel  Di-foe,  who  for  years  employed  100 
men  in  in  his  tile  and  brick  works  at  Tilbury,  we  hnd  hun  saying: 

Good  linsbniulry  is  no  English  virtue.  It  ncitlier  loves  nor  is  loved  by  us  Eii^'iliah- 
m'n.  The  English  jret  fonnnos  aii«l  the  Dafch  save  them ;  and  this  observation  I 
hav«  made  between  Dutchmen  and  Knj;lishmen,  that  where  an  En^lisliman  earns 20s. 
a  week  and  but  just  lives,  as  \v»*  call  it,  a  Dntclunan  with  the  same  eaiiunj;s  <^row3 
rich  and  leaves  his  children  in  a  very  good  condition. 

The  general  cheapness  of  food  in  England,  which  has  resulted  in 
ruin  to  the  English  farmer,  has  been  a  great  boon  to  all  other  classes  of 


696  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

labor,  and  it  would  have  been  greater  were  Lousehold  management, 
cookiny:,  and  economy  better  understood  and  practiced.  IMayhew, 
whose  knowledge  of  the  poor  and  the  labor  of  London  has  never  been 
rivaled,  points  out  again  and  again  how  prone  the  poor  are  to  spend  a 
large  part  of  their  earnings  in  luxuries,  and  how  in  times  of  compara- 
tive prosperity  they  take  no  thought  for  the  morrow.  Uis  observa- 
tions, it  is  true,  are  leveled  not  against  the  better  class  of  artisan 
workers,  but  the  lower  grades  of  labor  and  the  hundred  and  one 
vagabond  j^ursuits  which  exist  in  London;  but  the  same  evil  tendency, 
while  losing  some  of  its  force  as  it  ])asses  through  the  higher  grades, 
still  retains  enough  power  to  point  the  moral.  As  I  have  laid  stress 
upon  this  point  I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  there  are  not  many 
thousands  of  hard-working  families  in  London  whose  household  econ- 
on)y,  sober  habits,  and  industrious  instincts  are  such  as  to  leave  noth- 
ing to  complain  of,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  know  that  the  improvemeut 
in  this  respect  is  progresssive. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT   RATES   OF   WAGES. 

I  have  made  many  inquiries  to  ascertain  the  corajiaiison  between  the 
wages  of  1878  and  the  j^resent,  and  the  result  has  been  that  I  find  the 
position  of  affairs  is  about  the  same.  1878  and  ]S84  may  both  be 
termed  years  of  depression,  and  the  price  of  iron,  which  is  said  to  be 
the  index  of  commercial  activity  in  England,  has  again  receded  to  the 
basis  of  1878,  the  lowest  in  thirty-two  years.  The  latest  export  and 
imjiort  statistics  show  a  contraction  from  the  former  year,  and  the 
complaiutsof  dull  trade  grow  louder  daily.  1880,  '81,  '82  brought  wages 
up  fractionally,  and  in  some  instances  materially,  but  now  we  seem  to 
have  drifted  back  to  1878.  One  thing  in  favor  of  the  workinginan  is, 
that  food  is  somewhat  cheaper,  meat  alone  increasing  and  nuiintaiuing 
its  high  piice.  In  the  late  agitation  in  relation  to  the  bill  against  cat- 
tle disease,  which  was  thought  at  the  time  to  imply  the  destruction  of 
the  live-cattle  trade,  the  greatest  opposition  Avas  manifested  against  it 
by  the  workingmen's  clubs  in  large  cities,  who  naturally  looked  upon 
any  cause  tending  to  raise  the  price  of  meat  as  a  calamity.  I  have 
mentioned  the  English  fondness  for  meat,  and  to  show  the  diflerence 
between  the  continental  nations  ami  the  English  in  this  respect  I  re- 
produce the  figures  of  M.  Maurice  Block,  giving  the  pounds  consump- 
tion per  head  a  year:  "  United  Kingdom,  87;  France,  OO;  Kussia,  4-4; 
Prussia,  42;   Belgium,  40;  Italy  and  Spain,  29." 

HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

"  The  habits  of  the  working  classes,  whether  steady  or  otherwise,  sav- 
ing or  otherwise,  and  the  causes  which  principally  affect  their  habits 
for  good  or  evil." 

A  large  majority  of  the  Loiulon  woikmen  can  certainly  be  ranked  as 
skillful  artisans  and  steady  and  industrious  citizens.  From  an  Ameri- 
can point  of  view,  accustomed  as  we  are  to  alacrity  in  everv  branch  of 
work,  there  is,  however,  a  general  slowness  in  action  which  at  first  might 
be  mistaken  for  laziness,  but  which  longer  ('xi)erien('c  shows  to  be  what 
might  be  denominated  the  ndiional  irorkhuj  pace,  and  it  is  the  steadiness 
and  method  of  this  movement  under  low  juessure  which  has  built  up  the 
industrial  sui)remacy  of  Great  Britain.  There  is  also  a  hirge  class  whose 
inclination  for  work  is  measured  solely  by  their  actual  necessities,  and 
if  four  days'  work  in  a  week  will  furnish  shillings  enough  for  food,  and 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  697 

especially  drink,  tlie  other  days,  whi(;li  inijilit  be  used  for  iiiereasiiig  their 
comfort,  are  idled  away  in  dissipation.  More  esi)e(;ially  is  this  true  of 
the  lower  wage-earners.  The  better-class  workman  is  exceedingly  pre- 
cise in  his  mode  of  doing  work,  and  lacks  that  ingenuity,  quickness,  and 
plastic  habit  of  ada[)tibility  to  cinnunstanccs  which  are  so  marked  in 
American  artisans.  He  has,  however,  a  dogged  perseverance  and  a 
ca[)acity  for  hard  work  which  well  accounts  for  the  substantiality  of 
English  manufactures.  The  foremen  in  particular  1  have  noticed  are 
men  of  shrewdness,  activity,  and  great  common  sense,  Mr.  Mundella, 
speaking  of  the  eliiciency  of  English  and  foreign  labor,  says: 

There  is  a  strennonsiiess  of  effort,  a  rapidity  and  deftness  of  movement,  which  I  liave 
never  seen  equaled  except  in  the  United  States.  The  American,  being-  of  the  same 
race,  1  ranic  as  the  equal  of  the  En<>lishnian.  I  do  not  believe  he  is  superior,  only  so 
far  as  he  excels  iu  teinperance  and  intelligence. 

As  regards  the  ability  of  the  working  classes  to  save,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  general  range  of  wages  is  such  that  the  comparatively  few  who 
are  endowed  with  greater  prudence  and  self  denial  than  the  rest  have 
a  chance  of  ending  the  year  with  money  in  hand.  Piof.  Leoni  Levi, 
writing  on  the  subject  of  British  wages,  divides  workmen  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Those  employed  in  works  requiring  higher  skilled  labor 
and  manufacture,  who  receive  from  $7.oO  to  $9.73  (3().s\  to  4().s-.)  a  week; 
(2)  those  em[)loved  on  w^ork  not  so  exclusive  or  technical,  ^(J.OS  to  $8.52 
(25s.  to  35,v.),  and  (3)  unskilled  labor,  $3.89  to  $5.C0  {16s.  to  23.s-.).  It  will 
be  perceived  that  upon  this  basis  (which  I  consider  a  most  valuable  de- 
duction from  the  actual  facts)  that  the  margin  for  saving  is  small  in- 
deed, and  yet,  on  the  other  hand^  we  are  met  by  the  fact  tlmt  in  1861 
the  dei)oits  in  the  savings  banks  amounted  to  £41,546,009,  and  in  1882 
they  were  $83,651,000,  or  an  increase  of  101  per  cent.,  while  the  poi)ula- 
tion  had  only  increased  22  per  cent.  Much  of  this  increase  came  from  the 
laboring  chisses,  and  it  is  a  strong  evidence  that  thrift  is  gaining  grouml. 
The  Government  has  made  every  provision  for  encouraging  the  w^ork- 
man  to  lay  by  whatever  he  may  be  able  by  establishing  at  every  money 
ofdce  in  the  ])0stal  system  a  savings  bank  where  any  one  may  deposit 
not  more  than  £30  in  a  year,  with  interest  at  2^  per  cent.  The  lowest 
de})0sit  that  can  be  nmde  is  a  shilling,  but  in  order  to  stimulate  smaller 
savings  forms  are  issued  about  the  size  of  ordinary  checks,  with  twelve 
divisions,  in  each  of  which  a  penny  postage-stamp  may  be  placed.  When 
the  form  has  thus  been  filled  with  twelve  stamps  it  will  be  received  as 
a  shilling  deposit. 

In  the  increase  in  savings,  the  decrease  in  the  consumption  of  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  the  greater  spread  of  education,  the  decrease  in  pauper- 
ism, the  exertions  of  the  churches,  the  good  done  by  philanthropic  so- 
cieties, and  the  action  of  wise  legislative  measures  we  find  some  of  the 
causes  of  the  imi)rovement  of  the  working  classes  and  some  of  the  re- 
sults. Druidcenness,  thriftlessness,  and  gambling  are  the  causes  which 
still  hamper  the  u])ward  moven;ent,  but  the  results  of  the  last  twenty 
years,  as  seen  in  the  hi,^her  wages,  in  better  food,  clothing,  and  dwell- 
ings, give  high  hopes  of  the  successful  continuan(;e  of  the  goo<l  work. 
The  consul  at  Bristol  gives  an  interesting  table  dealing  with  the  con- 
sumption of  beer  and  spirits,  which  puts  iu  compact  statistical  form  the 
large  per  capita  use  of  intoxicating  drinks,  but  no  statistics  can  present 
the  misery,  crime,  and  poverty  resulting.  The  strong  driid^ing  tastes 
of  the  English  peoi)le,  supported  by  centuries  of  tradition  and  encour- 
aged by  the  climate,  are  admitted  to  be  the  worst  enemy  to  combat  and 
the  grt-atest  evil  of  the  country.  Betting  on  horse  races  is,  unfortu- 
nately, largely  on  the  increase,  and  is  indulged  in  by  every  class  of 


€98  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

society.  Jlacitig  in  different  i)arts  of  Enf:jland  takes  place  nearly  every 
day,  and  is  followed  with  the  keenest  eagerness.  In  London  there  are 
two  daily  papers  of  \vi<le  circulation  devoted  exclusively  to  sjiorts,  as 
well  as  numerous  weeklies  and  semi-weeklies;  and  the  amount  of  space 
allotted  to  descrii)tions  of  races,  quotations  of  bet  tin  <i-,  aiul  ])rophecies, 
in  the  le.uular  <lailies,  shows  how  deep  a  hold  the  exciteuu'Ut  of  racing 
Las  ui)on  the  i)ul)Iic.  On  the  result  of  any  great  race  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that  millions  of  dollars  depend,  and  the  system  of  betting 
with  "bookmakers"  is  such  that  the  i)ublic  is  almost  invariably  the 
loser.  The  demoralization  thus  created  aiul  the  amount  of  money  lost 
is  not  second  to  the  lottery  systems  of  southern  countries,  and  in  Lou- 
don, between  the  temptations  of  the  publican  and  bookmaker,  the  sur- 
plus earnings  of  thousands  of  laborers,  artisans,  and  clerks  have  little 
chance  of  reaching  the  savings  bank.  Now  that  to  the  ])erniciou.s  system 
of  stock  and  produce  gambling  in  America  is  being  rapidly  added  to  the 
English  racing  mania,  we  may  look  for  increased  depravity  in  our  youths, 
and  a  waste  of  money  on  a  larger  scale  than  before  if  the  i)reseut  results 
are  any  criterion. 

FEELINa  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYE. 

The  statement  of  the  feeling  that  exists  in  London  between  employer 
and  employ^  may  be  dismissed  in  a  few  words.  Old  servants  in  house- 
holds, old  employes  in  baidis,  and  in  some  stores  and  factories,  are  still 
treated  with  the  Ibrmer  iorbearance  aud  courtesy  which  was  one  of  the 
lovable  traits  of  the  relationship  between  master  and  servant  in  English 
lite.  But  the  patriarchal  system  ot'i)ersonal  attachment,  where  the  master 
was  the  father  and  guide  to  his  workmen,  is  fast  going  out  of  date,  aud 
now  lingers  only  in  smaller  manuCacturing  towns  and  in  the  country. 
The  greater  indej)endence  of  the  workingman  has  chauged  the  charac- 
ter of  the  connection,  and  now  the  ieeling  is  one  of  inditference,  the 
master  getting  as  much  work  out  of  his  men  as  he  can,  and  they  en- 
deavoring to  do  just  enough  to  maintain  their  ])laces  aud  earn  their 
wages.  1  have  even  heard  the  feeling  existing  described  as  one  oi"  bit- 
teruess ;  but  I  do  not  believe  this  to  be  general. 

OnaANIZATION  OF  LABOR. 

Labor  is  well  organized  in  London,  every  branch  of  trade  uniting  in 
unions  for  the  maintenance  of  tiu^ir  members  and  tlie  delense  of  their 
rights;  and  in  tiiis  connection  it  must  not  be  overh)oked  that  most  of 
the  trade  unions  throughout  tlie  counti-y  have  their  head  ollice  iji,  aud 
are  partially  directed  Irom,  London.  For  tlu^  general  laws  bearing  uj)OU 
the  subject  1  have  to  refer  to  the  rei)ort  from  Glasgow,  where  full  de- 
tails are  given.  There  are  several  hundred  trade  unions  in  London.  I 
will  take  as  an  example  tin;  Operative  Bri<;klayers'  Society,  iu)w  in  its 
thirty-sixth  year  of  oiganiziiion,  the  particailars  of  which  have  been 
furnished  me  by  Mr.  (Joulson,  the  general  secretary. 

The  society  consists  of  (JjOTo  nuMubers,  di\ided  into  128  branches.  The 
yearly  incon)e  amounts  to  $t."), 000.  or  an  average  cost  of  02  cents  a 
month  to  each  nu-niber ;  and  the  present  worth  of  the  society  is  $142,000. 
Since  18(>()  the  union  has  ])aiil  the  following  i>enelits  to  nuMubers  aud 
their  families:  For  sickness,  $151), .lOO;  for  funerals,  $;)7, 01)0  ;  for  acci- 
dents, §2,000;  grants  to  ot  ler  trades,  $4,000;  for  tra<l(^  i)rivileges, 
$20,000;  superannuation,  $  toi)— making  a,  toral  of  about  $200,000. ' 

Qu,itliJic(ftionoJ' members. — Every  bri(;klayer  who  furnishes  satisfactory 
evidence  that  he  is  in  good  health  and  has  worked  at  the  trade  for  two, 


LAP.OR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  699 

three,  or  five  years,  and  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  fifty-five  years 
Entrance  fee, '$1.25. 

Contributions  as  iwr  age. — Twelve  cents  a  week  up  to  tliirty  years  of 
age;  13  cents  np  to  tiiirty-tive  years;  14  cents  np  to  forty  years,  and 
10  cents  up  to  forty-five  years.  Any  member  who  has  coin[)h>.te(l  one 
year  and  i);iid  the  rates  is  free,  and  entitle<l  to  traveling,  sick  pay, 
funeral,  and  otlier  btMiofits.  Those  admitted  from  ftnty  five  to  fifty-five 
years  of  ago  pay  0  cents,  and  are  entitled  to  trade  and  funeral  benefits. 

Trade  benefits. — From  the  time  a  branch  is  opened  all  mendjers  are 
entitled  to  su[)port  to  maintain  the  established  wages  and  trade  customs 
of  the  district;  also  traveling  benefit,  37  cents  a  station.  (There  are 
sixteen  relieving  stations  in  London,  where  bricklayers  in  search  of 
work  are  entitled  to  n])ply.) 

Sick  benefit. — Two  dollars  and  ninety-three  cents  per  week  for  thirteen 
weeks;  $l.'l»4:  for  the  next  thirteen  weeks;  fl.lO  for  the  next  year  and 
a  half,  and  73  cents  for  the  remainder  of  illness. 

Funeral  benefit. — Seventv-three  dollars.  To  free  and  overaged  mem- 
bers, $2{).20. 

Optional  benefits. — On  payment  of  2  cents  a  week  for  accident,  when 
permanently  alilicted,  $244;  when  injured  at  builder's  works,  a  further 
sum  of  $244  for  legal  expenses  to  establish  a  just  claim  for  compensation 
for  injuries  and  loss  of  employment. 

Superannuation  benefit. — For  2  cents  a  week ;  if  a  member  fifteen 
years,  07  cents  a  week  ;  twenty  years,  $1.21  a  week;  twenty-five  years, 
$1.40;  thirty  years,  $1.94.  Aged  and  infirm  members  may  work  for 
any  wages  they  can  obtain. 

Extra  sicJc  alloicance. — For  2  cents  a  week  an  extra  97  cents. 

The  rate  of  wages  is  fixed  at  18  cents  an  hour  for  fifty-two  and  a  half 
hours  a  veek  in  summer  ($9.05),  and  tbrty-eif>ht  hours  in  v»-intcr  ($8.01), 
for  London.  At  Swindon,  one  of  the  outside  branches,  the  work  is  00 
hours  in  summer,  at  13  cents  an  hour  ($7.80).  The  full  rate  varies  from 
$10.30  a  week  at  Han)i)stead  and  Iviehmond  (filty-six  and  a  half  hours, 
at  18  cents)  to  $0.07  at  Iron  Bridge,  or  about  11  cents  lor  fifty  five  hours, 

STRIKES. 

Loudon  has  been  singularly  free  iVoni  strikes,  which  is  ])erhaps  due  to  the 
large  number  of  workers  who  can,  in  case  of  need,  readily  be  obtained  to 
take  the  i)laceof  thestrikeis.  From  inteiior  towns  weconsiantly  hear  of 
strikes  aiul  run>ors  of  strikes,  and  yet  the  great  center  of  trade  unionism 
is  scarcely  ever  the  scene  of  the  riotous  or  passive  contests  which  are 
80  common  elsewhere.  Last  year  the  briiikiayers  had  but  one  dispute 
in  London,  wdiich  was  against  increasing  the  hours  of  working  in  Lam- 
beth until  4  o'clock  on  Saturdays.  They  were  unsuccessful,  after  spend- 
ing $350  of  the  society  fund  to  maintain  their  ]>oint.  At  present  the 
only  strike  in  proiiress  is  that  of  shoemakers  in  the  common  kinds  of 
wholesale  work,  wdio  demand  a  uniform  i)ricelist.  This  was  referred 
to  arbitral  ion,  but  the  result  was  so  unsatisfactory  that  the  men  have 
rejected  the  com])romise  list  and  have  lefused  to  latify  the  agreement. 
Tlie  whole  question  is  at  this  time  unsettled,  and  the  uncertainty  as  to 
future  proceedings  is  operating  very  detrimentall3'  upon  the  wholesale 
shoe  trade. 

The  general  effects  of  strikes,  except  the  few  on  record  where  the 
erai)loyers  have  almost  immediately  capitulated,  is  to  injure  both  sides, 
the  workingmen  suffering  more  than  the  master.  Unsiu;cessl"ul  strikes, 
which  are  in   the  majority,  represent  a  dead  loss  to  the  workingmen, 


700  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

while  a  successful  strike  is  ofteu  gained  at  such  an  expense,  through 
lost  time,  that  the  additional  increment  to  the  wage  may  take  many- 
mouths  to  i^lace  the  workman  in  his  former  tiuancial  condition. 

FOOD  PURCHASES. 

Working  people  are  allowed  to  purchase  whatever  and  wherever  they 
choose,  there  being  no  iL'.->triction  on  their  fi eedom  in  this  respect.  The 
former  evil  custom,  by  which  employers  furnished  goods  to  their  work- 
men on  the  credit  of  the  employe's  wages  as  security*,  led  to  so  many 
abuses  that  the  practice  was  prohibited  by  the  passage  of  the  truck 
acts,  which,  I  believe,  are  seldom  violated  in  London.  Wages  in  gen- 
eral trades  are  paid  weekly  on  Saturday,  the  half  holiday,  but  the  pay- 
ment on  Friday  is  rapidly  gaining  ground.  A  late  act  of  Parliament 
prohibits  the  i)ayment  of  wages  in  public  houses,  a  common  custom, 
which  usually  resulted  to  the  undue  benefit  of  the  publican. 

CO-OPERATIVE   STORES. 

The  power  of  the  cooperative  movement  in  Loudon  is  very  strong, 
both  in  the  large  trade  carried  on  by  the  "  stores,"  as  they  are  called, 
and  the  effect  they  have  had  in  a  competitive  way  in  compelling  in- 
dividuals and  firms  engaged  in  retail  bnsiness  to  cut  down  their  former 
large  profits  somewhat  in  conformity  with  the  profits  of  the  co-opera- 
tive stores.  The  public  have  had  their  attention  strongly  directed 
to  the  difference  between  wholesale  and  retail  prices,  and  greater  care 
is  now  exercised  in  buying  than  ever  before.  In  the  general  retail  trade 
we  find  a  tendency  to  multiply  monster  establishments,  where  ready- 
money  payments  are  enforced  (a  leading  ])riuciple  of  the  co-operative 
system),  and  it  is  not  unconuuon  to  find  such  signs  as  this  displayed  in 
some  of  the  smaller  shops  ''  Cash  payments  !  The  stores  defied  !"  show- 
ing the  rivalry  they  fear,  and  the  standard  of  cheapness  tliey  wish  to 
hokl  forth  to  gain  customers.  The  English  shopkeeper  has  been  known 
for  his  long  credits.  This  system  is  now  going  out,  and  the  ready- 
money  feature  of  cooperation  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  change. 
Another  point  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  co-operative  stores  extend  the 
field  of  their  operations  beyond  their  own  doors ;  as  special  private 
concerns,  anxious  to  avail  themselves  of  the  extensive  patronage  of  the 
stores,  enter  into  combination  to  furnish  goods  to  the  cooperative  mem- 
bers at  a  reduction  of  from  5  to  20  per  cent,  from  regular  rates.  Armed 
with  amember's  ticket  which  costs  from2.s'.  <)V/.tor).s'.,and  theextensive  list 
of  establishments  in  connection  with  the  stores,  one  can  (tommand  a  sub- 
stantial discount  on  almost  any  article  purchasable.  Tiie  stores  main- 
tain a  reputation  for  cheapness,  variety,  and  high  quality  of  their  stock, 
and  are  slowly  but  surely  pushing  the  small  trader  to  the  wall.  He  can- 
not buy,  sell,  or  manage  as  chea[)ly  as  his  antagonist,  and  yet  he  must 
make  an  ettbrt  to  keep  his  prices  somewhat  on  a  level  with  "store" 
rates.  Unlike  jnany  interior  cities  the  patronage  of  co-operation  in 
London  is  mostly  confined  to  the  middle  and  higher  classes,  the  work- 
ingmen  getting  some  benefit  from  the  cheapening  prices  of  his  local 
tradesmen. 

DWELLINGS   OF   THE   LONDON   WORK  PEOPLE. 

Having  given  above  some  information  n[)on  the  general  condition  of 
working  ])eo])le,  their  habits,  food,  wages,  and  mode  of  life,  I  will  con- 
fine this  section  to  the  question  of  their  dwellings. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  701 

Macanlay  once  said  that  tluuc  was  iiotliino-  so  ridiculous  as  to  see  the 
Englisli  nation  in  a  spasm  of  virtue;  and  there  were  not  wanting  critics 
when  the  last  topic  of  interest,  the  better  housing  of  the  poor,  was 
pushed  to  the  front,  to  i)redict  that  it  would  be  a  short  lived  benevolent 
excitement,  and  that  matters  would  soon  fall  back  into  the  old  ruts.  The 
appointment  of  a  royal  commission  to  investigate  the  subject,  and  the 
continued  and  i)ractical  attention  which  is  still  strongly  maintained, 
force  me  to  believe  that  the  interest  awakened  is  not  ei)hemeral,  but 
that  great  and  lasting  good  will  result  to  the  poor  from  tlie  movement, 
for  which  the  i)ublic  are  indebted  to  the  enterprise  of  the  metroi)olitau 
press.  When  one  has  been  through  the  slums  of  London  and  has  seen 
the  overcrowding,  the  indecency  and  brutality  of  the  wretched  inmates, 
he  can  api)reciate  how  vast  is  the  misery,  and  how  great  the  difliculty 
that  faces  those  whose  means  and  endeavors  are  enlisted  in  the  cause 
of  improvement. 

The  statistics  of  the  number  of  persons  per  inhabited  house  in  Lon- 
don range  fiom  5.72  in  Croydon  (one  of  the  suburbs)  to  13.14  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Anne,  Soho,  a  crowded  district  between  the  great  arteries 
of  London,  the  Strand  and  Oxibrd  street.  Here  is  a  honeycomb  of 
courts  and  blind  alleys  which  is  bewildering  in  its  intricacy,  and  a  stand- 
ing marvel  that  its  limited  space  can  contain  the  swarming  ijopulatiou. 
But  mere  statistics  of  api)arent  overcrowding  seem  to  be  no  criterion  of 
the  misery,  as  we  find  that,  in  the  most  wretched  quarters,  Shoreditch, 
Ratcliffe,  and  Whitechapel  maintain  the  more  respectable  figures  of  7.50 
to  8.50  per  house. 

The  popular  interest  may  do  much  by  stimulating  to  greater  work 
the  agencies  now  in  existence,  and  by  creating  new  ones;  and  in  meas- 
uring what  can  be  done,  tlie  results  already  accom])lished  by  the  Pea- 
body  Douiitiou  Funtl,  the  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  the 
Queen's  I*ark  Estate,  the  Metropolitan  Association,  and  many  similar 
organizations,  ought  to  be  attentively  noticed.  A  consideration  of  the 
first  three  mentioned,  which  exhibit  some  difference  in  system,  will  be 
sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

(1.)  The  Peabody  buildings,  scattered  in  different  parts  of  London, 
are  substantial,  many-roomed  establishments,  erected  with  the  closest 
care  as  to  sanitation,  and  maintained  and  managed  with  skill  and  pru- 
dence. So  that  the  really  deserving  ])oor  may  take  advantage  of  the 
benefits,  the  characters  of  the  api)licants  for  rooms  are  inquired  into, 
and  i)ersons  earning  more  than  3(Ks.  ($7.50)  a  week  are  not  admitted. 
The  average  earnings  of  the  head  of  each  family  occu])ying  rooms  are 
now  $5.75.  Varying  with  the  nature  of  the  accommodation,  and  the 
desirability  of  the  location,  the  i)rices  charged  are  as  follows  :  One  room 
l)er  week,  48  to  85  cents  ;  two  rooms,  73  cents  to  $1.58 ;  three  rooms,  97 
cents  to  $1.70;  four  rooms,  $1.70  to  $1.84.  Nearlj'  every  trade  is  rep- 
resented among  the  tenants,  the  following  being  the  leading  occupa- 
tions: Laborers,  582;  porters,  403;  ])olice  constables,  207 ;  needle- 
women, 277;  carmen,  201;  charwomen,  181  j  messengers,  125;  ware- 
house laborers,  150  ;  and  i)rinters,  124.  The  nineteenth  annual  re})ort 
states  that  the  fund  was  created  by  George  Peabody,  the  American 
philanthroi>ist,  who  gave  £500,000  for  the  purpose,  llj)  to  the  end  of 
1883,  the  interest  and  receipts  of  rent  made  the  fun^  £830,000.  There 
was  borrowed  from  the  public  works  commissioners  and  others  the 
sum  of  £300,000,  of  whi(;li  £302,000  remain  un])aid,  thus  bringing  the 
total  capital  up  to  £1,102,000.  In  1883  £120,000  were  expended  for 
lands  and  buildings,  and  'S3  blocks  were  opened  containing  1,828  rooms; 
20  new  blocks  will  shortly  be  erected.     There  are  now  occu})ied  9,093 


702  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

rooiriH,  (exclusive  of  batb-rooins,  laiindries*,  &c.  These  rooms  coinpiise 
4,351)  (Iwelliiiiis — 73  of  4  rooms,  1,521  of  3  rooms,  2,073  of  2  rooms,  and 
602  of  1  room — occupied  by  18,000  i)ersoDS.  The  rent  in  all  cases  in- 
cludes the  free  use  of  water,  sculleries,  &c.  The  death-rate  in  these 
buildinj^s  was  18.00  per  1,000,  which  is  1.77  less  than  the  London  aver- 
a|?e. 

(2.)  The  Improved  Industrial  Buildings  Company  has  now  been  in 
existence  for  twenty  one  years,  and  celebrated  the  event  a  few  weeks 
since  by  openinji'  257  additional  dwellings  in  Solio.  The  principle  by 
which  this  company  is  governed  is  thus  stated: 

AltLougli  the  ■work  engaged  in  is  philanthropic  in  its  character  and  aims,  this  fact 
has  been  siibordiiiate  fo  the.  conviction  tliat  tlie  independence  of  the  tenants  conld 
not  V)e  maintained  or  tlie  necessary  tnnds  secnred  for  tlie  work  nnless  a  fair  dividend 
conld  be  })aid  on  the  capital  subscribed.  The  wisdom  of  that  course  is  best  illustrated 
by  the  rapid  progress  of  the  company,  for  wliich  on  the  one  hand  philanthropy  has 
8ub8cribe<l  the  cajtital,  and  <m  the  other  the  tenants  have  in  no  sense  been  the  recipi- 
ents of  charity.  They  simply  enjoy  complete,  comfortable,  and  healthy  homes,  in 
gooil  positions,  forabont  the  same  rent  they  formerly  ))aid  for  one  or  two  rooms  in  111- 
adai)ted  and  unsanitary  houses. 

The  houses  are  built  in  large  blocks,  but  each  tenement  is  "self-con- 
tained," usually  comprising  a  kitchen,  water  supply,  and  one  or  two 
bedrooms,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms  is  such  as  to  make  them 
almost  as  desirable  as  jirivate  houses.  The  height  of  the  rooms  is  8  feet 
6  inches,  and  the  superficial  and  cubic  area  120  feet  and  1,000  feet,  re- 
spectively. The  rents  average  for  one  room  in  the  poorer  districts,  51 
cents  a  week;  in  the  central  and  western  districts  the  prices  range,  for 
one  or  more  rooms,  from  GO  cents  to  $3.04,  the  latter  being  charged  for 
a  few  0  room  dwellings  ;  the  greater  majority  are  3  or  4  room  tenements, 
averaging  under  $2.  The  com])any  owns  4,314  tenements,  occupied  by 
21,500  persons.  In  addition,  there  are  now  in  course  of  erection  610 
tenements,  cajiable,  in  all,  of  holding  25,000  tenants,  at  a  yearly  rental 
of  $500,000.  The  capital  invested  is  $4,750,000,  paying  5  per" cent,  a 
year  to  shareholders. 

(3.)  Near  Paddington  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  cheapness 
and  beauty  of  the  cottage  system  of  tenements,  as  distinct  from  the 
block  system  just  described.  This  is  the  Queen's  Park  Kstate,  which 
consists' of  about  3,000  houses,  renting  from  $2  to  $2.50  a  week,  and 
containing  a  ])Oi)ulation  of  15,000.  The  buildings  are  of  brick,  two 
stories  high,  designed  with  such  architectural  skill  and  varied  both  in 
form  and  color  with  such  tine  taste  as  to  give  to  the  whole  an  appear- 
ance <tf  an  esthetic  city,  rather  than  what  is  generally  associated  with 
the  idea  of  an  artisans'  locality,  where  so  often  the  "  architecture"  is 
only  the  monotonous  and  naked  jilainness  of  straight  lines.  I  was 
greatly  struck  with  the  rich  disi)lay  of  tlowers  that  appeared  in  every 
window  and  garden,  and  the  evident  care  and  i»ride  the  tenants  took 
to  beautify  their  surroundings.  The  churches,  schools,  and  stores  are 
all  built  in  harmony  with  the  cottages,  making  together  one  of  the 
prettiest  ])arts  of  London. 

I  earnestly  recommend  a  study  of  these  three  systems,  as  the  question 
of  the  better  and  cheaper  accommodation  of  workingmen  is  already  a 
l)ressing  necessity  in  n)any  of  our  large  cities.  There  are  about  100,000 
persons  in  London  Hving  in  these  specially  i)rovided  industrial  dwellings, 
and  there  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  need  of  the  continuance  of  the 
system.  The  bnihlings  are  never  in  want  of  tenants,  as  the  superior 
aidvantages  and  cheaper  rates  make  applicants  numerous. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  70^ 

RENTED  DWELLINGS  IN  ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

The  nnmber  and  rentals  of  dwelling-houses  in  England  and  Wales 
are  thus  stated  in  the  census  : 


Keutal. 

Nnmber. 

Per  cent 

Under  £  10 

2,62.«,  102 
721,170 

41K,  oo;; 

251,789 

242,  or,o 

104,  95(i 
liC,  (ia7 

58  & 

£10  aii'l  under  £15 

16  1 

£  15  mill  under  £20 

9  3 

£.'0!iiiil  mi. ler  .£:!(). 

5  G 

£:J0  iinil  tiiid.r  £  JO 

5  4 

£■><)  and  uudfi-  £100 

3  1 

£100  and  uuwat'ds - -  -   - 

1  7 

Total 

4,  468,  7S3 

100  0 

These  figures  represent  the  gross  valuation  of  unfurnished  houses. 
The  real  rental  is  about  15  per  cent.  more.  But  in  judging  what  a  ten- 
ant must  ])ay,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  rates  and  taxes  fall  in 
most  cases  on  the  tenant  and  not  on  the  landlord,  as  in  the  United 
States.  The  taxes  on  an  average  amount  to  one-quarter  of  the  rental. 
A  house  estimated  in  the  census  at  £10  {%o{))  gross  would  give  an  actual 
rental  of  $57.50,  and,  with  the  addition  of  rates  and  taxes,  the  rental 
in  an  American  sense  would  be  $71.87,  or  an  increase  of  42  per  cent,  on 
the  census  tigures.  I  have  here  taken  the  moderate  increment  of  one- 
quarter  {~)s.  in  the  pound  sterling)  to  represent  the  a\ erage  taxes.  In 
large  cities  or  in  the  suburbs  where  extensive  improvements  are  in 
progress,  it  mounts  to  8  and  even  10  shillings  in  the  ])ound,  while  in 
some  country  districts  it  is  as  low  as  2s.  (id.,  or  one-eighth. 

HOW   A   LONDON  ENGINEER   LIVES. 

The  following  interview  is  with  a  good  representative  of  the  better 
class,  and  is  valuable  as  illustrating  the  mode  and  means  of  life  of 
a  sober  and  industrious  mechanic: 

Iain  fifty-two  yearsofage  and  am  employed  as  an  enj^ine-driver  at  the Elec- 
tric Light  Works.  I  have  a  wile  and  tl)ree  children;  the  eldest,  a  boy,  earnw  I0«. 
(•$2.44)  a  week  ;  the  others  ai'e  too  yonng  to  do  anything.  My  wages  are  £2  (§^.72)  a 
week;  in  18:^2  the  same  position  commanded  £2.\0.  The  honrs  of  labor  are  from  6 
a.  m,  to  ().3('  p.  ni. ;  on  Satnrdays  till  2  p.  m.,  or  70^  hours  a  week.  My  habits  are 
steady.  I  do  not  driuk,  and  I  try  to  be  a.-j  couteuted  as  I  can.  My  income  and  ex- 
penses are : 

Shillings  a  year. 

My  wages,  40s.  a  week 2,  080 

Receive  from  my  son  lOs.  a  week 520 

Total  income 2,(03 

House  rent,  8«.  6d.  a  week 442 

Dues  to  Foresters  Society 37^ 

Insurance  on  lives  of  self  and  family 143 

Food,  about  2l8.  a  week 1, 1^2 

Total  expenses  enumerated 1, 814^^ 

This  leaves  me  about  £42  ($200)  for  miscellaneous  expenses,  clothes,  schooling, 
medicine,  'bus  fare,  »&.c.  Were  it  not  for  the  aid  of  my  son  I  could  not  got  along. 
Meat  ia  expensive.  I  jjay  7s.  for  bee£on  Sunday  and  Monday.  I  can  save  a  little  now 
and  then,  always  have  enough,  butm>ue  to  spare. 


704  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

SAFETY   OF   FACTORY   AND   MILL  EMPLOYES. 

This  section  of  the  circular  asks  for  the  means  adopted  for  the  safety 
of  work  people,  the  i)rovisions  made  for  them  in  case  of  accident,  and 
the  consideration  gciven  by  employers  to  their  moral  and  physical  well- 
being.  In  nearly  all  the  consular  re])orts  will  be  found  reference  to  the 
operation  of  the  factories  and  workshoj)  acts  of  1S78,  which  will  amply 
cover  the  requirements  of  this  inquiry,  upon  which  I  have  hitherto  ad- 
dressed the  Dei)artn)ent.  London  is  laid  out  in  sanitary  districts,  the 
inspector  of  which,  under  certain  restrictions,  has  the  right  of  entrance 
iVito  any  house  or  shop  to  ascertain  its  sanitary  condition.  London  is 
a  ])ractical  and  charitable  city  where  free  or  nearly  free  hospitals 
abound.  Many  of  the  trades  maintain  schools  and  homes  for  orphan 
children  of  their  craftsmen,  and,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  means  are  ex- 
tended to  the  sick  and  destitute.  I  have  not  learned,  however,  that 
employers  in  general  pay  any  nttention  to  the  physical  and  moriil  wel- 
fare of  their  emi»loyes  beyond  what  the  law  or  their  own  individual  sense 
of  justice  and  charity  dictates,  unless  we  except  those  large  firms  who 
board  and  keep  their  employes  in  their  own  buildings,  and  who  by  so 
doing  have  a  greater  responsibility  placed  upon  thenu 

POLITICAL    INFLUENCE    OF    THE    WORKING    PEOPLE. 

The  workman's  political  influence  will  soon  become  a  great  factor  in 
the  British  franchise  system.  The  Liberal  party  in  bringing  forward 
and  passing  through  the  House  of  Commons  the  representation  of  the 
people  act  (a  copy  of  which  I  ajipend),  which  it  is  estimated  will  add 
2,000,000  of  voters  to  the  electorate,  have  forced  the  Conservative  party 
in  the  House  of  Lords  to  admit  that  there  is  no  disagreement  as  to  the 
princii)le  of  the  bill,  thus  i)ractically  insuring  its  ultimate  ])assage. 
Consul  Jones  has  niivde  a  specialty  of  reporting  on  the  question  of 
the  franchise,  and  I  have,  therefore,  to  refer  to  his  elaborate  statement. 

Strictly  speaking  the  workingman  paj's  no  direct  imperial  taxes,  as 
all  incomes  under  £150  are  exempt,  and  the  classes  of  labor  which  we 
have  been  considering  riirely  have  incomes  amounting  to  that  sum. 
But  he  pays  local  taxation  either  directly  or  through  his  increased 
rent,  and  more  than  one-half  of  the  commodities,  as  beer,  spirits,  and 
tobacco,  &c.,  on  whicJi  heavy  duties  are  levied,  he  consumes.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  of  legislation  is  in  favor  of  labor,  inde})endent  of  any 
strong  denuind  fiom  the  WH)rkman  himself.  Several  beneficial  acts  on 
the  statute  books  have  been  the  result  of  direct  agitation  by  the  work- 
ingmen,  but  more  have  been  i)laced  there  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
legislation. 

CAI'SES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

The  emigration  during  1883  of  persons  of  Britisli  and  Irish  origin  was 
320,118,  the  largest  on  record.  For  some  time  past  agencies  have  been 
forming  to  i)i'onu)te  emigration  on  a  larger  scale,  and  the  j)ress  has 
favored  the  idea  as  a  double  nu'ans  of  benefiting  the  emigrants  and  the 
country  they  leave,  and  it  was  therefore  a  suiprise  to  find  by  the  statis- 
tics of  the  first  six  months  of  1884,  as  eonq)ared  with  the  corres])onding 
pei'iod  of  188.'),  that  there  had  been  a  falling  off  of  about  30  i)er  cent. 
The  colonial  ol'fiee  has  lately  caused  to  be  printed  as  a  parliamentary 
pai)er  Mr.  Boyd's  scheme  for  a  state-direMed  emigration  of  200,000  per- 
sons annually  to  Canada,  for  the  exi)ensR;  of  which  the  Government  is 
asked  to  provide  £2a,00t),000  of  emigration  stock.     Mr.  Boyd  justifies 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  705 

its  uecessity  "in  the  fact  that  the  population  of  the  Unite<i  Kinji^doiii  is 
excessive  and  increasinj;  at  a  pro(iijj:ious  rate  ;  hence  widely-spread  dis- 
tress, much  crime,  drunkenness,  and  unreasonable  com])etition,  evils  for 
which  the  only  practical  remedy  will  be  found  to  be  national  emi<;ra- 
tion."  As  the  (question  is  likely  to  come  ui)  in  Parliament,  I  call  atten- 
tion to  it  as  an  important  point  in  the  emijiration  of  the  future. 

As  to  the  occui)ations  of  emi^^rants  leaving?  for  the  United  States  the 
board  of  trade  furnishes  the  following;  i)articnlars  for  (ireat  Britain  and 
Ireliind  in  its  rejjortfor  1883:  Males,  adults,  general  laborers  (oiu^.  third 
of  the  total),  5(),()36  ;  occupations  not  stated,  12,120;  gentlemen,  pro- 
fessional men,  and  merchants,  6,099;  farmers  and  graziers,  4,303;  me- 
chanics, 3,792;  (piarrymen,  3,550  ;  clerks  and  agents,  1,335  ;  carpenters 
and  joiners,  1,158,  &c.  Female  adults,  domestic  and  farm  servants, 
ll),482  ;  no  occupations,  45,150. 

FEMALE   LABOR  IN  LONDON. 

Ac(M)rding  to  the  census  there  are  about  3,500,000  women  who  are 
earning'  wuges  in  England  and  Wales,  and  if  the  present  tendency  is 
maintained  of  extending  the  field  of  fenude  labor  by  their  larger  employ- 
ment in  existing  occuinitions,  and  the  opening  uj)  to  them  of  new  trades 
and  professions  as  prejudice  dies  away,  the  next  decade  will  see  a  large 
increase  in  the  number  of  women  who  have  it  in  their  ])ower  to  gain 
their  own  livelihood.  The  work  that  the  more  ambitious  women  are 
now  striving  for  demands  some  technical  education,  which,  thanks  to 
the  multiplication  of  teclmical  institutes  in  London  during  the  past  few 
jears,  can  now  be  obtained  without  much  difficulty.  In  speaking  of 
this  question  a  few  days  ago  Miss  King,  who  is  the  secretary  of  the 
Society  for  Promoting  the  Employment  of  Women,  said: 

Things  are  nienrtiiifi  soniewliat.  A  great  impetus  has  been  given  to  female  educa- 
tion of  late  years,  ami  the  time  is  cominsr  wheii  it  will  be  regarded  as  much  iuciimbeut 
upon  parents  to  train  their  daughters  to  earn  their  living  as  if  they  were  boys.  The 
great  want  is  training — sound,  practical,  technical  training.  In  a  small  way  we  have 
endeavored  to  supply  this  want  by  our  class  for  teaching  bookkeeping,  which  we 
started  twenty  years  ago,  and  still  keep  on.  Our  pui)ils  receive  I5s.  a  week  for  the 
first  year,  rising  afterwards  to  £80  and  £100  a  year.  Since  our  first  class  was  started 
others  of  all  descriptions  have  increased  and  multiplied.  There  is  the  City  and  Guilds 
Art  School,  where  girls  go  through  a  three  years'  course  in  wood  engraving;  S  gnor 
BuUetti's  wood-carving  class  iu  Albert  Hall;  Miss  Long's  office,  where  plan-tracing 
is  taught ;  and  girls  learn  practical  printing  in  the  Woma'i's  Printing  Society,  West- 
minster. There  is  a  chromo-lithographic  school  in  Bloornsbury.  Designing  is  taught 
at  South  Kensington,  ami  tapestry,  china  painting,  and  other  decorative  work  are 
taught  in  numerous  places.  There  is  a  complete  curriculnm  for  women  desiring  to 
study  medicine,  in  Henrietta  street.  A  lady  phariTiaceutical  chemist  in  Paddington 
takes  apprentices,  and  after  three  years'  training  they  go  up  for  examination,  and  are 
aa  thoroughly  comi»eteut  to  dispense  medicines  as  any  male  chemist,  I  need  not  refer 
to  the  training  colleges  for  teachers  ;  they  have  long  been  in  existence.  The  nursing 
institutes  are  more  recent.     All  are  doing  good  work. 

Thirteen  years  ago,  says  an  intelligent  writer  in  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
in  a  series  of  articles  entitled  "Women  who  Work,"  the  Messrs.  Doulton, 
the  famous  art-pottery  makers  in  Lambeth,  employed  in  artistic  work 
only  three  girls,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  they  could  be  fouud. 
Now  over  300  girls  are  at  work,  and  the  number  of  technically  educated 
applicants  for  situations  tells  the  story  of  the  change.  To  be  eligible 
for  admittance  a  girl  must  have  passed  the  elementary  examinations  of 
an  art  school  and  be  at  least  thirteen  years  old.  The  i)ayment  is  at 
first  low,  beginning  at  75  cents  to  $1  a  week,  and  rising  according  to 
merit.  The  weekly  average  earnings  of  a  good  steady  worker  (piece- 
92  A— LAB 45 


706  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

work  being  the  rule)  are  from  $5  to  $6.25,  but  tbere  are  cases  where  the 
earuiug's  amoniit  to  $20  and  $25. 

Anotlier  branch  iu  which  women  have  been  successful  is  as  employes 
in  telegraph  and  teleplioue  offices,  tliere  being  over  1,000  female  telegra- 
phists in  London  alone,  against  a  few  score  in  1870,  when  the  Govern- 
ment took  over  the  management  of  the  telegraph  system.  Any  girl  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  after  passing  the  civil-service  exami- 
nation, maybe  entered  as  a  free  pupil  in  the  post-office  telegrai)h  school. 
In  three  months,  generally,  she  is  enabled  to  undertake  the  simpler 
matters  of  an  office,  and  receives  at  first  $2.50  a  week,  rising  25  cents 
a  week  per  annum  to  $4.25,  and  then  by  36  cents  a  week  jjer  annum 
to  $6.75.  At  the  Central  telegraph  office  there  are  424  second-class 
clerks  (women)  getting  from  $2.50  to  $6.75;  196  first  class,  $7  to  $8; 
15  assistant  female  supervisors  with  yearly  salaries  of  $404  to  $505;  15 
others,  $505  to  $680 ;  8,  at  $730;  6,  at  $880;  and  2,  at  $1,200.  The  com- 
petition for  a  place  in  the  Government  telegraph  service  is  very  great; 
recently,  when  50  hands  were  required,  there  were  500  applicants.  In 
answer  to  an  inquiry  of  mine  in  relation  to  telegraphists  and  school- 
teachers (male  and  female)  in  the  Government  employ,  I  received  the 
following  memorandum  from  Mr.  Percj"  J.  Cackett,  of  the  Civil  Service: 

The  pay  of  telegraphists  varies  so  imich  accordiug  to  the  size  of  the  town  at  which 
they  are  employed  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  reduce  it  to  a  uniform  scale,  but  the 
system  adopted  is  as  follows:  A  competitive  examination  iu  telegraphy  and  elemen- 
tary educational  routine  is  held  iu  London  ;  the  successful  candidates  are  generally 
sent  to  small  country  towns,  at  which  the  tixed  pay  is  from  IDs.  to  22s.  per  week,  but 
this  by  no  means  represents  their  wages,  as  tiiey  make  a  very  great  amount  of  over- 
time. A  circular  is  sent  daily  to  every  post-otfice  in  the  Kingdom  announcing  the 
situations  which  are  vacant  tliroughout  the  country  and  the  emoluments  attached  to 
each.  Any  telegraphist  can  then  apply  for  one  of  these  appointments.  The  post- 
master at  the  town  where  the  vacancy  occurs  chooses  between  the  candidates,  and 
60  a  telegraphist  is  continually  moving  from  a  small  town  to  a  larger.  In  provincial 
towns  and  in  London  the  pay  for  males  is  generally  about  21s.  to  42s.  per  week  ($5  to 
flO),  rising  by  Is.  6d.  per  week  per  year,  and  for  females  18s.  to  338.,  rising  at  the 
same  rate.  An  able  and  honest  telegraphist  may  in  course  of  time  be  recommended 
for  the  position  of  post  master  or  mistress,  which  is  worth  in  small  towns  from  £100 
to  £200,  and  in  larger  £300  to  £700  a  year.  »  *  *  The  staff  of  the  school  board  is 
composed  of  pupil  teachers,  assistant  teachers,  and  fully  chartered  teachers.  Pupil 
teachers  receive  no  pay,  but  are  instructed  by  the  master  or  mistress  in  return  for  their 
services  in  taking  charge  of  the  younger  pupils.  If  after  five  years  the  pupil  teacher 
does  not  satisfy  the  inspector  that  he  is  likely  to  make  a  satisfactory  master,  be  is  not 
allowed  to  continue  ;  but  if  he  passes  inspection  he  is  sent  to  a  training  college.  After 
•two  or  thiee  years  he  may  then  accept  any  assistant  teachership  which  is  vacant. 
The  pay  varies  considerably,  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  school — iu 
villages,  £30  to  £60  per  annum,  and  in  towns  £50  to  £120  (including  lodgings,  and 
in  some  cases  food).  After  he  has  served  as  an  assistant  he  may  become  a  certified 
teacher,  an<l  obtain  in  villages  from  £60  to  £200,  and  in  towns  from  £120  to  £400. 
The  school  board  of  the  district  have  the  privilege  of  choosing  the  master  or  mistress 
whom  they  consider  the  most  suitable  from  among  the  different  applicants  from  the 
training  colleges,  and  the  inspector  decides  when  an  assistantteacher  should  be  granted 
a  certificate. 

It  may  be  added  that  according  to  Prof.  Leone  Levi's  estimate,  in 
1870,  the  average  salary  for  a  certified  master  was  $475 ;  now  it  is  $600  j 
of  a  certified  schoobnistress  $285  in  1870,  and  $360  in  1884. 

Having  given  above  some  general  observations  on  female  labor,  let 
me  briefly  run  over  the  nine  points  suggested  by  the  circular  : 

1.  The  number  of  women  included  in  the  difl'erent  classes  ot  i)rofes- 
sions  and  occupations  in  England  and  Wales  is  given  in  the  Census 
Statistics,  in  Part  I. 

FEMALE  WAGES  IN  LONDON. 

2.  As  to  the  minimum,  average,  and  maximum  wages,  the  best  an- 
swer that  may  be  given  is  by  way  of  contrast  with  the  wages  of  men  in 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  707 

the  same  etnployinent.  Koumlly  it  may  bo  said  that  a  woman  jrets  for 
work  one  half  of  what  a  man  could  command  for  the  identical  service; 
rarely  is  she  abU',  to  j?et  two  thirds,  and  not  unfreqiiently  is  the  relation 
between  masculine  and  feminine  work  reduced  to  the  starvation  i)oint 
of  a  third.  For  women  who  work  at  some  of  the  poorer  trades,  in  the 
East  End,  i)ennies  and  not  shillings  measure  their  scanty  day's  earn- 
ings, but  a  fair  minimum  wage  may  be  stated  at  $1.50  a  week,  without 
bo;ird.  As  to  the  maximum,  in  the  West  End  there  are  a  few  skilled 
workers  in  fashionable  drapery  and  kindred  trades  who  make  $20  a 
week,  and  I  have  mentioned  a  few  instances  of  pottery  artists  and  tele- 
grai)h  supervisors  who  earn  $U5  a  week.  Most  difficult  of  all  is  it  to 
strike  the  average,  which  is  probably  under  $3  a  week,  without  board. 

HOURS   OF   LABOR. 

3.  The  hours  of  labor  vary  with  the  different  avocations,  but  are  gen- 
erally wearisome  enough,  being  from  nine  and  a  half  to  sixteen  hours 
a  day.  Since  the  vigorous  movement  in  favor  of  early  closing  has  been 
iniuignrated,  sho])keej)ers  have  shown  more  humanity,  and  the  number 
of  hours  has  been  in  many  instances  shortened  in  accordance  with  the 
nature  of  the  trades.  This  has  not  been  done  by  lessening  the  number 
of  hours  a  day  to  any  extent,  but  by  giving  a  half  holiday  on  Saturdays, 
or  in  some  establishments  on  Thursday.  In  factories  the  hours  are 
about  nine  and  a  half,  exclusive  of  one  and  a  half  for  rest  and  meals. 
In  the  retail  dry-goods  trade  it  is  the  largest  and  best  establishments 
which  close  earliest,  as  may  be  noted  by  com[)aring  Regent  street  at 
night  with  the  smaller  shops  at  the  East  and  West  Ends.  In  the  city 
proper  the  hours  are  the  shortest,  even  bars  and  restaurants,  which  in 
other  parts  of  London  keep  open  until  12.30  o'clock,  closing  early  in  the 
evening.  The  law  in  relation  to  hours  affects  mines,  factories,  and  work- 
shops, but  has  no  application  to  stores,  and  an  effort  is  now  on  foot  to 
extend  what  might  be  termed  the  ten-hour  law  to  stores  also.  Proba- 
bly no  better  idea  could  be  gained  of  the  relation  between  the  law  and 
the  laboring  hours  than  by  quoting  an  item  from  the  police  rej)orts 
which  lately  fell  under  my  observation: 

Mrs. ,  dressmaker,  West  Hammersmith,  has  been  fined  £3  in  one  case,  £1  and 

costs  in  each  of  ten  cases,  and  to  pay  the  costs  of  three  other  summonses,  for  employ- 
ing women  in  h^r  work-room  after  4_o'clockon  Saturday's,  contrary  to  the  reguhitions 
of  the  factory  act. 

PHYSICAL  CONDITION. 

4,  5,  6,  7.  The  physical  condition  of  the  London  working  women  ranks 
high,  as  the  city  is  one  of  the  healthiest  in  the  world,  and  the  sturdy 
vigor  of  the  English  constitution  is  as  apparent  here  as  elsewhere.  To 
the  full  operation  of  the  factory  and  workshop  acts  is  due  much  of  the 
improvement  in  the  i)hysical  well  being  of  employees,  as  on  the  one  hand 
they  ])reserve  them  from  overwork,  and  on  the  other  provide  better  se- 
cuiity  from  tireand  accident,  or  the  more  insidious  dangers  of  defective 
sanitary  arrangements  and  the  diseases  communicatetl  in  the  working 
ot  such  uuiterials  as  wool  and  white  lead,  I  had  occasion  in  my  last 
annual  report  to  review  the  operations  of  this  beneficent  act,  and  then 
stated  that  the  present  condition  of  affairs  was  in  pleasing  contrast  with 
the  utter  disregaid  of  health,  strength,  and  mental  develoi)ment  which 
once  made  the  English  factory  and  mine  system  a  revolting  tyranny  and 
the  condition  of  the  employes  a  civilized  slavery.    The  best  evidence 


708  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

of  the  effect  of  this  act  in  London  that  I  can  give  is  the  statement  by 
Mr.  EedgTave,  the  chief  inspector: 

There  has  been  a  revolution  during  ten  years  in  the  conditions  under  which  seam- 
stress work  is  done;  the  employment  of  women  in  workshops  and  factories  has  ia- 
creased  enormously,  but  I  can  find  no  employer  willing  to  commit  himself  to  the 
opinion  that  in  their  respective  classes  there  has  been  any  deterioration  in  the  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  the  work  people.  Those  engaged  in  the  higher  branches  of  dresa- 
making  and  millinery,  and  who  chiefly  board  their  employes,  acknowledge  that  since 
the  enforcement  of  the  factory  n-gulations  they  have  had  less  difficulty  in  getting  ap- 
prentices of  a  superior  class.  The  relatives  and  friends  of  these  young  people,  know- 
ing their  health  is  protected  by  the  limitations  imposed  upon  the  hours  of  work, 
have  less  hesitation  in  allowing  ihem  to  go  to  work,  and  within  a  few  years  I  have 
observed  a  remarkable  improvement  in  the  accommodation  and  treatment  provided 
for  this  class. 

WAGES,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

8.  There  has  been  litthi  change  in  the  wages  of  women  during  the 
past  five  years,  and  certainly  no  redaction.  Covering  a  period  of  eight- 
een years,  from  1866,  Prof.  Leone  Levi  shows  that  for  women  under 
twenty  years  of  age  wages  have  risen  12  per  cent.,  and  over  that  age  24 
per  cent.,  while  wages  of  men  under  twenty'  years  of  age  have  increased 
•only  6§  ])er  cent.,  and  over  that  age  6f  per  cent.  The  eifect  of  the  in- 
crease of  women  workers  is  a  slight  reduction  in  the  wages  of  men. 
More  often,  however,  a  branch  of  work  is  entirely  taken  from  the  hands 
of  men,  and  we  have  no  opportunity  to  study  the  result  upon  the  dis- 
placed. 1  know  of  one  case  where  the  undue  insistence  of  union  men 
upon  the  rules  of  their  society  so  exasperated  the  manufacturer  who  bad 
a  certain  time  in  which  to  fulfill  a  large  order  that  he  had  a  private  test 
made  of  the  ability  of  women  to  do  the  work,  and  finding  it  successful, 
suddenly  supplanted  all  his  men  employes  by  women.  Usually  the 
changes  go  on  so  gradually  that  they  are  almost  unnoticed,  and  it  is 
rare  that  any  manifestation  of  disapproval  is  seen  like  the  riotous  pro- 
ceedings some  years  ago  at  Kidderminster,  when  the  employment  of 
women  was  violently  protested  against. 

EDUCATION. 

9.  The  present  generation  of  workers  is  far  better  educated  than  the 
last,  and  educated  in  a  way  that  though  elemental  is  substantial.  They 
usually  read  and  write  well,  and  certainly  converse  with  a  fluency  and 
purity  of  English  that  is  very  pleasing.  The  observations  of  ihe  con- 
sul at  Tnnstall  present  much  information  upon  this  ijoint,  to  which  I 
beg  to  refer. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In  conclusion  I  have  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  rei)ort  for  the  services  rendered  by  Mr.  Edmund  J.  Moffat, 
Mr.  Warren,  the  editor  of  the  Labour  News,  and  Mr.  L.  B.  Lewis,  of 
Blackwall,  as  well  as  many  others  who  have  kindly  furnished  me  with 
information.  I  wish  also  to  acknowledge  the  many  facts  and  suggestions 
I  have  derived  from  Sir  Thomas  Brassey's  work  on  "  English  Work  and 
Wages,"  and  the  writings  of  Prof.  Leone  Levi. 

EDWIN  A.  MERRITT, 

Consul- General. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

GENERAL  TRADI^S. 

Wagcii  paid  per  week  offorfii-cight  to  sixty  (arcraye  Jiftijfonr)  hours  in  London. 


im 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDING  TRADES. 

$7  30 
3  65 
7  30 
3  65 
6  80 
3  65 
6  80 
6  80 

3  65 
6  08 

4  ,'i8 
6  08 
6  50 

$8  76 
4  87 

8  76 
4  87 
7  79 
4  87 
7  79 
7  79 
4  87 

9  74 
4  60 
9  24 
9  24 

$8  40' 

4  60 

8  40 

4  60 

Pla«tt>reis                                       

7  50 

4  60 

Slateis                                   

7  50 

7  50 

4  60 

8  \0 

4  87 

8  00 

8  00 

OTHER  TRADES. 

6  SO' 

6  08 
4  SO 
6  33 
6  86 

8  03 

6  80 

7  74 
6  33 

7  80 

6  00' 

7  OO' 

6  OO' 

7  00- 

2  80 
6  80 
6  80 
2  43 
4  38 
6  08 
6  08 

4  38 

6  08 
8  51 

11  00 

7  50 

7  30 

8  51 
8  76 

7  00 

4  3d 

8  10 

8  80 

6  00 

6  86- 

8  00 

Cutlera  

8  00 

6  50 

5  00 

7  30 
4  87 

7  79 

8  51 

7  50' 

7  50 

8  50- 

8  50 

4  38 
4  87 

6  08 
6  80 

5  20- 

5  40 

7  10 

8  00 

4  87 

6  08 
6  80 

10  24 

11  00 

8  50 

8  70 

4  38 

4  51 

4  40 

Printers 

7  30 

C§15  00 

\    117  60 

7  80 

Safldle  and  harness  makers 

6  08 

8  51 

7  30 

8  00 

7  00 

Tailors  (not  cutters,  up  to  $5) 

"25  00 
8  51 

7  50 

4  38 

4  87 

8  00 

Tinsmiths 

7  00 

*  This  table  has  been  propa'cd  by  Mr.  Willi.Tm  "Warren,  the  etiitoi  of  the  Labour  News.  London,  and 
give.s  fioni  pradical  ex])erience  the  aveiape  rutes  paid  per  week  in  the  nietroi)oli.^  and  subiii  bs.  Hijiher 
■wapes  iire  jiaid  per  hovr,  but  sneh  engiifrenients  aie  liable  to  nnicli  lost  time.  The  table  does  not  com- 
prise t'drcnicn  or  the  lower  apprentices,  but  embraces  the  majority  of  good  workmen. 

t  With  board. 

I  With  house. 
§  Male. 

II  Female. 

RAILWAY  EMPLOYES. 

For  'wages  of  railway  employes  see  Liverpool,  where  the  pnyiiieuta 
are  on  the  same  scale  as  London.  The  ottice  of  the  London,  Briiihton 
and  South  Coast  IJailway  is  preparing  a  statement  on  the  snl>j<  <t,  Avhicb 
I  will  forward  as  soon  as  received.  With  the  large  amount  of  material 
on  this  point  ])resented  by  the  consuls,  I  do  not  consider  it  worthwhile 
to  delay  the  tiansmission  of  the  report  to  await  the  receipt  of  the  rail- 
wav  statistics  of  London. 


710 


LABOR    IX    EUROPE ENGLIND. 


SHIPBUILDINa  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  wtek  of  fifty-four  hours  in  ship-yards,  distinguishing  hetwien  iron  and  wood 
ship-huilding,  in  London. 


Occupations. 


Shipwrights. 
Joiut'i's    .... 


Bliiek.smiths  .. 

Calk.' 1-8 

Boiler-makers. 

Kiveters 

Engineers 

Fittf-rs 

Sliip-painters  . 
Kiimi'is 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


$11  50 


$7  20 


11  50 


Ked-leailers 

Haninier-nien 

General  laborers 


7  20  I 
6  95  ' 
4  86  ! 


11  50 
7  80 
5  83 


Average. 


$9  60 

8  90 

9  60 
9  60 
8  90 
8  90 
8  90 

8  10 

9  60 
9  60 
9  60 
7  40 
5  30 


Loudon  long  since  lias  droi)ped  out  of  the  list  of  great  ship-building 
ports,  and  the  trade  that  used  to  tlourish  here  is  sui)ported  by  a  very- 
few  yards,  the  supremacy  having  passed  from  the  banks  of  the  Thames 
to  the  Tyue  and  the  Clyde.  Necessarily  the  great  commerce  of  the 
river  makes  ship-repairing  an  active  trade,  but  if  the  repairs  are  exten- 
sive owners  of  vessels  prefer  to  have  them  done  elsewhere,  where  work 
and  dock  charges  are  less. 

seaivien's  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  hettveen  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  London. 


Occupations. 

Lowest.    Highest. 

Average. 

Steam : 

$778  64   $1,  459  00 
53  53           63  60 

$876  00 

58  26 

38  93 

48  66 

34  06 

19  46 

24  33 

17  05 

Sailing: 

38  93 

24  33  1        26  73 

25  53 

17  05 

14  60 

21  90 

(See  Liverpool  and  Cardiff  for  different  voyages.)  The  agent  of  the 
Anchor  Line  informs  me  that  wages  paid  on  their  London  and  Liveri)Ool 
steamers  are  substantially  the  same  the  year  around,  with  occasionally 
a  difference  of  a  few  per  cent,  in  favor  of  London. 


AGRICULTURAL   WAG^ES. 

Wages  paid  per  wcel>  to  agricultural  laborers  and  housthoht  (country)  servanlx  in  London 
district,  Avithout  hoard  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

H 

ighest. 

Average. 

Laborers : 

Kent 

$3  25 
3  25 
3  m 
2  67 
2  67 

.$4  86 
4  62 
4  86 
4  38 
4  62 

$4  13 

4  13 

4  38 

3  65 

3  89 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


711 


In  the  country  districts  around  London  the  afrricultnral  laborer  gen- 
erally earns  from  $200  to  $300  a  year,  tlie  average  being  jibont  $220.  It 
is  the  usual  custom  to  give  a  bonus  of  from  $10  to  $35  at  harvest  time, 
and  during  that  season  the  laborer  is  supplied  with  beer.  Depending 
upon  the  generosity  of  the  owner  or  tenant  of  the  farm  and  the  char- 
acter and  i)ern)anency  of  the  emi)loyment  of  the  laborer,  he  is  usually 
in  receipt  of  certain  perquisites,  such  as  firewood,  straw,  fruit,  and  at 
time  cottage  rent  free,  which,  wiiile  bein<;  part  of  his  income,  cannot  be 
accurately  averaged.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  tlie  tendency  of 
agricultural  wages,  notwithstanding  the  depression  in  agriculture, is  up- 
wards, as  there  is  an  unfortunate  attraction  of  farui  laborers  for  cities, 
where  they  swell  the  ranks  of  the  now  overgrown  casual  labor  of  large 
centers. 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 


Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (totvns  and 

cities)  in 

London, 

Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

CooliS  : 

$146  00 
77  86 
58  3fi 
73  00 
58  40 
116  80 
48  66 
48  66 
48  66 
68  13 
146  00 
189  79 
97  33 
97  33 

$243  32 

126  .53 

87  59 

97  33 

82  73 

486  65 

97  33 

97  33 

97  33 

146  00 

389  00 

243  32 

146  00 

146  00 

$104  66 

Plain                                 

97  33 

77  86 

77  86 

68  13 

140  00 

82  73 

82  73 

"Waitresses 

82  73 
97  33 

195  00 

170  32 

121  66 

121  66 

In  hotels  and  boarding-houses  domestic  servants  usually  receive  less 
wag<-s  than  in  private  houses,  as  they  are  constantly  in  receipt  of  fees 
and  gratuities  from  guests.  lu  many  it  may  be  said  that  tlie  wages 
paid  in  large  cities  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  about  one-half  the  cor- 
resi)onding  wages  in  the  United  States,  but  at  the  same  time  a  larger 
staff  of  servants  is  usually  employed  here. 


CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 
Wages  jyaid  per  near  to  the  corporation  employe's  in  the  city  of  London. 


Occtipations. 


City  government  (London  proper,  Guildhall  a7id  Mansion  House). 


Lord  mayor 
Recorder 


Chambei  lain 

Town  clerk 

Common  sergeant 

Jud;;e  of  city  of  London  court  . 

Commissioner  of  police 

Comptroller 

Assistant  .judge,  mayor's  court 

Kenienibrancer 

Solicitor 


Lowest.  I  Highest.  |  Average. 


Coroner 

Architect  and  surveyor 

Register      ] 

Medical  officer 

Chief  clerks  (r.uildhall)   .$820  00   $3,550  00 

Copying  clerks 486  00  |       790  00 

Laboiers per  week. .  5  40  1  7  20 

Porters do |  5  40  7  20 

i  ' 


$48 

665  00 

17 

032  00 

12 

166  00 

12 

166  00 

0 

733  00 

11 

680  00 

9 

733  00 

7 

3(10  00 

/, 

786  00 

7 

300  00 

9 

733  00 

4 

550  00 

9, 

733  00 

8 

500  00 

3 

893  00 

6  00 

6  00 

712 


IvABOK    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


As  to  ordinnry  trades,  carpenters,  bricklayers,  &c.,  employed  by  the 
city  of  Loudon,  it  is  usual  for  the  proper  officers  of  the  vestries  or 
parishes  (local  divisions)  to  give  out  the  work  by  contract,  and  then  the 
average  rates,  as  tabulated  under  "  General  trades,"  are  in  .force.  It 
may  be  roundly  stated  on  an  average  that  a  common  laborer  will  receive 
10  cents  per  hour,  and  a  skilled  mechanic  17  cents  for  52  hours  a  week's 
work.  Street  cleaners  (men),  62  to  90  cents  a  day  ;  boys,  30  to  G2 :  dust- 
men (carmen),  $5.35  to  $5.S3  a  week. 

GOVERNMENT   EMPLOYES   IN   ENGLAND. 

Wages i)aid per  yrar  to  enqjloy^n  in  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusirc  of  trades- 
men and  laborers,  in  England. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.*  Highest.* 


OF.XERAL  CIVIL  SEKVICK  GKADK8. 
^^ 


Higlipr  division  cleii< 

Lower  division  clet1%s J 

Lower  division  clerks  (7  bour  offices)^. 

Boy  clei  ks  (afro,  15  to  17  years) 

Men  cop.N  ists  (20  cents  an  hoiir) 

Boy  copyists  (8  to  94  cents  an  hour) 

Men  niessetipeis 

Boy  niessenjieis 


Secretary  of  state  

Under  secretary  of  state 

Three  assistant  secretaries  of  state 

Chief  clerk .    

6  senior  clerks 

6  assistant  clerks 

20  fiisl -class  junior  clerks 

4  second-class  junior  clerks 

Lihrarian 

Sub-librarian 

2  first-class  clerks,  librarian's  dep^irtment... 
2  second-class  clerks,  libraiiaii's  department. 
4  third-class  clerks,  librarian's  department.. 

Superintendent  treiity  depaitnieut 

Assistant  treaty  department 

Cleik  in  treaty  department 


3  flrst-cJass  clerks  ... 

2  sicond-class  clerks 

5  thii  dclass  clerks   

Tianslator   

Oriental  interpreter 

4  clerks  lower  division  . 
Clerk  in  passport  office 

Private  secretary 

Pr6cis  writer         .. 

2  temporary  clerks 

Printer 


CHIEF  clerk's  office. 


Proof-reader 

Offiee-keeper 

Assistant  keeper. 

Do 

Coal  porter 

Assistant 

Porter    

no 

Housekeeper 


SALAltY   LIST  OF  THE  FOEEIGX  OFFICE. 


r.XTKA  ALI,OVVANCF,S. 

Permanent  under  secretary  of  state  for  management  secret-service 

fund    

2  iii'ivate  secretaries 

For  languages  

1"J  *i  leen'.-^  lorcisn  service  messengers 

2  Queen's  liome  niessengej's 

■'»  Qiiei'n's  home  mes-jengers 

3  Que<'n's  home  niessens:er8 

Examining  medical  officer 


$486 
38!) 
462 
195 


1,946 
1,216 


389 


253 


$1,  946 
073 

1,217 
245 


2.50 
114 


6,  083 
4,  866 

3,  8ii3 

2,  920 
973 

4,  8()6 

3,  162 
2,433 
1,752 
1,167 
4,860 
3,162 
1.752 

2,433 

1,752 

1,167 

2, 433 

1,946 

973 

1,216 

1,460 

1,460 

C80 

729 

.505 

973 

438 

427 

316 

213 

438 

389 

607 


1,460 
720 

729 
1,  0-16 
1,216 
793 
720 
146 


Average. 


$973^ 
681 
840 
220 
420 
21(V 
240 
95^ 


24,  332 
9,  723 
7,300 


*The  two  amounts  indicate  the  limits;  the  salary  being  de])endent  on  length  of  service, 
f  ("ommeiiciiigat  $486  and  increasing  by  triennial  increments  of  $73. 
tSanio  triennial  increment. 
§Same  triennial  increment. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.         '     713 

Wages  paid  per  year  to  employes  in  Government  departments,  tfc. — Continued. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

POST-OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 

Secretary's  office. 

$12, 166 

9,733 

7,300 

$4,  SOU 

$5, 840 

Chief  clerk 

4,770 

3,  40fi 
2,  K'.'-J 
1,946 
1.265 
730 
389 

4,282 
3,310 
2,  433 
1,849 
973 
973 

Missing -letter  branch. 
I  clerk 

2,433 

1  first-class  clerk 

1,  508 

1,021 

486 

1,946 

1,021 
973 
584 
380 
258 
228 
88 

802 
535 
389 
194 

584 
225 
330 
177 
201 

2,190 

1,460 

073 

2,433 
1,460 
1,460 
705 
444 
340 
316 
126 

1,460 
730 
486 
365 

634 
302 
570 
216 
316 

Third-class  clerk 

Storekeeper's  branch. 
Storekeeper 

1  clerk 

1  enpervisor .   . 

18  porters  aud  laborers 

Messengers  (boys) 

Clearing-house  branch,  female  clerical  staff. 

3  piincipal  clerks 

44  second-class  clerks 

Returned-letter  office. 
7  first-class  returners  (male) 

13  flrst-class  returners  (female) 

14  second-class  leiurneis  (male) 

37  second-class  returners  (female) 

5  third-class  returners  (male) 

Postmasters. 
Northern  district 

2,433 

2  433 

East  Central  distiict 

3  406 

3  285 

West  Central  district 

3  940 

■; ::;:::::: 

2  4:i3 

Paddiugtou 

2  480 

Ealing 

730 

Putney ...          .     .  . 

.584 

Wandsworth,  &c 

1  703 

591  small  letter-receiving  o£Sces  in  London  ... 

24 

292 
228 
176 
228 

228 
265 
240 

584 

380 
265 
228 
342 

352 
342 
310 

■     Letter  carriers  and,  sorters. 
East  Central  district  (the  city  proper) : 

97  junior  letier-carriers 

11  porters  and  laborers .  .. 

Suburban  letter-carriers.  * 
Division  I 

Division  III  (estimated) 

Wages  regulated  by  varying  circumstances. 


714 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


TRADES  IN  GOVERN:vrENT  EMPLOY. 

Wages  paid  hij  the  wiek,  of  average  forty-eight  hours,  to  the  trades  and  laborers  in  Govern- 
ment employ  in  the  city  of  London, 


Occupations. 


Laborers  and  porters,  standard  Goveinment  scale 
Custoni-hoiise: 

"Watermen,  first  class 

Watermen,  second  class 

Extra  men 

Admiralty: 

Foreman  coopers,  bakers,  &,c 

Coopers,  bakers,  &c 

Policemen  (privates)  :* 

Third  class,  two  years'  service 

Second  class,  five  years'  service 

First  class,  seven  years'  service 


Lowest. 


$4  38 


8  00 
6  56 


Highest. 


$6  57 


9  35 
7  52 


Average. 


$5  48 

8  67 
7  04 
5  10 

11  20 
7  10 

5  83 
5  56 
7  40 


*  Uniforms,  boots,  &c.,  furnished. 

In  some  branches  of  trade  and  labor  in  Government  employ  tbe  rates 
fall  below  tbe  outside  prices  paid  by  individuals  or  firms  for  tbe  same 
work,  but  the  steadiness  of  employment  and  the  smaller  number  of 
hours  a  day  more  than  make  up  for  the  difference. 

PRINTERS'  WAGES. 

Statement  shoiving  the  tvages  paid  per  tveek  of  fifty  four  hours  to  printers  {composiiora, 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  tj'-c. )  in  London. 


Occupations. 


Compositors : 

tJnion  wages 

Kon-union  wages,  by  agreement 
Piece-workers* 

Machine-minders , 

Machine-minders  (boys) 

Bonk -binders  (nmu) 

Finishers 


Lowest. 


$6  08 
6  03 
8  76 
1  48 


Book-folders  (girls) 
Stereotypers 


Highest. 


^12  16 
12  16 
9  74 
2  43 


Averags. 


$3  76 
9  73 
9  73 
9  00 
1  90 

8  76 

9  74 
3  30 
9  50 


*  On  book- work,  14  cents  per  1,000;  on  newspaper  work,  16  cents  per  1,000;  fine  type,  like  pearl, 

higher. 


MANCHESTER. 


REPOBT  BY  CONSUL  SMAW. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 


In  conformity  with  the  requirements  of  the  labor  circular  from  the 
Department  of  State  dated  February  15,  1884,  which  reached  me  some 
time  later,  I  have  the  honor  to  herewith  furnish  a  report  coverinj^^,  in 
the  main,  the  various  ])oints  set  forth  in  tlie  important  circular  in  ques- 
tion. I  luive  found  it  very  ditlicult,  in  many  instances,  to  satisfy  my- 
self fully  in  presenting  comparative  data,  for  the  reason  that  the  system 
of  paying  wages  here,  and  the  way  of  living,  differ  so  widely  from  that 
in  force  in  the  United  States.     Moreover,  the  habits  and  tastes  of  oper- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  715 

atives  in  this  country  are  widely  forei^ijn  to  the  social  and  general  fash- 
ions and  surroundinsi'S  with  us;  hence  it  is  not  only  extremely  ])eri)lex- 
iiig,  but  also  somewhat  misleadin<>-,  to  attempt  to  fairly  and  intelligently 
make  clear  the  true  condition  of  the  average  operatives  in  this  great 
manufacturing  and  industrial  center.  It  has  been  my  aim  to  jireseut 
an  honest  ])icture  of  the  wide  circle  of  employments  and  associations  in 
this  consular  district  at  this  time,  and  in  carrying  out  this  purpose  1  have 
availed  myself  of  the  advice  and  assistance  of  several  very  competent 
authorities,  to  whom  I  desire  to  tender  my  acknowledgment  for  valu- 
able suggestions  and  data,  viz  :  To  Francis  Amos,  esq.,  Mr.  Thomas 
Ashton,  Mr.  Thomas  Hood,  of  the  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society  of 
Manchester,  Mr.  S.  Massy  and  Mr.  Henry  Wile.\,  of  the  Manchester 
Corporation,  and  Mr.  Frederick  Dinham,  station  agent.  Central  Station, 
Manchester,  I  am  under  s[)ecial  obligations  in  connection  with  this  re- 
port. In  furuishing  data  relating  to  the  wages  paid  in  this  district  I 
Lave  made  use  of  very  full  and  valuable  tables  prepared  for  my  last 
annual  report.  As  these  contain  reliable  comparative  statistics,  taken 
from  the  books  of  a  number  of  large  mills  which  have  been  in  operation 
for  many  years,  and  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  obtain  from  any 
other  authentic  source,  I  feel  certain  that  their  reproduction  in  this  con- 
nection will  be  wise  and  timely.  The  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to 
have  the  same  perfectly  trustworthy  in  every  instance. 

There  were  a  number  of  bhiuk  forms  in  the  tables  furnished  by  the 
Department's  circular  which  I  have  not  filled  up,  for  the  reason  that 
the  trades  mentioned  are  not  carried  on  in  this  district,  and  in  others 
the  consul-general  has  kindly  intimated  that  he  would  supply  a  part  of 
the  information  sought  from  official  returns  secured  through  official 
sources  at  London.  As  this  will  fully  meet  the  needs  of  the  Depart- 
ment, I  have  left  out  this  part  of  the  data  sought. 

Part  I. — Male  Labor. 

"  The  rates  of  wages  paid  to  laborers  of  every  class — mechanical,  min- 
ing, public  works  and  railways,  domestic,  agricultural,"  &c. 

The  data  following  will,  I  trust,  be  fairly  satisfactory  as  an  answer 
in  some  considerable  detail  to  the  information  sought  in  the  first  query. 

WAGES   IN   THE   CONSULAR   DISTRICT   OF   MANCHESTER. 

I  have  endeavored  to  carefully  ascertain  the  wages  of  cotton  opera- 
tives and  other  trades  in  and  about  Manchester,  and  the  following  data 
is  believed  to  be  fairly  full  and  perfectly  reliable.  Where  piece-work 
is  the  rule  it  is  very  difficult,  indeed,  to  arrive  at  an  average  of  wages 
earned.  I  have,  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Thomas  Ashton,  of  Old- 
ham, and  several  other  practical  authorities,  been  enabled  to  furnish 
many  important  facts  in  this  connection.  The  "pay  sheets"  are  taken 
from  the  books  of  different  concerns,  and  represent  the  actual  average 
earnings  of  the  operatives.  But  difficulties  arise  even  in  this  practical 
way  of  arriving  at  the  ''  wage  list."  The  operatives  in  a  small  mill  do 
not,  as  a  rule,  receive  as  much  as  do  those  in  large  mills.  However,  I 
trust  that  the  varied  and  full  details  which  are  supplied  in  this  report, 
and  which  have  been  collected  with  unusual  care,  may  be  found  suffi- 
cient to  enable  inquirers  to  gain  a  good  knowledge  of  the  average  cur- 
rent wages  of  this  district. 


716 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


The   Oldham  and  district  list  of  wages  for  self-aclor  minders,  with   conditions  attached 
agretd  to  by  the  emploijers^  and  operatives^  association,  January  3,  IbTtJ. 

The  accompanying  list  of  wages,  to  be  earned  by  self-actor  minders  for  the  various 
eizes  of  miiles,  has  been  agreed  upon  by  the  rei)res('ntatives  of  both  employers  and 
employed,  as  the  basis  fioiii  which  the  price  per  1,000  hanks  is  to  be  iixed  by  the  mode 
of  caluiilatiou  set  forth  in  clause  No.  1. 


Total  earn- 

Total earn- 

No. of 

ings  should 

Minders' 

Piecers' 

No.  of 

ings  slioiild 

Minder.s' 

Piecers" 

doz. 

(Iniw  fE  cm 
otiicBS. 

wages. 

wages. 

doz. 

dr:i\vfiora 
offices. 

wages. 

wages. 

£    s.    d. 

£    s.    d. 

£   s.    d. 

£    g.    d. 

£    «.    d. 

£   «.    d. 

36 

1  17     0 

15    6 

11     6 

77 

2  19    4 

1  12    4 

17    0 

37 

1  17    2 

15    8 

11    6 

78 

2  19    6 

1  12    6 

17    0 

38 

1  17    4 

1    5  10 

11     6 

79 

2  19    8 

1  12    8 

1     7     0 

39 

1  17     6 

16    0 

11     6 

go 

2  19  10 

1  12  10 

17    0 

40 

1  17     8 

4    6    2 

11     6 

81 

3     0    0 

1  13    0 

17    0 

41 

1  17  10 

16    4 

11     6 

82 

3     0    2 

1  13    2 

1     7     0 

42 

1  18    0 

1     6    6 

11     6 

83 

3     0    4 

1  13    4 

1     7     0 

43 

1  18    2 

16    8 

11     6 

84 

3    0    6 

1  13     6 

17    0 

41 

1  18    4 

1     6  10 

11     6 

85 

3     18 

1  13     8 

18    0 

45 

2    0    6 

1    7     0 

13    6 

86 

3     1  10 

1  13  10 

18    0 

46 

2    0    8 

17    2 

13    6 

87 

3    2    0 

1  14    0 

18    0 

47 

2    0  10 

17     4 

13    6 

88 

3    2    2 

1  14    2 

18    0 

48 

3     1     0 

1     7     6 

13    6 

89 

3     3    4 

1  14     4 

19    0 

49 

2    2    2 

1     7    8 

14    6 

90 

3    3     6 

1  14    6 

19    0 

50 

2    2    4 

1    7  10 

14    6 

91 

3    3     8 

1  14    8 

1     9    0 

51 

2    2    6 

18    0 

14    6 

92 

3     3  10 

1  14  10 

1     9    0 

52 

2    2    8 

18    2 

14    6 

93 

3     5    0 

1   15    0 

1  10    0 

53 

2    4    4 

18    4 

16    0 

94 

3    5    2 

1  15    2 

1  10    0 

54 

2    4    6 

18    6 

16    0 

95 

3    5    4 

1  15    4 

1  10    0 

55 

2    4    8 

18    8 

16    0 

96 

3    5    6 

1  15    6 

1  10    0 

56 

2    4  10 

1     8  10 

16    0 

97 

3     8    8 

1  15    8 

1  13    0 

57 

2    9    0 

19    0 

1     0    0 

98 

3    8  10 

1  15  10 

1  13    0 

58 

2    9    2 

19    2 

1     0    0 

99 

3    9    0 

1  16    0 

1  13    0 

59 

2     9    4 

1     9    4 

10    0 

100 

3    9    2 

1  16    2 

1  13    0 

60 

2    9    6 

19    6 

1     0    0 

101 

3  12    4 

1   16    4 

1  16    0 

61 

2  11    8 

19    8 

12    0 

102 

3  12    6 

1  16    6 

1  16    0 

62 

2  11  10 

1     9  10 

1     2    0 

103 

3  12    8 

1  16    8 

1  16    0 

63 

2  12     0 

1  10    0 

12    0 

104 

3  12  10 

1  16  10 

1  16    0 

64 

2  12    2 

1  10    2 

1     2    0 

105 

3  13    0 

1  17    0 

1  16    0 

65 

2  15    4 

1  10    4 

15    0 

106 

3  13    2 

1  17    2 

1  16    0 

66 

2  15    G 

1  10    6 

15    0 

107 

3  13    4 

1  17    4 

1  16    0 

67 

2  15    8 

1  10    8 

15    0 

108 

3  13    6 

1   17    6 

1  16    0 

68 

2  15  10 

1  10  10 

15    0 

109 

3  14    2 

1  17    8 

1  16    6 

69 

2  17    0 

1  11     0 

1     6    0 

110 

3  14    4 

1  17  10 

1  16    6 

70 

2  17    2 

1  11     2 

16    0 

111 

3  14    6 

1  18    0 

1  16    6 

71 

2  17    4 

1  11    4 

1     6    0 

112 

3  14    8     • 

I  18    2 

1  16    6 

72 

2  17     6 

1  11     6 

16    0 

113 

3  14  10 

1  18    4 

1  16    6 

73 

2  17     8 

1  11     8 

16    0 

114 

3  15    0 

1  18    6 

1   16    6 

74 

2  17  10 

1  11  10 

1     6    0 

115 

3  15    2 

1  18    8 

1  16    6 

75 

2  18    0 

1  12    0 

1     6    0 

116 

3  15    4 

1  18  10 

1  16    6 

76 

2  18    2 

1  12    2 

16    0 

Note. -Owing  to  the  difliculty  in  changing  this  table  into  American  currency,  I  have  left  it  a» 
printed  iu  the  Oldham  list  of  wages. 

Minders  spinning  pin  cops  earn  Is.  per  week  more. 

In  cases  where  self-actor  mules  are  running  quicker  than  3  draws  in  50  seconds,  with 
r)3-in(h  draw  for  any  counts  of  yarn,  twist,  or  weft,  one-half  the  advantage  of  the 
dilftience  arising  from  quicker  speeds  shall  be  added  to  total  earnings,  as  iu  follow- 
ing list : 


Number 

of 
dozens. 


Amount  to  be 

added  for 

each  settond 

quicker  than 

3  in  50. 


Nuniher 

of 
dozens. 


rf. 

1 

30 

44 

64 

40 

44 

!        68 

44 

4J 

1        72 

48 

5 

76 

52 

5i 

80 

56 

5i 

84 

60 

0 

88 

1 

Amount  to  be 

adilod  for 

each  seciiiid 

quicker  than 

3  in  50. 


Number 

of 
dozens. 


92 
96 

100 
104 
108 
112 
110 


ILnionnt  to  be 

added  for 

oacli  second 

quicker  than 

3  in  50. 


Other  lengths  of  draw  in  proportion. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  717 

Clause  No.  1. — The  mode  of  cakulatiiislpnf^th  of  yarn  spun  by  self-actor  mules  to  be 
as  follows:  From  50^  hours  shall  bo  doductcil — 

1st.  An  allowance  of  1^  hours  i)er  week  for  cleaning  and  accidental  stoppages. 

'2d.  An  allowance  for  doffing  times,  an  follows:  For  each  pair  of  mules*,  of  (JO  dozen 
spindles  and  under,  5  minutes;  over  GO  dozen  spindles  and  less  than  90  dozen,  6  min- 
ntes ;  of  90  dozen  spindles,  and  upwards,  7  minutes.  Number  of  doffings  reckoned  oflF 
one  mule  only. 

3d.  An  allowance  of  2^  per  cent,  for  breakage. 

Clause  No.  2. — Mule  indicators  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  allow  2^  per  cent,  for  break- 
age. 

Clause  Ko.  3. — The  above  list  of  total  earnings  does  not  apply  to  firms  using  a  low 
quality  of  cotton  and  waste,  requiring  more  pieces,  or  to  firms  using  a  superior  quality 
of  cotton,  requiring  fewer  pieces  in  such  cases;  if  any  dispute  arise,  arrangements 
must  be  made  with  the  consent  of  the  two  committees. 

Clause  No.  4. — In  case  of  a  dispute  arising  on  account  of  a  quick  speed,  or  from  bad 
work,  the  question  shall  be  referred  to  the  two  secretaries;  and,  in  the  event  of  their 
not  being  able  to  settle  the  same,  the  dispute  shall  be  referred  to  the  two  committees 
for  a  decision. 

Clause  No.  .5. — If  spinning  24's  and  under.  Is.  to  be  added  to  the  list  of  total  earnings, 
but  in  cases  of  mules  running  3  draws  in  50  seconds,  or  slower,  1«.  to  be  added  for 
counts  from  •24'8  to  Si's,  inclusive,  and  2s.  for  20's,  and  all  counts  below. 

Clause  No.  (i. — The  above  list  of  total  earnings  does  not  apply  to  double-decked 
mules,  odd  mules,  three  mules,  or  hand  mules.  In  all  cases  of  dispute,  arrangements 
are  to  be  made  by  the  two  committees. 

CONDITIONS   FOR   EXTRA   WORK. 

Ist.  If  no  bobbin  carrier  is  employed,  l^d.  per  100  pounds  of  yarn  weighed  in  to  be 
added  to  the  list;  but  if  a  hoist  is  in  use,  and  no  bobbin  carrier,  Id.  per  100  pounds 
to  be  allowed. 

2d.  If  minder  is  employed  on  double-decked  mules,  Is.  G(J.  per  week  to  be  added  to 
total  earnings. 

3d.  If  minder  is  spinning  from  double  rovings,  Is.  per  week  to  be  added  to  the  list. 
This  to  apply  where  the  mules  are  adajjted  with  tin  guiders  for  double  rovings,  though 
not  always  working  double  rovings. 

4th.  Brtaking-out  rovings  and  turning  strings.  For  mules  up  to36  dozen,  inclusive.  Is. 
per  pair  of  mules  to  be  allowed ;  for  mules  upwards  of  36  dozen,  ^d.  per  dozen  per  pair 
to  be  added.     For  breaking-out  double  rovings  double  the  above  rates  to  be  paid. 

5th.  Tubing  to  be  left  for  individual  arrangement,  and  any  dispute  respecting  pay- 
ment for  same  to  be  decided  by  the  two  committees;  the  allowance  made  to  be  fair 
payment  to  the  minder  for  loss  of  time  entailed  by  the  operation. 

Note. — The  allowances  for  breaking-out  and  turning  strings  are  considered  fair 
payment  to  the  minder  for  loss  of  time  entailed  by  those  operations. 

6th.  For  resetting  or  leveling  up  mules,  minder  to  be  paid  at  the  following  rate,  if 
he  is  required  and  in  attendance: 

For  mules  up  to  56  dozen,  inclusive,  5d.  per  hour.  For  mules  from  57  to  76  dozen,  in- 
clusive, 5id.  per  hour.     All  larger  mules  6d.  per  hour. 

Piecers,  if  required  and  in  attendance,  to  be  paid  their  usual  wages  by  the  employer, 
ss  an  equivalent  for  the  yarn  spun  on  one  mule  while  the  other  is  being  reset. 

7th.  A  month's  notice  of  any  desired  alteration  in  the  aboAC  list  and  conditions  shall 
be  giv  n  on  either  side,  and  all  cases  of  dispute  shall  be  attended  to  within  seven 
days  of  the  receipt  of  notice,  and  if,  on  investigation,  the  employer  be  found  to  have 
caused  the  dispute,  he  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  same,  and  rice  versa  the  minder. 

JOHN  KILEY,  T.  P., 
Chairman  of  .Employers'  Assodalion. 
SAMUEL  ANDKEW, 
Secrttarij  of  Employers'  Asso<iution. 

EDWAKD  MELLOK, 
Chairman  of  Operatires'  Association. 

THOMAS  ASHTON, 
Secretary  of  Operatives'  Association. 

For  the  information  of  members  we  publish  the  above  list  of  total  earnings,  to- 
gether with  a  scale  of  wages  for  minders  and  ])iecers,  and  all  members  are  hereby 
urgently  requested  not  to  pay  more  than  the  above  scale  of  wages  for  piecing;  if 
they  do  so  on  their  own  account  they  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  same,  and  have 
to  pay  the  difference  out  of  their  own  wages;  likewise,  neither  will  an  employer, 
manager,  mule  overlooker,  nor  any  other  person  acting  under  their  authority,  be  jus- 
tified in  interfering  with  a  minder,  so  far  as  causing  him,  by  instruction,  to  pay  above 


71b  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

the  scale  of  wages  for  piecing;  if  they  do  so,  the  employer  will  he  held  responsible 
and  have  to  pay  the  same. 

Note. — The  extra  allowances  named  for  spinning  pin  cops,  course  counts,  quick 
speeds,  bobbin-carrying  double-rovings,  turning  strings,  breaking-out  rovings,  and 
spinning  upon  douljle-decked  mules  are,  in  every  case,  intended  solely  for  the  minder  j 
therefore,  no  portion  of  the  same,  in  any  case  whatsoever,  must  be  given  to  the  piecers. 

In  all  cases  where  the  members  are  not  being  paid  in  accordance  with  the  list  and 
its  conditions,  or  are  laboring  under  grievances  which  they  desire  should  be  removed, 
they  are  strongly  requested  to  make  application  without  delay  to  their  local  com- 
mittee, who  will  cause  action  to  be  taken,  so  as  to  bring  about  an  investigation  such 
as  is  required  by  the  rules  of  the  association. 

THOMAS  ASHTON. 

General  Secretary. 

Since  this  list  was  agreed  upon,  the  following  reductions  and  advances  have  been 
made,  viz  : 

REDUCTIONS. 

October  22,  1877,  5  per  cent,  reduction. 
May  27,  1878,  5  i»er  cent,  reduction. 
November  25,  1878,  5  per  cent,  reduction. 
October  20,  1879,  5  per  cent,  reduction. 

ADVANCES. 

February  9,  1880,  5  per  cent,  advance. 

From  the  last  making-up  day  in  January,  1881,  5  per  cent,  advance. 
Yours, 

E.  MELLOR,  Chairman. 
T.  ASHTON,  Secretary. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  calculations  given  in  finding  the  production 
which  the  mules  should  turn  out  per  week  from  the  particular  names  : 

Spindles dozens..  82 

Twist counts..  328, 

Incli  draw 64 

Seconds  in  3  draws 3  iu  45 

Doffings 8 

(See  clause  1  on  list  for  finding  production  of  mules.) 

•Si  12  Jp. 

s  -2  X  i  i  ^i  1^2  «p- 

82       X       12        X       64       X        3         X         2         X       60        X        3,171     _ 

30,240       ~     X  45  ~     ^^''^'^*' 


SB  a 


an 


Dozen  s|)indles 102 

Weft counts . .  368. 

Length  of  draw,  in  inches 64 

Seconds  in  running  3  draws 3  in  44 

Number  of  dotfings  per  week  off  one  mule 25 

Hanks  the  mules 

slioiikl  spin  per 

week. 

102  X   12  X  64   X  3  X  2  X  60  X  3,047        „,  _^_ 
^___„__ ^  64,580 

After  ascertaining  the  hanks,  the  amount  of  money  which  the  spinner  should  draw 
from  t!ie  office  per  week,  as  per  list  terms,  is  reduced  to  pence,  to  which  three  ciphers 
are  added;  the  result  divided  by  the  hanks,  gives  the  piece-work  price  at  which  the 
spinner  is  paid,  per  1,000  hanks. 


LABOR  TN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Li8t  of  average  wages  in  the  coiton-milh  of  the  district  of  Oldham, 


719 


SubdivisiouB  of  eiuployniont. 


03  X" 


Cotton-mill  engineers 

Cotton-uiill  fliHt  beaters , 

Cotton-mill  carders 

Strippers  and  giiuder.s 

Blowing-room  hands 

Blowiiig-rooni  hands  

Prawiiig-franiti  tenters 

Slubbers  and  tenters   

RovinfT-tranie  tenters 

Half-time  tenters  (girls) 

Litile  tenters  (girls) 

Spinning  niasters 

Self-acting  minilers 

Big  piecers  (boys) 

Half-timers  (lioys) 

Waiehousemen 

Cotton-packers 

Boys  in  wai  ehonsea 

Loom  Jobbers    ....    

Weavers,  per  loom,  $1.40  (and  look  after  2  to  4  looms,  and  in  latter  case,  have  two  lit- 
tle tenters,  at  97  cents  to  $1.22,  per  week.) 

Cotton  mill  winders 

Cotton-mill  warpers 

Cottou-niill  warpers 

Hulers  vary  from  $3.04  to  $4.86  per  week,  being  young  persons  and  women. 


$8  57 
5  35 
9  73 
5  47 
5  10 


9  97 

8  39 

2  55 
1  09 
6  32 

3  28 
1  34 

9  48 


4  14 
8  26 


$3  41 

4  26 

4  14 

4  01 

91 

95 


4  38 


Average  Vist  of  wages  taken  from  a  cot  ton -spinning  mill  at  Oldham,  employing  about  300 

overators. 


operators 


Subdivisions  of  employment 

« 

.3 

a  » 

a. 

a  ^ 

§3" 

H 

Young  persons, 
average  weekly 
wages. 

<*  5 

t.  SI 

£3 
o 

Engine-drivers 

$10  22 
5  10 
9  24 
5  59 
5  22 

$4  32 
4  26 
3  89 



■\ 

S  $0  65 

10  22 
8  02 

$2  74 

Warehonsemen 

5  83 
9  00 

Loom  jobbers 

Weavers,  per  loom,  about 

1  30 
4  01 
4  32 

Winders 

Warpers  

720 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Average  wages  in  a  large  cotton-spinning  mill  at  Oldham. 


Subdivisions  of  employment. 


Snpne  drivers 

Firemen 

Cardi'is    

Strippers  and  (irinders 

Blowers  and  scutchers 

Df.iwcrs 

Slubbers 

Roveis 

Mule  overlookers 

Self-actor  minders 

Piecers    

Warehousemen 

Loom  jobbers 

Weaveis,  per  loom,  about. 

Winders 

Waipers 


Average  tvages  pei-  xceek  in  a  large  cotton  mill  at  Bolton,  England. 
[Taken  from  the  books  of  the  company.] 


Subdivisions  of  employment. 


Spinners 

Overlookers 

Piecers  

Chilrtion  employeil  in  various  ways. 

Outdoor  laborers 

Overseers 

Warehoiigo  hands 

Engineers 

Card  tenters 

Scutch(>rs 

Strippers  and  frrinders 

DrawiiifT  frame  tenter 

Slulibing  fianio  tenter 

Roving  tenters  

Intermediate  frame  tenters 

Ring  frame  tenters 

Joiners 

Mechanics 

Holders 

Winders 

Warpers 

Dresseis 

Slashers 

Drawers 

Twisters     

Wi  avers,  overlookers 

Weavers,  4  lo"iii  (net) 

Weavers,  3  loiuu 

Weavers,  2  loom 


c9^ 


$7  78 
9  73 
4  3S 


5  59 
9  73 

7  54 

8  75 


4  14 

5  35 


8  51 

7  66 

8  51 


10  95 
9  24 
4  02 
3  93 

10  22 


a  ® 

c  ^ 

^2^ 


3  04  to  3  28 

2  61 

3  53 
2  61 

4  01 


3  89 

4  38 


Mai 

e  04  P 


$2  43  to  2  92 


4  86  to  5  22 
4  86  to  5  10 
3  16  to  3  41 


Apprentice  boys,  eome  of  whom  are  bound,  from  $0.C1  np. 


h  9 

•a  ^ 

£3 

.•3  * 

o 


$0  61 


The  above  mills  employ  2,084  operatives,  with  308  working  days  in 
a  year,  and  averaging  5G  hours  per  week. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  721 

Copy  of  the  weekly  pay-roll  of  a  spinning  mill  at  Bollington,  Cheshire,  England. 


Subdivisions  of  em- 
ployment in  such 
department. 

Men,  weekly  wages. 

Women,  weekly 
wages . 

Toung  persons, 
weekly  wages. 

Children,  weekly 
wages. 

.a 

a 

'A 

S 

1 

6 
< 

i 
a 

a 

00 

o 
no 

5 

is 
o 

1-^ 

> 

o 

a 

p 

OD 

Ml 
W 

o 

> 

u 

<v 

a 

s 
"A 

t£ 

a 

o 

« 

g 

> 

10 
21 
4 
35 
1 
6 
4 
4 

$4  86  $2  68 

6  81    3  65 
5  83    3  65 

7  78   4  14 

7  78   7  78 
10  95   2  43 

8  02    5  10 

9  97!  5  10 

$3  77 
5  22 

4  74 

5  95 
7  78 
fi  68 
7  54 
7  54 
4  74 

1 
65 
41 

.$2  68 
3  89 
2  43 

$2  68 
3  00 
2  19 

$2  68 
3  45 
2  31 

2  55 

9 
20 
16 
24 

3 

$2  19 

2  43 

3  68 
3  28 
3  65 

$1  86 

1  45 

2  55 

1  82 

2  92 

$2  03 

1  95 

2  61 

2  55 

3  28 

Throstle  spinning 

Mule  spinning  

Rulint; 

Bundling  and  packing 

32 

$0  85 

$0  73 

$0  79 

64 

3  28 

1  82 

6 
4 

1  01 
1  09 

57 
85 

79 
9  71 

Engineers  and  firemen 

12     5  83|  3  65 

Total 

97 L_-.- 



171 

" 

42 

1 

37, 056 

20, 724 
94 


Mule  spindles 

Throstle  spindles 

Rulers  working 

Whole  number  of  employes  in  establishment  for  week  ending  November  8, 

1883 

Pay-roll  (whole  establishment)  for  week  ending  November  8,  1884 $1,211  27 

Number  of  working  days  in  year 307 

Hours  of  labor  per  week S&J- 


382 


AGES. 

Men 21  to  60 

Women 19  to  56 

Young  persons 13  to  21 

Children 8  to  13 


MINIMUM   RATE   OF   WAGES,  OLDHAM   AND   DISTRICT. 
[Copy  of  official  circular.] 

The  joint  committee  of  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers  and  Steam  Engine 
Makers'  Society  has  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  minimum  rates  of  wages  to  be 
received  by  the  members  of  the  two  societies  working  in  the  above  district,  viz  : 

For  mill-wrights,  titters,  and  turners  in  engine  and  tool  shops,  $7.78  per  week. 

For  mill-wrights  aud  fitters  working  out  of  shop,  $7.78  per  week,  and  district  allow- 
ance, as  per  rule. 

For  titters  aud  turners  in  machine  shops,  $7.05  per  week. 

For  pattern-makers  in  all  shops,  $8.02  per  week. 

For  smiths,  .$7.78  per  week. 

For  mill  mechanics,  turners,  fitters,  and  mill  joiners.  $7.66  per  week. 

For  all  htters  and  turners  in  gas-meter  shops,  $7.54  per  week. 

All  time  over  tifty-four  hours  in  meter  shops  to  be  paid  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than 
time  and  quarter. 

In  all  mills  and  factories  where  mill  mechanics  are  employed,  and  where  more  than 
fifty-four  hours  are  required  to  constitute  a  week's  work,  all  the  time  in  excess  of 
fifty-four  hours  must  be  reckoned  as  over-time,  and  paid  for  at  no  less  a  rate  than 
time  and  quarter. 

In  all  engine,  mill-wright,  and  tool  shops,  all  time  over  hfty-four  hours  must  be 
paid  time  aud  <iuarter,  time  and  half,  aud  double  time,  and  otlierwise,  as  per  district 
rules.  That  all  members  who  are  engaged  pernianentlv  at  a  null  or  factory,  and  who 
are  required  to  helj)  or  take  the  place  of  contractors'  men  engaged  on  mill-wright  or 
engiue  work  in  such  mill,  it  must  be  distinctly  under.'^tood  that  they  must  receive  the 
same  rate  of  over-time,  viz,  time  and  quarter,  time  and  half,  and  double  time,  as  per 
mill-wrights'  rules. 

Should  any  member  of  the  above-named  societies  start  in  any  firm,  and  fail  to  get 
the  rate  of  wages  here  set  down,  they  must  cease  work  immediately  on  receipt  of 
their  tirst  pay,  unless  a  decided  promise  is  made  to  pay  the  rate  on  next  pay  day. 

92   A— LAB 46 


722 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


In  any  case  where  a  shop,  mill,  or  factory  is  paying  a  higher  rate  of  wages  than  is 
contained  in  the  above  list,  it  must  be  distinctly  understood  tbat  our  members  are  re- 
quired to  get  that  higher  rate ;  failing  to  do  so,  they  must  immediately  report  the 
same  to  their  respective  secretaries  or  district  committee. 

These  rules  come  into  force  on  the  4th  day  of  September,  1832,  and  should  any  mem- 
ber of  the  Steam  Engine  Makers'  Society,  or  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers,  &c., 
continue  to  work  nnder  those  rates  after  tbat  date,  ho  is  liable  to  be  proceeded  against 
as  acting  contrary  to  tbe  interests  of  his  society. 

Tbis  li,st  has  lieeu  printccl  by  order  of  the  joint  committee,  and  must  bo  posted  in  a 
prominent  place  in  the  club  room,  on  branch  meeting  nights,  for  the  inspection  of  the 
members. 

Signed  on  behalf  of  the  joint  committee. 

WILLIAM  WHITEHEAD,  President, 
WILLIAM  SCOFIELD,  Secretary, 

Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineei'S,  <fc. 

ROBERT  L.  MASON,   President, 
SIDNEY  BORDxMAN,  Secretary, 

Steam  Engine  Makers'  Society. 

HOLIDAYS  OF   THE   DISTRICT. 

Days. 

Christmas — Christmas  day  and  New  Year's  day 2 

Easter — Good  Friday  and  Easter  Monday 2 

Whitsuntide — Whit  Friday  and  Saturday 2 

Oldham  Wakes — Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday  in  Wakes  week 3 

Total 9 

N.  B. — Members  are  desired  to  try  and  secure  the  co-operation  of  non-society  men 
in  getting  and  maintaining  the  above  rates. 

SPINNERS'  WAGES   IN   BOLTON. 

The  following  is  an  actual  average  of  all  the  mules,  good,  bad,  and 
indifiereut,  in  the  central  district,  i.  c,  a  radius  to  2  miles  from  the  Bol- 
ton Town  Hall.  My  thanks  are  due  John  Melding,  esq.,  of  Bolton,  for 
this  valuable  information. 


Number  of  spindlos  in  each  mule. 


600  and  under 

602  to  750 

752  ti>t^UO 

802  to  8.'0 

852  to  900 

902  to  1)50 

952  to  l.MOO... 
l,00i  to  1,050. 
1,052  to  1,100. 
1,102  to  1,150 
1,152  to  1,200. 


Net  wages  of 
spinners. 


Hand- 
mules. 


8  03 

9  24 
9  48 

8  71 
10  20 

9  34 
9  73 

8  G7 
None. 

9  34 


Self- 
actois. 


$7  41 J 
7  57 
7  09 

7  45i 

8  224 

8  84 

9  00 
9  48 
9  79 
9  5lli 

10  82 


Number  of 
piecers. 


Hand- 
mules. 


Self- 
actors. 


Wages  of 
piecers. 


Hand- 
mules. 


$4  63 

4  86 
6  29 
6  29 
6  29 
6  29 
6  29 
6  29 
6  .'9 
9  48 
9  48 


Self- 
accora. 


4  86 

5  10 
5  22 
5  22 
5  35 
5  47 
5  47 

5  59 

6  29 

7  54 


The  bulk  of  mules  in  Bolton  range  in  size  from  900  spindles  to  1,050 
spindles  in  each  nmlo. 

The  principal  count  of  any  one  count  is  fiO's  twist,  and  the  bulk  of 
our  count  range  from  40's  to  80's  twists,  and  OO's  to  150's  wefts. 

Yam  is  spun  here  as  low  as  IG's  (hosiery  yarn),  and  as  high  as  250's 
wefts,  but  two-thirds  of  the  mules  are  spinning  counts  between  the 
ranges  given. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


723 


The  following  table  represents  the  fair  average  production  of  Bolton 
mills : 

Hanks  per  spindle. 

40'8  twist .« 24 

45's  twist 2:) 

50'8  twist 22i 

58'8  twist 2H 

60'8  twist 20i 

65'8  twist 19i 

GO'S  twist 18 

There  are  mills,  however,  where  the  out-turn  of  60's  twist  reaches  22^ 
and  even  23  hanks  per  spindle. 

CARD  AND  BLOWING  ROOM  DEPARTMENT. 

Average  per  week. 

Cotton  mixers,  female $4  62 

Lap  tenters,  females 2  55 

Card  tenters,  boys  and  girls 2  o5 

Box  tenters,  girls 2  92 

Setters-on,  girls 1  95 

Slnhbiug-frame  tenters,  women 2  92 

Jack-friinie  tf nters,  women 3  77 

Jobbers,  men 5  22 

Under  carders,  men 6  81 

Carders,  men 9  73 

Mnle  overlookers |;8  51  to  12  16 

Managers 14  59  to  20  76 

Secretaries 9  73  to  14  59 

Engineers 8  51  to  10  1)4 

Fire  beaters 5  59  to     (i  32 

Bookkeepers 6  29  to  12  16 

Warehousemen 6  29  to  12  16 

RETURN   SHOWING  THE  INCREASE  OF  THE  WAGES  EARNED  IN  LANCASHIRE   BETWEEN 

THE   YEARS    1850  AND   1883. 

Table  1. — Cotton  spinning  and  tceaving,  viedium  quality. 


Description. 


Strippers  and  grinders. 

Kovers  

Throstle  spinners 

JJinrters  

Winders 

Weavers 


Mechanics 

Overlooker.s  and  tacklers 

Stone  masons 

Laborers  


Percentage  increase  on  1850 


Male  or 
female. 


Male 

Female  ... 

...do 

Male 

Female  . .. 

Male  aiid 

furaale. 

Male 

....do 

...do 

....do  


Wages  earned  weekly  in- 


1850.        1860. 


$2  55 
1  82 
1  82 
3  04 

1  70 

3  41 

5  72 
5  36 

4  86 

2  92 


$3  16 
2  68 

2  43 

3  6.1 
1  95 
3  53 

6  08 
6  08 
5  60 
3  65 


1870. 


16.85 


$3  89 
3  41 

3  16 
$4  38  to  5  36 

2  68 

4  14 

6  56 

7  30 
6  82 
4  86 


1877. 


$4  62 

4  14 

3  65 

08  to  6  8-' 

3  89 

4  38 

6  82 
28  to  8  72 

7  30 

5  36 


43.59 


64.47 


$5  la 
4  38 

3  05 
$6  08  to  6  82: 

4  26 

4  74 

7  78 

8  72  to  9  24 

7  30 

5  36 


74.72 


Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  aud  1883,  74.72  per  cent. 


724 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Table  2. — Cotton  spinning,  fine. 


Descnption. 


Male  or 
female. 


Spinneraa,  hnd-mnles Male 

Cyphera do 

Piecers Female  . . 


Creelers 

Mechanics 

Drawing  tenters 

Jack  tenters 

Grinders 

Minders,  self-actors. 


Percentage  increase  on  1850. 


"Wages  earned  weekly  in — 


1850. 


do 

Male 

Female  . . 
...do  .... 

Male  I do 

do |...  do 


$9  24 
2  68 
1  58 
1  38 
7  30 
No  returns.* 
do 


1860. 


$9  24 
2  68 
1  o8 
1  38 
7  30 

No  retams.' 

...do  

...do 

...do  


Unchanged. 


1870. 


$8  72 
3  65 
2  68 

1  46 

7  78 

2  55 
2  31 
5  22 

8  52 


9.68 


1877. 


$12 
4 
2 
1 
7 
2 
2 
5 
9 


30.21 


1883. 


$9  78 
3  89 
2  68 

1  70 
7  78 

2  55 
2  43 
5  72 
9  24 


16.27 


Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  16.27  per  cent. 

*  To  these  years  no  returns  have  been  made,  but  the  diflerence  is  so  slight  it  would  not  affect  the 
general  average,  from  which  these  items  have  been  excluded. 

Table  3. — Fine  spinning  and  weaving — Bolton. 


Description. 

Male  or 
female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in— 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Strippers  and  grinders 

Rovers 

Male 

Female  . . . 

Male 

Female  . .  - 

Male  and 

female. 

Male 

...do    

$2  43 

1  62 
10  46 

2  19 
1  11 

6  08 

7  06 

$2  92  &  $3  16 

1  95 
8  39 

2  43 
1  26 

5  84  to  6  32 

7  78 

$4  14  to  $4  38 
3  89 
9  73 
2  19 
1  15 

6  82  to  7  30 
7  36 

$5  10 
4  14 

11  43 
2  68 
1  40 

$8  51  to  9  24 
9  00 

$5  10 
3  89 

Minders 

11  19 

"Winders 

2  80 

Weavers,  per  loom 

1  34 
$8  51  to  9  24 

Tacklers 

8  63 

Percentage  increase  on  1850 

Unchanged. 

15.13 

37.32 

35.16 

Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  35.16  per  cent. 


Table  4. — A  very  large  cotton  mill,  spinning  No.  150  weft. 


Description. 

Male  or 
female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in — 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

P«r  60 

hours. 
$3  65 
6  56 
3  28 
6  56 
2  01 
2  01 

2  07 
1  95 
9  73 

3  16 

No  returns  . 
....do  

No  returns  . 
....do  

No  returns  . 
do 

Per  56 

hours. 
$4  86 
8  02 

do 

...do 

....do    

5  10 

do 

....do  

do 

7  78 

....do 

do 

do 

3  41 

do 

do 

...  do 

2  68 

do 

....do 

do 

3  77 

....do  

do 

...  do 

4  01 

do 

do 

do 

12  65 

do 

...  do 

do.     ... 

3  89 

Spinners  (self-actors) 

...  do 

do 

drt 

10  22 

40  98 

56  21 

Increase,  37  per  cent. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Table  5. — Fine  spinning — Bolton. 


725 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages 

earned 
in— 

weekly 

1864. 

1874. 

1883. 

Male 

$3  65 
2  92 

2  07 
6  87 

3  16 
1  46 

$5  10 
3  65 

2  80 
7  44 

3  16 
2  07 

$5  84 
3  87 

....do 

3  59 

Male 

7  80 

...do  

3  16 

....do    

2  IB 

Average  increase  in  1883  on  1864,  per  cent 

31.36 

As  this  return  is  not  for  the  same  years  as  the  others,  it  is  not  included  in  the  general  summarj'. 

Table  Q.— Bleaching. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

Wages  earned  weekly  in- 

- 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Dressers  or  singers 

Male 

$7  66 

6  66 
5  28 
1  70 
1  46 
1  26 

7  21 

4  59 

5  33 
5  49 
4  78 
4  48 
1  36 
4  76 

$9  06 
6  99 

6  72 
1  91 
1  62 
1  38 
9  62 

8  20 

7  45 

9  28 
6  46 
6  50 
1  56 
6  34 

no  44 

7  72 
5  37 
2  92 
2  07 
1  66 

12  49 

5  35 

6  10 

8  81 
5  33 

5  31 
1  70 

6  89 

$9  04 

7  21 

8  39 
3  16 
2  05 

1  70 
16  98 

7  82 

8  29 

9  69 
8  43 
6  60 

2  23 
6  93 

$9  50 

Hand-croftera  

do 

7  80 

BleachinK-machine  foremaji 

do    

8  27 

Female,  say 

.  do 

2  25 

Bleaching  machine  pumpers 

1  66 

Bleaching-machine  plaiters 

Female 

Male 

1  44 

18  42 

Assistant  stiffeners 

do 

6  08 

"Mauglprs 

do 

6  97 

Calenderers 

do 

7  48 

Driers 

do 

6  74 

Makers-up 

do    

7  94 

Hookers  (age  16) 

Male  and  female 
Male 

2  98 

Packers 

6  87 

Percentage  increase  on  1850 

32.06 

31.40 

56.50 

50.00 

Average  percentage  increase  in  each  year  between  1850  and  1883,  50  per  cent. 
Table  7. — Calico  printing. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

Percentage  advance  on  1850. 

1850. 

1860. 

1870.        1877. 

1883. 

Machine  printers 

Male 

Pr.cent. 
8 

Pr.cent. 
25 

Pr.cent. 
50 

Pr.cent. 
5 

Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  50  per  cent. 
Table  8. — Sliipping  warehouse. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in — 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Hookers 

Male 

$1  46 
6  32 
6  32 
3  65 
5  83 

$1  95 
6  81 

6  81 
4  38 

7  29 

$2  43 
7  29 

7  05 
4  62 

8  27 

$2  55 
7  78 

7  53 
4  86 

8  27 

$2  92 
8  02 

...do    .     ... 

Packers 

...do    

7  78 

Cloth-lookers 

do      .     .. 

4  86 

Engineers 

do 

8  27 

Percentage  increase  on  1850 

15.46 

25.77 

3L44 

35.05 

Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  34.02  per  cent. 


726 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Table  9. — Mechanical  engineeri7ig. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages  earned  -weekly  in — 

*1850. 

I860., 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Fitters  

Male 

$7  29  i    $7  29 
7  29  ,       7  29 
7  29         7  29 
7  29         7  29 
7  29         8  27 
3  65  1       3  65 

$7  78 

7  78 

8  27 
8  51 
8  75 
4  14 

$7  78 

do 

7  78 

do 

7  78 

....do 

8  02 

do 

8  75 

....do 

4  14 

2.42 

12.73 

10.30 

*  Assumed  to  he  same  as  in  1860. 
Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  10.30  per  cent. 


Table  10. — Coal  mining. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in- 
1850.        1860.        1870.        1877. 

1883. 

Male 

$4  74 

4  48 

5  71 
5  16 
3  73 
3  47 

3  97 

4  58 

$6  24 
5  35 
5  89 
5  55 
4  05 

3  99 

4  18 
8  75 

$5  93 
5  77 
5  71 
5  95 
4  16 

$6  95 
8  67 

7  50 

8  45 
5  59 

$6  38 
7  90 

...  do 

Smiths  

....do 

7  18 

...do 

7  39 

do 

4  42 

....do ... 

4  50         5  81 
3  83         4  58 
7  82         8  47 

5  14 

....do 

4  90 

...do  

8  16 

22.78 

24.64  1     .'55.61 

43.53 

Average  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  43.53  per  cent. 


Table  11. — Building. 


Description. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in— 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Male 

$5  83 
4  14 
6  32 

4  14 

5  83 
4  14 

6  32 
4  14 

$6  32  to  $6  81 
4  14 
7  29 
4  58 
6  56 
4  38 
6  81 
4  8C 

$7  78 
4  38 
7  78 
4  96 
7  29 

4  96 
7  78 

5  35 

$9  38 
5  26 

10  49 
5  79 
9  03 
5  51 
9  24 
5  83 

$8  83 

5  52 

do 

9  38 

...  do 

6  08 

...do 

7  94 

...do    

4  96 

....do 

8  83 

...do 

5  53 



10.12 

23.11 

48.21 

39.76 

Average  percentage  increase  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883,  39.76  per  cent. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Table  12. — Iron  manufacture. 


727 


Descriptions. 

Male  or  female. 

"Wages  earned  weekly  in- 

- 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Puddlers 

Male 

...do 

$10  95 
17  02 
12  16 
U  59 
29  19 
19  46 
19  46 
6  81 
4  38 

$9  73 
14  59 
10  95 
12  16 
31  62 
19  46 
12  16 
7  29 
4  38 

$9  73 
14  59 
10  95 
14  59 
24  33 
19  46 
12  16 
7  29 
4  86 

$10  95 
15  81 

12  16 
15  81 
29  19 

13  65 
10  46 

7  54 
4  86 

$11  68 

15  81 

Forge  rollers 

....do 

12  16 

....do 

12  16 

do 

29  19 

10  95 

do 

9  73 

....do 

7  54 

...  do 

4  89 

8.78 

11.98 

19.16 

14.88 

Average  decrease  in  each  trade  between  1850  and  1883, 14.88  per  cent. 

SUMMARY. 


Description. 


Percentage  increase  in  wages  earned  in  the 
nndernoted  years  on  those  earned  in  1850. 


1360. 


Cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  medium 16.85 

■Cotton  spinning,  fine Unchanged. 

Cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  fine  bolton do 

Cotton  spinning,  No.  150  weft iNo  returns. 

Bleaching. 32.06 

Calico  printing I  8.00 

Shipping  warehouse 15.  46 

Mechanical  engineering Unchanged, 

Coal  mining :  22.  78 

Building !  10. 12 


1870. 


Average  advance. 


Iron  manufacture  decrease 


11.70 


9  trades. 


43.59 

9.68 

15.13 

No  returns. 

31.  40 

25.00 

25.  77 

2. 42 

24!  64 

23.11 


22.30 


9  trades. 


64.47 
30.21 
37.  72 
No  returns. 
56.60 
50.00 
31.44 
12.73 
55.64 
48.21 


1883. 


43.00 


10.16 


74.72 
16.27 
35. 16 
37.00 
50.00 
50.00 
35.05 
10.30 
43.53 
39.76 


39.18 


10  trades. 


14.88 


The  above  tables  have  been  courteously  furnished  me  by  George  Lord, 
esq.,  president  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  of  Commerce,  to  whom,  and 
to  the  able  secretary,  Thomas  Browning,  esq.,  I  desire  to  return  my  best 
thanks  for  many  kindnesses  shown  this  consulate  during  the  past  year. 
These  tables  are  the  result  of  most  reliable  and  pains-taking  inquiries, 
and  are  very  valuable  statistics. 

The  preceding  tables  are  worthy  of  careful  consideration,  and  prove 
beyond  all  question  that  improvements  in  machinery  have  greatly  ben- 
efited operatives,  especially  in  this  district,  during  the  past  thirty  years. 
This  is  not  a  result,  I  take  it,  that  has  been  very  much  afl'ected  by  the 
commercial  policy  of  the  country,  but  shows  conclusively  that  perfect 
machinery  increases  the  wages  of  operatives.  Labor-saving  inventions 
make  it  possible  for  operatives  to  turn  off  a  far  greater  amount  of  work 
in  a  given  time  than  could  be  done  formerly,  and  thus  it  comes  that 
multiplying  the  output  lowers  the  cost  per  piece,  and  at  the  same  time, 
by  the  increased  quantity  worked  up,  their  wages  are  increased. 

But  what  is  true  in  England  as  regards  the  increase  of  wages  from 
this  cause  applies  with  equal  truth  to  all  countries  where  the  best  mod- 
ern machinery  has  been  procured.  Hand  work  was  dear  and  slow,  as 
compared  with  the  present  work  of  perfected  machines,  and  this  perfec- 


728 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


tion  in  machinery  has  benefited  the  operatives  and  the  consumer  on 
the  one  hand  as  well  as  manufacturers  on  the  other.  This  is  proof  of 
the  power  of  the  inventor,  and  that  the  genius  of  invention  is  the  noblest 
benefactor  of  the  working  men  and  women  in  the  world. 

[Copy  of  statement  which  appeared  in  the  Manchester  papers.  1 
WAGES   IN   THE   WEAVING   BRANCH   OF   THE   COTTON   TRADE. 

The  president  of  the  Maucliester  Chamber  of  Commerce  (Mr.  G.  Lord),  in  response 
to  the  desire  expressed  by  the  delegates  of  the  weaving  branch,  at  their  meetings  at 
Ashton-iinder-Lyne,  requests  us  to  publish  the  following  as  the  data  on  which  he 
based  his  statement  to  the  chamber  on  Thursday  last.  The  figures  show  the  wages- 
earned  per  week  of  60  hours  up  to  1874,  and  of  56^  hours  since : 


1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Increase, 

weavers 

alone,    in 

1883  on  1850. 

Increase, 

weavers  and 

winders 

together. 

$2  32 
2  01 

$3  67 
2  61 

$3  36 

2  68 

$4  50 

<ft»  RO 

Per  cent. 
67i 
45J 

Per  cent. 
\                 57J 

Winders 

4  14  1     "2  02 

This  is  a  large  mill,  and  the  weavers'  earnings  per  week  are  arrived  at  by  taking 
the  total  earnings  of  the  shed  and  dividing  that  sum  by  the  number  of  weavers  em- 
ployed. The  reduction  in  earnings  of  weavers  in  1870  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
material  used  at  that  time  was  not  so  good  as  that  in  use  immediately  before  and 
since. 


1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1883. 

Increase, 

weavers 

alone,  in 

1883  on  1850. 

Increase, 

weavers  and 

winders 

together. 

Weavers 

$1  99 
2  07 

$3  59 
2  15 

$3  77 
2  80 

$3  89 
3  41 

$3  65 
3  04 

Per  cent 

83J 
47 

Per  cent. 

1 

Winders 

MILL   C. 


In  1850  a  weaver  received  $2..51  for  attending  to  one  pair  of  looms  ;  now  she  receives 
$5.60  for  two  pairs  of  looms,  out  of  which  she  pays  a  tenter  $1.28,  leaving  her  f4.32. 
Taking  weavers  and  winders  together,  the  increase  shown  at  this  mill  is  56|-  per  cent. 


In  1850  a  weaver  received  $1.95  for  attending  to  one  pair  of  looms  ;  now  she  receives 
$5.84  for  attending  to  two  pairs,  and  pays  $1.46  to  a  tenter,  leaving  her  $4.38.  Tak- 
ing weavers  and  windtirs  together,  the  increase  shown  at  this  mill  is  64|  per  cent. 


In  1850  a  weaver  earned  $2.2:?!;  in  1883,  earns  $3.36;  increase,  63^  per  cent. 

Mr.  Lord  states  that  he  has  a  number  of  other  returns  corroborative  of  those  above 
given,  but  he  thinks  it  "unnecessary  to  multiply  proofs  of  facts  so  universally  known 
to  all  in  the  trade." 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

GENERAL   TRADES. 
Wages  paid  in  general  trades  per  week  in  Lancashire. 


72^ 


Occupations. 


Bricklayers 

Laborers  (hod-carriers) 

Masons 

Laborers 

Plasterers , 

Laborers 

Slaters  

Laborers 

Plumbers 

Laborers,  gas  and  water  fitters 
Carpenters 

Laborers 


Total 


$9  38 
5  52 
8  02 

5  52 
8  83 

6  08 
8  83 
5  52 
8  35 

5  26 
8  83 

6  08 


Occupations. 


Tinsmiths  

Assistants 

Holders 

Pattern-makers 

Turners , 

Fitters 

Hammer-men 

Laborers  (iron-works) 

Boiler  works 

Riveters 

Apprentices  (mechanics') 

Foremen 

Draughtsmen 

Teachers : 

Public  schools 

Assistants,  public  schools 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

Tanners 

Tailors 

Bakers 

Brewers 

Foremen 

Draymen 

Coachmen,  draymen,  cab,  carriage,  street-railway,  and  others 
Brass-founders 

Assistants 

Millwrights 

Foremen 

Assistants 

Coach  and  carriage : 

Body- workers 

Painters 

Trimmers 

Smiths 

Finishers 

"Working  jewelers  

Furriers 

Gardeners  (laborers) 

Hatters 

Horseshoers 

Weavers : 

Overlookers 

4-loom  net 

3-loom  net 

2-loom  net 

Apprentices  (boys) 

Machinists 

Mechanics'  assistants 

Butchers 

Cabinet-makers 

Chair-makers 

Polishers 

*  From  61  cents  up. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$4  38 

S5  83 

97 

4  38 

7  29 

7  29 

5  83 

9  73 

5  83 

8  75 

5  83 

8  75 

3  41 

4  38 

3  65 

4  86 

8  27 

9  73 

6  56 

6  56 

73 

4  38 

9  73 

14  59 

4  38 

14  59 

4  86 

24  33 

24 

4  86 

4  38 

5  83. 

6  80 

6  80 

7  03 

8  75 

4  60 

6  80 

4  60 

6  80 

6  10 

8  06 

3  41 

5  83 

2  43 

9  73 

7  29 

8  51 

73 

4  38 

5  83 

8  75 

10  95 

19  46 

73 

4  38 

6  81 

8  75 

6  81 

7  78 

6  81 

7  78 

6  81 

7  78 

6  81 

7  78 

5  83 

8  75 

8  75 

8  75 

4  38 

4  38 

6  08 

6  08 

4  38 

5  83 

10  22 

10  22 

4  86 

5  22 

4  86 

5  10 

3  16 

3  41 

61 

3  16 

8  35 

8  35 

3  16 

5  10 

4  86 

8  51 

8  51 

9  97 

8  51 

9  97 

4  62 

6  08 

Average. 


$5  ID' 

2  67 
7  2» 
7  78 
7  29 
7  29 

3  39 

4  25 
9  00 

6  56 
2  55 

12  16 
9  48 

14  59 
2  55 

5  10 

6  80 

7  89 
5  70 

5  70 

7  08 
4  62 

6  08 

8  40 
2  55 

7  29 

15  20 

2  55 

7  78 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 

7  29 

8  75 

4  38 
6  08 

5  15 

10  22 

5  04 
4  98 

3  28 
(*) 

8  35 

4  13 

6  68 

9  12 
9  12 

5  3S 


730  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  in  general  trades  per  week  in  Lancashire — Continued. 


Ocoupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

ATerage. 

"Wood-carvers . .. 

$10  95 
9  73 
1  08 

$14  59 

14  59 

3  49 

$12  77 
12  16 

Assistants 

COAL  MINING. 

2  28 
6  38 

7  90 

7  13 

7  39 

4  42 

5  14 

4  90 

Bricklayers -        -  -                   -        -   -       - 

1 

8  16 

Pnddlers 

IKON  MANUFACTURE. 

11  68 

12  16 

12  16 

Wire-rollers 

29  19 

"Wire-drawers .                    

10  05 

9  73 

Laborers 

4  25 



printers'   "WAGES. 

Fi  inters''  wages  in  Manchester  per  week  of  fifty-five  hours. 


Occupation. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Managers  (large  newspaper  offices) 

Foremen  or  submanagers 

Journeymen  

Litho<:ra])her8 : 

Managers 

Foiemeu 

Journeymen 

Engravers  (commercial  works  only): 

Join  noy  men 

Apprentices 

Bookbinders  and  stationery  binders: 

Foremen 

Journeymen  

Rulers  (i.  e.,  paper-rulers  of  ledger  accounts,  books,  &c.): 

Foremen 

Journeymen 

Feeders,  assistants,  folders,  &c.  (boys  and  girls) 


$19  46 

14  59 

5  08 

19  46 

14  59 
5  08 

14  59 
1  22 

14  59 

7  78 

9  73 

7  78 

97 


$29  19 
19  46 
6  81 

24  33 

19  46 

6  81 

19  40 
4  86 

19  46 
9  73 

14  59 
8  75 
3  16 


$24  32 

17  02 

5  94 

21  89 
17  02 
5  94 

17  02 
3  04 

17  02 
8  75 

12  16 
8  26 
2  06 


$1.46,  $1.70,  $2.19,  $2.68,  and,  last  year 


^Apprentices  begin  at  97  cents  per  week  and  increase  to  $1.22 
of  apprenticeiibip,  $3.16  per  week. 


AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  j)er  tveek  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  {country)  servants  in  Lancashire. 

I  Occupation. 


Laborers 

Farm  hands  (boys) 

Farm  servants  (female) 

Bailiffs 

Overseers 

Drovers,  shepherds,  wagoners,  &c 

Head  Kame-keepf-rs 

Under  game-keepers 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


731 


HOUSEHOLD  WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  week  to  household  servants  (tcj</t  board  and  lodging). 


Occupation. 


Footmen 

Coachmen 

Butlers 

Pafte   . .   

Private  secretary 

Lady's  maid  

General  servant 

Parlor-maid 

Chamber-maid 

Scullery-maid   

Kitchen-maid 

Man  servant 

Cook 

Housekeeper 

Governess,  teachers 

Nurse 

Sick  nurse,  professional 

Waitresses 

Bar-maids 

Gi  ooros 

Ostlers 


Lowest. 


$2 


Highest. 


$3  65 
5  00 
5  10 
2  07 
9  73 

4  00 

2  43 
1  75 
1  75 
1  06 
1  06 

3  76 

5  00 

6  00 
9  73 

1  95 
5  00 

2  43 

3  65 
3  60 
3  25 


Average. 


$3  04 

4  32 
3  92 

1  41 

5  86 

2  97 
1  70 
1  07 
1  07 

73 
68 

3  09 

3  23 

4  03 

6  20 
1  47 
3  53 

1  73 

2  80 

3  01 
2  52 


SHOP  AND   STORE  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  general  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Manches- 
ter and  ^ncinitu. 


Occupations. 


Boys 

Girls 

Assistants,  male  and  female 

Managers 

Clerks 

Porters  

Confectioners 


03 
1  61 

5  16 
13  36 

8  51 
3  89 

6  13 


SPINNING  AND   WEAVING  MILLS. 


Average  earningsper  week  in  spinning  and  weaving  mills  at  Bolton. 

[Taken  from  the  books  of  one  of  tlie  largest  mills  in  the  district.! 
Each  loom $1  54 

Three  looms,  at  .$1..54 4  62 

Two  half-timers,  at  62^  cents 1  25 

Net  earnings  of  weaver 3  37 

Fonr  looms,  at  $1.54  per  loom 6  16 

Two  half-timers,  at  62^  cents 1  25 

Net  earnings  of  weaver 4  91 

Overlookers  have  charge  of  72  looms,  and  receive  on  an  average  $10  per  week. 


732 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Occupations. 


Bjiitters. 
Twisters 
Drawers. 
Sizers  


Dressers 

Warpers 

"Winders  (from  cop) 

Overseers  (spinning  department) 
Manager  (spinuibg  department).. 
Overlookers  (see  above) 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average. 


$4  25 


$4  50 


10  00 


12  50 


$4  37 
4  26 
4  25 

10  00 
12  50 

4  50 
3  50 

11  25 
17  50 
10  00 


COTTON-SPINNINa  TRADE   OF   OLDHAM. 

Oldham  and  its  suburbs  may  truly  be  claimed  to  be  the  largest  cottoii- 
spinning  district  in  the  world.  There  are  about  9,000,000  spiuciles  using 
raw  cotton,  which  is  principally  procured  through  the  port  of  Liverpool, 
and  these  spin  some  900,000  bales  of  raw  cotton  per  year,  averaging  400 
pounds  each,  or  a  little  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  cotton  consumed  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  which  last  year  amounted  to  3,770,000  bales. 
There  are  in  addition  1,000,000  spindles  using  "  waste,"  making  a  total 
of  10,000,000  spindles  in  this  one  district.  Out  of  this  number  4,500,000 
belong  to  the  75  limited  companies.  The  capital  employed  in  this 
spinning  trade  is  about  $65,000,000,  and  in  the  weaving  branch,  say, 
$10,000,000. 

Oldham  was  the  first  town  in  England  to  introduce  the  system  of  pay- 
ing the  operative  spinner  upon  the  principle  of  what  the  machine  was 
capable  of  i)roducing  if  kept  in  motion  a  given  number  of  hours  per 
week;  and  it  is  this  system  which  has  kept  Oldham  to  the  front  ever 
since.  Every  spinner  is  trained  to  work  on  a  mechanical  plan,  and  in 
nineteen  cases  out  of  every  twenty  he  produces  more  yarn  than  the 
mules  are  calculated  to  produce.  This  is  chiefly  accounted  for  in  two 
ways,  one  of  which  is  by  the  employer  running  his  mill  a  little  over 
time  each  day,  or  what  is  termed  "cribbing  time,"  amounting  upon  an 
average  to  nearly  three  hours  per  week.  The  factory  act  specifies  that 
an  employer  must  only  work  women,  young  persons,  and  children  fifty- 
six  hours  i)er  week,  but  in  reality  they  often  run  the  steam-enirines  fifty- 
nine  hours  per  week.  This  is  not  done  in  all  cases,  but  it  is  believed 
that  a  majority  do  this.  The  operative  spinner,  and  all  other  hands  in 
the  mill  who  are  paid  by  piece-work,  get  the  full  advantage  of  this  over- 
time, while  those  who  are  paid  weekly  wages  do  not  receive  extra  pay ; 
thus  all  day  hands  will  have  worked  nearly  three  weeks  out  of  every 
fifty  for  which  they  are  not  paid,  or,  rather,  they  work  overtime  three 
weeks  in  this  period. 

Mill-owners  are  frequently  fined  for  running  overtime,  but  the  in- 
spectors are  so  few  that  ouly  a  small  proportion  ot  offenders  are  punished. 

The  factory  operatives  at  Oldham  are  regarded  as  being  among  the 
best  of  their  class,  and  the  wages  earned  by  them  are  representative  of 
the  earnings  of  first-rate  spiuners  in  England. 

In  the  spinning  mill  employers  and  operatives  have  mutually  agreed 
upon  a  list  of  wages,  with  certain  (ionditions  attached  for  extra  work. 
The  scal(^  of  wages  commences  at  $0.20  per  week  on  mules  of  oG  dozens 
or  4.32  spindles  (long)  per  mule  for  twist-coimts,  and  for  weft-counts  or 
"filling  yarns,"  $0.44  per  week  ;  the  scale  rises  two-pence  (4  cents)  per 
dozen,  or  for  every  12  spindles  more  the  rate  of  wages  increases  two 
pence  (4  cents)  per  dozen,  or  for  every  12  spindles  more  the  rate  of  wages 
increases  two  pence  (4  cents)  per  week.    The  average  size  of  the  spinning- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  733 

mules  now  readies  82  dozen  or  984  spindles  per  mule  ou  twist,  and  102 
dozen  or  1,224  spindles  per  mule  for  weft.  The  counts  spun  in  the  town 
vary  from  4's  to  lOO's,  but  the  average  runs  from  32's  to  40's  twist,  and 
from  SO's  to  50's  weft ;  but  for  all  practical  purposes  relating  to  the  wages 
of  the  operative  spinners  32's  twist  and  3G's  weft  counts  are  taken  as  a 
basis.  The  spinners  are  paid  by  piece-work,  but  they  pay  their  own 
piecers  or  "  assistants"  by  weekly  wages,  and  the  piece-work  price  now 
is  fixed  by  the  employers'  and  operatives'  secretaries,  and  made  out  from 
the  speed  of  the  mules. 

The  following  is  a  practical  example:  82  dozens  spinning  32's  twist, 
with  a  64-inch  stretch,  running  3  stretches  in  45  seconds,  which  is  an 
average  speed,  and  doffing  eight  times  per  week  oif  one  mule,  the  mules 
should  produce  in  a  fair  working  week  52,825  hanks  of  yarn  or  1,650 
pounds  weight,  for  which  the  spinner  is  paid  at  the  rate  of  27  cents  per 
1,000  hanks,  or  82i  cents  i»er  100  pounds,  amounting  to  $13.93,  out  of 
which  is  paid  $5.67  to  the  two  piecers  or  "  assistants,"  leaving  the  spin- 
ner $8.25  for  his  week's  hard  work.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  above  is  calculated  on  the  proper  number  of  hours  per  week 
limited  by  law,  w^hile  practically  the  spinner  will  really  produce  in  many 
cases  55,800  hanks  per  week,  realizing  for  himself  about  $9.05. 

A  practical  example  of  the  weft-mules  or  "  tiUing-yarn  mules  "  is  as 
follows:  102  dozens  or  1,224  s])indles  per  mule,  or  2,448  spindles  per 
pair,  s])inning  36's  count,  64-inch  stretcher,  running  3  stretches  in  44 
seconds,  and  doffing  25  times  per  week  off  one  mule.  In  this  example 
the  employers'  and  operatives'  secretaries  would  calculate  the  mules  to 
produce  64,478  hanks,  or  1,794  pounds  weight  of  yarn  per  week,  and  fix 
the  price  of  work  at  26^  cents  per  1,000  hanks,  or  72^^  cents  per  100 
pounds,  realizing  $17.09,  out  of  which  the  spinner  pays  $7.83  to  his 
piecers,  leaving  him  $9.18,  and,  as  in  the  ])revious  case,  allowing  for  the 
"  cribbing"  time,  and  not  stopping  the  mills  for  cleaning  purposes  dur- 
ing the  engine  time,  for  which  the  list  allows,  viz,  1^  hours  per  week, 
the  spinner  actually  produces  68,000  hanks,  or  1,888  pounds  weight  of 
yara  per  week,  realizing  $18  from  the  office,  and  after  paying  his  "assist- 
ants" has  a  clear  $10  for  himself  per  week.  The  rates  named,  as  well 
as  the  wages,  are  10  per  cent,  below  the  standard,  and  if  trade  improved 
so  as  to  allow  manufacturers  a  sufficient  margin  of  profits,  the  employ- 
ers would  be  immediately  solicited  to  return  to  the  standard  list.  If  all 
conditions  are  taken  into  consideration,  and  the  various  counts  of  yarn 
spun,  the  spinner's  wages  will  be  found  to  average  from  $8.27  to  $8.51 
per  week  ;  big  piecers  from  $3.64  to  $3.89  ;  little  piecers  from  $2.18  to 
to  $2.67,  and  half  timers  from  85  cents  to  $1.04. 

As  a  rule,  the  spinners  work  steady,  never  absenting  themselves  from 
work  except  at  holiday  times  or  during  sickness ;  and  a  good  many  have 
lost  their  situations  through  being  absent  ev^en  on  account  of  sickness. 

Discipline  is  well  maintained  in  the  Oldham  mills,  and  as  a  rule  the 
operatives  are  in  pretty  good  circumstances.  A  small  proportion  own 
the  houses  in  which  they  live,  and  many  have  stock  in  the  limited  com- 
panies. Both  males  and  females  are  noted  among  the  operatives  of 
Oldham  for  the  neatness  of  their  holiday  and  Sunday  dress.  There  is 
a  very  good  feeling  existing  between  the  employers  and  the  employed, 
and  as  a  result  few  strikes  take  place.  Both  have  large  and  intluentia! 
associations,  but  the  ruling  idea  is  to  be  just  to  each  other,  and  the  joint 
committees  are  seldom  called  together  to  settle  disputes,  as  the  two  sec- 
retaries generally  adjust  all  differences  which  arise  in  the  various  mills. 
These  are  guided  in  their  delicate  work  by  the  conditions  laid  down  in 
the  wages-book,  a  copy  of  which  accompanies  this  review.     The  full  de- 


734 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


scription  given  in  the  same,  which  appears  elsewhere  in  this  report,  will 
fully  exi)laiii  how  complicated  such  calculations  are,  and  what  nice  ad- 
justments are  necessary  to  meet  every  question  presented  in  respect  to 
disputes,  wages,  &c.,  hy  the  officials  above  named. 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYiJ&S. 

Wages  paid  pel-  week  to  the  ejuployes  of  the  Manchester  corporation. 


Occupations. 


iDspectors 

VoT'  man  (yards) 

Clerks 

Surveyors 

ili'ssenstTS 

Offi<  !■  cltiiucrs 

Clieiiiist  apprentice 

Enyiiiet^is 

Joiners* 

Laborers 

Wbetlwrights 

Laborers 

Smiths  

Laborers 

Brick  setters   

Laborers 

Tinmen  

Laborers 

Paiutei  s 

Laborers 

Paviors 

Laborers 

Boiler-makers 

Laborers 

Mechanics  

Laborers 

Horsekeepcrs 

Laborers 

Farriers 

Saddlers 

Laborers 

Sawyers    

Sawmill  laborers 

Street-sweepers 


Amount. 


24  to  $9  73 
12  10 

08  to    7  30 

32  to  12  16 
5  83 
3  65 
1  95 

73  to  12  10 


4  38 

6  32 

4  86 

7  30 

5  59 

8  75 
4  38 
8  27 

4  38  to    4  86 

6  32 
4  86 
6  32 
4  86 
8  27 
4  86 
8  75 

4  38 
10  22 

5  83 
8  75 

6  81 

4  86 

5  83 
4  86 

4  38  to    4  86 


Occupations. 


Leading-sweepers 

Vard-sweepers 

Cart-tillers  

Watch  men 

Boatmen  

'I'ipmen  

W  liai'liuen 

Carters 

Slaughter-house  carters 

Slau-bter-house  carriers 

I'ail  carriers 

Barrow  and  pitmen 

Mortar-makers 

Manure-makers 

I'ail-cleaiisers 

Grid-deanseis 

Boiler-cleansers 

Uiiual-cleansers 

nryer-teuteis  

Kiddle-tenters 

Eufjine-teuters 

Stoki  rs    

Hoistmen 

Yard-men  

Sack-makers,  <fec.  (females). 

Supernumeraries 

Scavengers 

Disinfecters 

Wbitewashers    

Pattern-makers 

Brush -makers 

Saw  sharpeners  

Machinists 

Cook 


*  16  cents  per  hour  of  54i  hours  per  week. 
PAVING  AND  HIGHWAYS  DEPARTMENT. 


Amount. 


$4  38  to  $4  80 

4  38  to    4  80 

4  62 

4  38 

5  35 
4  62 

4  38 

5  83 
5  83 
5  35 
5  35 
5  83 
5  83 
5  35 
4  38 
4  38 
4  38 

4  33 

5  83 
4  86 
4  86 
4  86 
4  38 
4  38 

3  89 

4  86 

4  62 
9  73 

5  35 
8  75 

6  32 

7  78 
6  32 
3  41 


4  38  to 
4  38  to 


2  92  to 
4  38  to 


7  74  to 


Paviors 

Leading  paviors 

Masons 

riaggeis 

Beaters 


$7  78 

8  27 

7  78 

7  29 

5  83 

Laborers $5  35 

Foremen 9  73to$10  95 

Slongbmen 5  83  to     7  29 

Cai  ters 5  59 


List  of  wages  paid  per  week  to  raihvay  employe's  in  Manchester. 
LOCOMOTIVE  DEPARTMENT. 


Occnpations. 

Occnpations. 

Foremen 

$13  38 
10  95 
8  02 
6  08 
4  38 
10  22 

$8  02 
8  02 

Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

7  29 

Foremen  cleaners 

7  05 

Cleaners  

6  50 

Foreman  fitters 

4  U 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


735 


List  of  wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  in  Manchester — Continued. 
GOODS  DEPARTMENT. 


Occupations. 

Occupations. 

$7  78 
6  56 
6  08 
5  83 
5  10 
4  38 

$7  29 
.5  83 

6  81 

5  83 

PDrtcrs  

4  62 

Messengers 

1  95 

CARTING  STAFF. 


Forerapn 

Town  foreman 
Town  canvassers  . 
Head  horsekeeper 


$10  22 

8  81 

7  90 

9  48 

i 

Under  horsekeeper 

Horse  drivers 

Lurry  boys 


$6  81 
6  08 
1  95 


PASSENGER  DEPARTMENT. 


Platform  inspectors 

Foremen 

Heail  guaids 

Under  guards  

Porier  guards 

Porters  

Cairiage  searf.liers. . 

Car  c<inductors 

Relief  sijrnaluien 


$9  24 

6  08 

6  81 

5  83 

4  86 

4  14 

4  38 

6  32 

6  08 

Signalmen : 

1st  ("lass 

2d  class  

3d  class  

Foreman  lampman 

Lamjjnieu 

Foremen  carriage  washers 

Carriage  washers 

Greasers 


$7  29 

6  08 
5  10 

7  29 

4  38 

5  38 
4  38 
4  14 


PARCELS  DEPARTMENT. 


CARRIAGE  DEPARTMENT. 


Foremen 

$'3  38 
7  29 
7  29 
6  32 
4  86 

$2  43 
5  83 

Caniage  builders 

Lifters 

4  62 

Paiuters 

4  38 

Oilers 

ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


Permanent  way  inspector. ... 
Sub  permanent  way  inspector 
Joiners 


$10  85 
8  02 
7  29 


Foreman  platelayer 

Platelayers 

Telegraph  linesman 


$5  ?8 
4  38 
7  20 


SHOEING  STAFF. 


736  .         LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

COST   OF   LIVING. 

*'The  cost  of  living  to  the  laboring  classes,  viz,  the  prices  paid  for  the 
necessaries  of  life,  clothing,  rent,  &g.  In  this  connection,  not  only 
should  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  from  an  American  stand- 
point be  given — as  per  accompanying  forms — but  the  prices  of  the 
articles  and  their  nature,  which  are  actually  consumed  bythe  work- 
people and  their  families,  should  also  be  given." 

In  this  connection  it  is  not  easy  to  furnish  satisfactory  comparison 
between  the  cost  of  living  in  England  and  the  United  States,  for  the 
reason  that  the  manner  of  living,  tastes,  and  habits  of  work-people  in 
the  two  countries  differ  so  radically  in  so  many  particulars.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  cost  of  food  in  England,  and  while  it  is  easy  to  give  a  list 
of  the  retail  prices  of  such  articles  as  the  operatives  daily  consume  here, 
it  is  not  possible  to  accurately  compare  the  style  of  living  with  our  own, 
because  the  system  of  "  boarding,"  which  is  so  general  in  the  United 
States,  is  comparatively  unknown  in  this  country.  American  work- 
people, as  a  whole,  would  not  live  under  the  conditions  in  force  here 
among  operatives,  nor  could  they  be  induced  to  adopt  the  English  sys- 
tem, in  my  opinion. 

Here  whole  families  work  in  mills,  and  are  satisfied  to  do  so,  while  in 
our  country  and  other  avenues  are  sought  by  the  young  in  an  ambi- 
tious effort  to  win  a  better  jiosition  in  life  than  their  parents  fill.  Here 
the  children  are  compelled  to  help  pay  the  family  expenses,  while  with 
us,  less  is  expected  or  enforced  in  this  particular.  The  following  tables 
have  been  carefully  made  up  from  the  best  retail  shops  for  work-people 
in  this  district,  and  furnish  the  prices  for  clothing  and  food  at  a  fair 
average  cost : 

CLOTHING. 

Shoes $1  95  to  $2  92 

Clogs 85  to  1  09 

Coats 4  86  to  7  29 

Vests 1  46  to  2  92 

Pants  (good) 1  46  to  3  65 

Pants  (corduroy) 97  to  1  95 

Shirts  (white  cotton) 49  to  85 

Overalls  (suit) 1  95  to  2  92 

Shawls 85  to  1  95 

Hats. 47  to  I  22 

Collars paper  1  cent,  and  linen..  7  to  12 

Neck-ties 13  to  49 

I  believe  that  clothing  similar  to  that  which  English  operatives  wear 
can  be  had  in  the  United  States  at  about  the  same  prices.  There  is  a 
great  deal  of  misleading  sentiment  about  this  fact,  for  the  reason  that 
the  cost  of  clothing  worn  b^'  American  work-people  is  known  to  be 
more  than  that  paid  by  operatives  here,  butsufQcient  imiiortance  is  not 
given  to  the  superior  quality  and  make-up  of  the  former.  Given  the 
same  styles,  make,  and  quality,  and  we  can  equal  the  English  in  cheap- 
ness, if  not  undersell  them.  Surprising  as  this  may  appear,  a  visit  to  a 
great  ready-made  clothing  house  in  Xew  York  will  abundantly  prove 
the  statement  liere  made. 

PRICE   OF   PROVISIONS. 

The  following  price-lists  have  been  very  carefully  prepared,  and  will 
give  full  particuhirs  of  the  retail  market  price  of  various  articles  of  food 
in  Manchester  and  in  Oldham,  respectively.  This  may  be  taken  as  a 
fair  average  price  for  the  same  in  this  consular  district. 


LABOIi  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


787 


I  should  add,  that  in  Manchester  and  in  the  larger  towns  in  this 
cotton- ma nnfactnrinf?  center,  co-operative  stores  associations  have,  by 
their  system  of  business,  added  at  least  5  per  cent;  to  thepurcliasing- 
power  of  their  members,  by  furnishing-  provisions  and  clothing  at  low 
prices.  All  tlie  profits  of  these  stores  and  associations  substantially  go 
to  subscribers  in  dividends.  I 

The  management  of  these  useful  enterprises  is  admirable,  as  a  rule, 
and  the  expenses  are  coinparatively  very  low.  No  high  salaries  are  i)aid 
for  figure-heads,  but  the  work  is  well  and  honestly  done. 

The  foUowingis  a  fair  average  retail  priceof  the  several  articles  named, 
and  which  are  used  by  the  working  classes  of  Oldham  and  vicinity : 


Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 
Good 


Average  price. 

flour  per  12  poiiuds . .   $0  38 

meal do 38 

potatoes per  20  pounds..  20 

cabbages each . .  4 

eggs per  dozen..  30 

pickles per  small  bottle..  10 

milk per  quart. .  8 

lard   per  pound--  16 

butter  do 28 

tea do 49 

ground  coflFee do 32 

uuground  coffee do 40 

sugar do 7 

molasses do....  5 

bacon do 15 

ham do  ...  22 

beef do 20 


Average  price. 

Good  mutton per  pound..  $0  22 

Good  pork do 18 

Good  cheese    do 16 

Good  currants do 10 

Good  rainius do 12 

Good  rice do 6 

( I  ood  siigo do t> 

Good  I  ariots do....  3 

Good  turnips do 3 

Good  onii  lus do 2 

Good  fruit  preserves do 9 

Good  wa.shing  soap do. ...  8 

Good  washing  powder do 8 

Good  candles do 12 

House  rents  per  week  (average) 1  03 

Annual  borough  rate 4  85 


Retail  j)rices  of  the  articles  named  below,  in  Manchester  retail  markets. 


Bread  (brown) 4-pound  loaf.- $0  12  to  $0  15 

Bread  (white) .do...  10  15 

Sugar perpound..  05  08 

Tea do....  44  80 

Coffee do....  28.  40 

Bacon do...  10  24 

Butterine , do 14  24 

Driuping do 12  18 

Butter  do...  20  40 

Cheese do 12  24 

Pork  do....  12  20 

Veal do...  13  25 

Ham do....  12  28 

Mutton  and  beef do 13  25 

Lamb do 20  28 

Tiipe do 12  10 

Fowl perpair..  75  105 

Ducks do...  75  1  5U 

Rabbits each..  25  50 

Hares do 50  98 

Grouse perpair..  60  1  00 

Pheasants do 90  1  80 

Pigeons do 20  40 

Geese   perpound..  12  18 

Herrings  and  bloaters,  per  couple..  03  08 

Codfish perpound..  05  12 

Salmon do...  20  40 

Brill do....  08  14 

Halibut do...  12  •    20 

Turbot do  ... .  12  20 

Rice do...  03  08 

Flour 5  to  7  pounds..  25  00 

Macaroni perpound..  12  16 

Sago do 04  08 

Tapioca do...  04  08 

Oat -meal  do  ...  04  09 

Mola.sses do 03  04 

Barley  (pearled) do 03  06 


Lentils per  pound. 

Haricot  beans do . . . 

Dried  peas do . . . 

Split  peas do . . . 

Green  peas  peck  of  20  lbs.  in  shell. 

Biead  beans do 

New  putatoes per  pound  . 

Old  potatoes do- . . 

Cabbages each. 

Carrots per  pound. 

Tut  nips do . . . 

Pai snips do. .. 

Caulitlower  ..   ..-  each. 

Bhubarb per  dozen  heads. 

Tomatoes ]>cr  pound  . 

Beets         per  dozen. 

Pi  eserves per  pound . 

Eggs per  dozen - 

Cherries per  pound. 

Strawberries do. .. 

Gooseberries do... 

Black,  red,  and  white  currants  do. . . 

Kaisins  (dried) do. . . 

Currants  (diied) do... 

Dates  (dried) do... 

P'i<;s  (dried)    do... 

Prunes  (dried) do 

Plums  (various) do... 

Damsons do  — 

Green  gages do. .. 

Oranges   per  dozen. 

Pears per  pound . 

Apples do... 

Almonds  (Talentias,  dec.)  .--do... 

Bilberries         do 

Blackberries do  .. 

Celery per  dozen  heads. 

Cranberries per  pound. 


04 

$0  08 

03 

06 

03 

06 

03 

06 

12 

30 

18 

30 

02 

05 

01 

n 

02 

06 

02 

04 

02 

04 

62 

04 

03 

08 

25 

75 

12 

25 

02 

04 

07 

25 

16 

48 

06 

16 

08 

32 

04 

08 

08 

20 

10 

30 

06 

12 

08 

20 

08 

28 

06 

16 

06 

16 

12 

16 

06 

16 

18 

36 

0.3 

12 

02 

12 

20 

40 

08 

14 

06 

10 

36 

75 

08 

14 

HOUSE   RENTS   IN  MANCHESTER. 


Operatives  generally  live  in  small  houses,  located  in  long,  low  blocks, 
in  parallel  rows,  with  paved,  narrow  streets  between.     These  are,  for 
the  most  part,  devoid  of  gardens,  and  usuall}'  present  a  bare  and  cheer* 
92  A— LAB 47 


738  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

less  appearauce.  I  have  repeatedly  made  visits  to  various  inannfactnr- 
iug-  districts  in  this  section  of  Engiaud,  and  carefnlly  studied  the  con- 
ditions under  which  oi)eratives  work  and  live.  Evidences  abound  in 
the  older  portions  of  this  city  where  operatives  reside  showing  how 
great  the  improvement  in  their  homes  have  been  during,-  the  past  (juar- 
ter  of  a  century,  because  all  cellar  dwellings  have  been  closed  up  by  law. 
In  passing  along  some  of  tlie  old  streets  here,  the  bricked-up  and  boarded- 
up  windows  of  rooms  below  the  sidewalks  can  be  seen,  which  formerly 
constituted  the  living  apartments  of  operatives.  These  dark  and  gloomy 
abodes  are  now  a  thing  of  the  past,  but  even  yet  a  great  majority  of 
the  }K)orer  houses  are  small,  wretchedly  furnished,  and  far  from  com- 
fortable. Great  numbers  of  houses  visited  by  me  contained  only  one 
living  room,  and  this  served  as  parlor,  kitchen,  dining-room,  sitting- 
room,  and  in  some  instances  also  as  a  bedroom.  Into  some  of  these 
small  houses  large  families  are  crowded,  and  their  manner  of  life  is 
almost  necessarily  demoralizing  and  unfortunate.  The  streets  furnish 
the  only  easily  reached  playground  for  the  children,  and  here  they  be- 
come familiarized  with  almost  every  phase  of  poverty,  indecency,  and 
even  immorality.  Lack  of  pure  air  tends  to  physical  degeneracy,  and 
as  a  result  of  crowded  poor  homes,  insufficient  ventilation,  want  of 
nourishing  food  and  healthful  surroundings,  many  of  the  children  of 
operatives  in  crowded  districts  show  the  effects  of  this  state  of  things 
in  their  weak  physique.  Great  numbers  are  small,  pale-faced,  and 
sickly.  The  active  work  of  zealous  and  able  i^hilanthropists  is  telling 
in  favor  of  better  homes  and  purer  surroundings  for  operatives  all  over 
this  country.  Wealthy  citizens  are  more  and  more  turning  their  atten- 
tion to  the  needy  condition  of  the  poor,  and  a  great  woik  is  being  done 
in  their  behalf.  The  corporation  of  Manchester,  during  the  past  quar- 
ter of  a  century,  has  spent  vast  sums  of  money  in  opening  out  wide 
streets,  providing  public  i)arks,  and  in  many  ways  adding  to  the  comfort 
and  happiness  of  the  working  classes.  And  this  noble  work  is  still  being 
carried  forward  in  a  spirit  and  with  a  vigor  worthy  of  the  fame,  enterprise, 
and  wealth  of  this  great  and  rich  city. 

House-rents  vary  with  localities  and  size  of  rooms.  It  may  be  stated 
that  the  minimum  for  a  four-roomed  house  is  63  cents  i)er  w^eek ;  and 
for  one  containing  an  extra  bedroom  or  two  the  rent  would  be  $1.09 
per  week.     The  average  would  be,  perha})s,  all  round,  $1  per  week. 

The  cheapest  houses  consist  of  one  "  living  room"  ifrom  10  to  15  feet 
square,  with  a  small  scullery  antl  two  bedrooms  up  stairs.  This,  at 
best,  is  a  "  pent-up  "  affair,  and  leaves  little  "  elbow  room"  for  the  oc- 
cupants, especially  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  family  is  a  large  one. 
The  larger  houses  have  a  coui)le  of  extra  bedrooms  and  a  little  kitchen. 
The  sanitary  condition  of  these  homes  is  generally  good,  as  they  are 
carefully  inspected  frequently  by  comi)etent  otlicials,  and  the  board  of 
health,  in  most  crowded  centers,  does  its  work  very  efficiently,  in  the 
nniin. 

Beyond  the  borders  of  the  city  limits  oi)eratives  are  often  able  to 
secure  houses  where  small  vegetable  gardens  can  be  had  at  a  small  ad- 
ditional rental,  and  many  avail  themselves  of  this  privilege.  The  rail- 
way companies  run  cheap  trains  specially  toaccommodate  working  i)eo- 
ple,  and  thus  o|»eratives  can  live  in  tlie  country  as  cheaply  as  they  can 
in  the  city,in(;luding  the  extra  vegetable  garden,  and  the  healthful  as- 
sociations to  be  found  there. 

CLOTHING   OF   OPERATIVES. 

The  fashion  in  dress  among  operatives  in  this  country  differs  greatly 
from  that  of  our  own  work-people  in  similar  employments.     Here  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  739 

vronien  go  to  and  from  their  work  in  their  mill  dress,  only  throwing  a 
shawl  over  their  heads  for  ])rotection,  a  la  the  American  sqnaw,  in  place 
of  bonnets  or  hats.  To  this  tliere  are  many  exceptions,  bnt  it  is  the 
general  rnle. 

There  is  no  change  of  clothing,  generally,  among  the  operatives  of 
either  sex  on  leaving  the  mills  at  meal  honrs  or  at  closing  time.  Clogs 
are  largely  worn,  i.  e.,  shoes  having  heavy  wooden  soles  or  bottoms, 
with  leather  tops  tacked  on ;  these  are  much  cheaper  than  shoes  made 
wholly  of  leather.  The  noisy  clatter  made  by  these  clumsy  clogs  as  the 
W'carer  walks  along  the  pavement  strikes  a  stranger  as  very  jjeculiar,. 
and  yet  they  are  dry  and  warm  and  answer  very  well  indeed  for  mill 
hands.  Especially  is  this  the  case  where  the  floors  of  weaving  sheds 
are  made  of  stone  flags  or  cement,  as  the  wooden  soles  keep  the  feet 
dry.  Still  I  am  sure  our  work-people  would  never  consent  to  wear  such 
clogs,  for  a  variety  of  reasons. 

To  an  American  familiar  with  the  neat  and  smart  appearance  of  female 
workers  in  cotton-mills  when  going  to  or  returning  Irom  their  wurk  in. 
the  United  States — with  bright  dresses,  hats,  parasols,  &c. — the  con- 
trast shown  by  English  female  operatives  under  similar  conditions  is 
simply  astonishing.  The  feeling  is  unavoidable  that  another  race  is 
being  passed  in  review,  as  distinct  and  sharply  contrasted  as  possible. 
To  the  facts  as  I  have  stated  them  every  impartial  and  competent  ob 
server  can  but  give  confirmatory  evidence. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT   WAGES   IN   MANCHESTER. 

"  Comparison  between  the  ])resent  rates  of  wages  and  those  which  pre- 
vailed in  1878  (and  since  tliat  time),  when  the  last  circular  was- 
issued  from  the  Department,  and  between  the  conditions  which 
then  prevailed  and  which  now  prevail." 

Answering  the  above,  I  have  to  state  that  there  has  been  little  change 
in  the  wages  paid  in  this  district  at  present  and  the  rate  paid  in  1878,  or 
during  the  intervening  period.  The  rate  of  wages  given  elsewhere  in 
this  report  will  show,  in  the  wide  circle  reached  by  the  report  coming 
through  George  Lord,  esq.,  late  president  of  the  Manchester  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  and  which  can  be  fully  relied  on,  how  even  the  wages 
have  run  during  the  past  six  years,  in  this  district  especially.  When 
the  cost  of  food  is  considered,  I  think  that  the  purchasing  power  of  oj)- 
eratives'  earnings  is  greater  now  than  it  has  been  during  the  past  six 
years.  The  various  trade  organizations  keep  such  a  keen  supervision 
over  the  question  of  wages  in  this  center  that  little  chan<:e  is  made 
from  year  to  year.  An  eftbrt  is  now  being  made  for  an  increase  in  the 
wages  in  the  cotton  trade  of  5  per  cent.,  and  a  threatened  "  strike"  is 
presented  as  an  alternative  on  the  part  of  the  op<'ratives'  committee. 
From  present  indications  1  conclude  that  a  compromise  or  a  concession 
will  be  the  result.  Trade  is  known  to  be  so  bad  that  opeiativ^es  will 
not  be  overkeen  in  demanding  an  advance  when  the  profits  do  not 
warrant  it.  There  was  a  strong  feeling  in  1878  that  the  cotton  trade 
of  this  district  would  soon  become  as  buoyant  and  profitable  as  it  had 
been  .Ncars  before.  With  this  expectation  in  view  both  oi)eratives  and 
manufacturers  looked  forward  to  a  renewal  of  the  "good  old  times" 
when  both  were  favored  by  an  exce])tionally  lucrative  trade.  The  years 
have  come  and  gone,  and  still  the  state  of  trade  is  far  from  being  what 
they  expected  it  would  be  at  this  time.  It  is  a  period  of  painful  solici- 
tude on  the  part  of  many,  and  of  hard  and  careful  work  on  the  part  of 


710  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

managers  and  capitalists  engaged  in  niannfactiiring  in  this  consular 
district.  A  vast  trade  is  being  done,  and  great  enterprises  are  employ- 
ing thousands  of  operatives  each  all  over  tliis  center,  but  the  (jonditious 
under  which  they  work  are  becoming  from  year  to  year  more  and  more 
ditiicult  and  peri)lexing.  The  leading  nations  of  tlie  world  are  making 
nion^  and  so  needing  less  of  England's  colossal  onti)nt  ot  manufactures 
annually,  and  home  industries,  fostered  by  tariffs,  distance,  <'Jirrency, 
and  loeal  pride,  are  gradually  bearing  their  inevitable  fruit.  England 
taught  the  world  how  to  do  many  things  better  than  they  were  ever 
<lone  before,  and  now  she  is  finding  ready  and  enterprising  and  com- 
petent imitators,  who  are  reproducing,  in  other  lands,  most  of  the  arti- 
cles she  formerly  had  a  monopoly  of,  and  at  surprisingly  low  cost  also. 

HABITS   OF   THE   LANCASHIRE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

*'  The  habits  of  the  working  classes — whether  steady  and  trustworthy, 
or  otherwise;  saving,  or  otherwise,  and  the  causes  which  principally 
aft'ect  their  habits  for  good  or  evil." 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes  in  this  great  industrial  center  com- 
]>are  most  favorably  with  those  of  operatives  at  any  other  point  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  fact,  so  far  as  my  observations  have  enabled  me 
to  judge,  I  believe  the  operatives  of  Lancashire  and  region  round  about 
liead  the  list  for  general  intelligence,  industry,  and  thrift. 

In  the  cotton  trade  and  also  in  the  great  machine-shops  the  work- 
])eo])le  are  generally  steady  and  trustworthy.  The  rules  of  all  large 
concerns  are  very  strict,  and  o])eratives  must  conform  thereto  or  lose 
tlieir  situations.  At  present  the  supply  of  labor  is  in  advance  of  the 
demand,  and  this  causes  work  i^eople  to  very  carefully  attend  to  the 
regulations  of  their  employers,  for  fear  of  being  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. 

The  chief  cause  of  much  want  and  no  little  suffering  among  the  work- 
ing classes  here,  as  elsewhere,  arises  froin  tlie  lack  of  thrift  and  intem- 
perate habits.  Those  who  work  hardest' and  have  the  least  to  spend  in 
harmful  drink  often  lack  the  wisdom  and  courage  to  deny  themselves 
in  this  res])ect.  I  am  satisfied  that  intemperance  leads  to  more  suffer- 
ing than  any  one  cause  among  operatives,  or,  in  fact,  more  than  all  other 
causes  combined.  Its  evil  effects,  socially  and  morally,  are  very  dis- 
lieartening  to  all  philanthropic  workers  among  the  laboring  classes. 

The  public-house  kee])ers  too  often  absorb  much  of  the  hard  weekly 
earnings  of  heads  of  families,  and  wife  and  children  and  husband  suffer 
in  consequence.  It  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  the  driidv  traffic  is  the 
one  great  and  demoralizing  element  in  the  lives  of  the  operatives  of  this 
distiict.  An  active  and  noble  work  is  being  carried  on  by  church  and 
temperance  organizations,  and  thousands  are  iu)w  total  abstainers  who, 
a  few  years  ago,  spent  a  large  i>roi)ortion  of  their  wages  in  drink.  As 
drink  habits  give  way  to  t<'mi)eranc<'  tea<;hings,  thrift  takes  the  i)laceof 
folly,  and  a  marked  and  hai)py  improvement  in  the  condition  of  opera- 
tives is  the  invariable  result. 

It  would  l)e  impossible  to  fairly  institute  a  comparison  between  the 
social  condition  of  ojx'ratives  in  England  and  work-peo])le  in  the  United 
States  in  similar  manufacturing  oc(;u|)ations,  because  their  conditions, 
t;;Ktes,  and  associations  are  widely  different.  In  dress,  in  ap])earance, 
and  general  intelligence,  as  a  rule,  I  think  American  work-peot)le  are 
far  ahead  of  English  oi>eratives.  I  am  confirmed  in  this  view  by  Eng- 
lish tourists,  who  have  visited  our  great  manufacturing  centers  and 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  741 

carefully  studied  this  question.  lu  England  the  feeling  among  oi)eia- 
tives  that  "once  a  niill-hand  always  a  mill-hand,"  is  a  prospect  that 
does  not  hold  out  a  very  encouraging  field  for  the  working  classes.  The 
chances  for  advancement  are  few  in  the  old  trades,  and  the  hope  of 
new  enteri)rises  in  wliich  better  prospects  will  be  within  reach  is  not 
very  satisfying.  The  country  is  thickly  settled;  the  land  is  all  occu- 
pied and  largely  held  by  rich  proprietors,  and  lack  of  capital  bars  the 
way  for  those  wlio  have  only  their  hands  to  hel[>  themselves  with. 
With  an  increasing  ])()})ulation,  and  where  possession  of  wealth  is  so 
necessary  in  order  that  new  avenues  for  earning  a  living  maybe  opened 
up,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  great  mass  of  operatives  come  to  regard 
])resent  conditions  with  composure,  and  so  uncomplainingly  let  their 
lives  be  measured  by  the  monotonous  daily  round  of  the  mill,  the  forge, 
and  the  Avorkshop.  Very  few,  broadly  stated,  save  any  considerable 
sum  of  money.  Some  do,  but  the  proportion  of  those  who  come  to 
l)0ssess  a  home  and  lay  money  by  is  small  indeed.  The  great  mass,  at 
the  end  of  each  week,  little  more  than  jiay  their  way,  and  trust  to  the 
future  for  all  the  necessaries  and  comforts  they  enjoy  in  their  exacting 
and  laborious  occu])ations. 

As  a  ])rovision  in  case  of  idleness  or  enforced  illness,  and  in  case 
of  death,  "  clubs"  have  been  estal)lished  in  which,  on  payment  of  a  small 
weekly  fee  or  "dues,"  a  few  shillings  ]ier  week  are  allowed  when  the 
subscriber  is  ill  or  out  of  work  on  "strike,"  and  at  death  enough  is  paid 
to  decently  bury  rhem.  In  some  cases  a  kind  of  mutual  life  insurance 
is  kept  up,  by  wliich  the  family  of  the  subscriber  receives  a  certain  sum 
at  the  death  of  the  father,  but  the  amount  is  generally  small,  as  the 
"dues"  are  not  large.  Beyond  this,  no  provision  is  made  for  the 
future,  and  when  death  lemoves  the  "bread  winner"  his  wife  and 
children  are  left  to  shift  as  best  they  can  for  supi)ort.  The  wife  must 
toil  daily  in  the  mill,  and  the  children,  first  as  half-timers  and,  when 
they  reach  the  legal  age,  as  full  timers,  they  take  their  places  with  the 
mother,  in  the  brave  eflbrt  to  supply  themselves  with  food  and  clothing, 
and  these  of  the  plainest  and  most  inexpensive  land. 

To  briefly  sum  u])  iTuder  this  heading,  it  may  be  stated,  (1)  that  the 
0[)eratives  here  are.  comparatively,  steady  and  trustworthy,  as  well  as 
very  efficient;  (2)  that,  as  a  class,  they  are  probably  the  best  oft"  and 
have  more  comforts  and  show  more  thrift  than  is  the  case  with  work- 
l)eoi)le  in  any  other  portion  of  this  kingdom;  (3)  that  an  increasing 
number  from  year  to  year  are  becoming  possessors  of  shares  in  co-op- 
erative enterprises,  and  are  laying  by  money  in  savings  banks,  shares, 
&c.  This  state  of  things  is  rapidly  making  headway  in  and  about 
Oldham,  where  the  system  of  co-operation  has  been  a  powerful  teacher 
and  educator  of  thrift,  and  the  ambition  to  save  and  secure  shares, 
homes,  &c.,  is  doing  wonders  in  the  way  of  reforms  in  the  habits  of  the 
operatives.  Still,  it  is  true  that,  looked  upon  in  a  broad  view,  the  great 
majoiity  of  work-peoi)le  here  save  little  over  and  above  their  current 
living  expenses ;  (4)  that  intem])erance  is  the  one  great  curse  that 
robs  work-people  of  their  hard  earnings  and  demoralizes  both  mind  and 
body  ;  (5)  that  a  marked  and  cheering  improvement  in  the  habits  and 
thrift  of  the  operatives  is  taking  place,  the  fruit  of  the  great  tem}>er- 
ance  and  religious  reforms  which  are  being  so  zealously  carried  forward 
in  this  city  and  its  suburbs. 


742  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

FEBLINGr  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYE. 

"  The  feeliug  which  prevails  between  employ^  and  employer,  aud  the 
effects  of  this  feeling  on  the  general  and  particular  prosperity  of 
the  community." 

The  relations  between  employe  and  employer  are  at  present  greatlj 
imjiroved  and  promise  further  improvement.  Much  of  the  bitterness 
formerly  existing  has  ceased,  to  the  great  benefit  of  all  concerned.  The 
causes  of  this  improvement  are  several. 

1.  Both  labor  and  capital  are  now  better  organized;  that  is,  partak© 
more  of  a  character  covering  each  ])articular  trade  throughout  the  whoU 
country,  instead  of  being  merely  of  a  local  character.  A  result  of  this 
has  been  to  necessitate  longer  deliberations  and  preparations  before  a 
"  strike"  or  a  "  lock-out,"  takes  place,  thus  giving  time  for  mediation 
and  for  wiser  counsels.  Further,  this  enlargement  of  the  scope  of  trad* 
organizations  has  brought  an  abler  class  of  men  to  their  management, 
which  Insures  a  larger  and  safer  perception  of  both  sides  of  any  ques- 
tion in  dispute. 

2.  The  iniluence  of  public  men,  ministers  of  religion,  and  of  the  press, 
has  been  freely  used  to  discourage  extreme  measures  on  the  part  of 
either  employer  or  employed,  and  to  encourage  concession,  or  a  refer- 
-ence  of  the  question  in  dispute  to  arbitration. 

3.  Boards  of  conciliation  have  been  established,  composed  equally  of 
■emj)loyers  and  employed.  These  endeavor  to  fix  a  sliding  scale  of 
wages,  regulated  by  the  price  of  the  commodity  of  the  trade  or  by  the 
•condition  of  the  trade  as  certified  by  independently  chosen  auditors, 
who  have  access  given  them  to  the  account  books  of  principal  emploj- 
<»rs  in  the  particular  trade. 

4.  The  spread  of  the  co-operative  system  among  workmen  has  made 
them  better  acquainted  with  the  actual  condition  of  the  trade  from  tim« 
to  time;  better  acquainted  with  its  difficulties  and  adversities,  and, 
therefore,  less  disposed  to  arbitrarily  conclude  that  an  employer  can 
always  afford  to  maintain  the  rate  of  wages  or  to  advance  the  rate.  Th« 
same  result  has  followed  in  the  cotton  trade  from  the  large  investment 
by  workmen  of  their  savings  in  spinning  companies  worked  under  "  the 
limited  liability  acts,"  such  companies  being  in  many  instances  man- 
aged mainly  by  workingmen  directors.  The  lesson  taught  in  this  cen- 
ter during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  points  strongly  in  the  direction 
of  the  mutual  advantages  which  capital  and  labor  receive  from  intelli- 
gent understandings  of  all  questions  affecting  either.  Many  of  the  un- 
fortunate contests  of  the  past  between  employers  and  emj)loyed  might 
doubtless  have  been  avoided  had  there  been  a  perfectly  frank  and  full 
investigation  as  to  the  issues  involved  ;  and  the  present  healthy,  and  om 
the  whole  assuring,  relations  between  capital  and  labor  are  of  a  charac- 
ter to  give  i)romise  of  a  still  closer  and  safer  union  between  these  two 
controlling  factors  in  the  manufactures  of  this  great  industrial  district. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF   LABOR   IN   LANCASHIRE. 

^'The  organized  condition  of  labor;  the  nature  of  organization  and  it* 
effect  on  the  a<lvancement  and  welfare  of  the  laborers.  In  this  con- 
nection it  would  be  well  to  refer  to  counter  organizations  of  capital, 
and  on  the  local  or  general  laws  bearing  on  such  organizations." 

On  the  part  of  workingmen  their  tra.le  organizations  generally  par- 
take of  the  same  character,  namely,  regular  contributions  per  member  to 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  743 

a  central  fiuul,  such  fund  being  under  the  control  of  the  central  com- 
mittee, chosen  by  the  •ijeueral  body  of  members. 

In  some  trades  membership  of  "the  society"  is  very  general;  in 
other,  and  especially  the  larger  trades,  membership  is  perhaps  the  ex- 
ception. With  two  or  three  exceptions  the  accumulated  funds  availa- 
ble at  any  time  to  sustain  a  strike  or  resist  a  lock-out,  are  very  inad- 
equate ;  and  resource  has  to  be  had  to  collections  from  other  and 
sympathetic  bodies  of  workmen  when  a  long  contest  is  inaugurated 
by  strikes.  The  effect  of  such  "  organization"  is  believed  to  be  of 
doubtful  good,  so  far  as  the  work-people  are  concerned.  In  some  well- 
managed  organizations  the  effect  is  beneficial,  tending  to  the  avoidance 
of  dispute.  In  other  cases  itiscontriai-wise,  much,  of  course,  depending 
upon  the  experience,  wisdom,  and  honesty  of  the  trades-union  or  organi- 
zation officials.  This  is  a  i)oint  of  much  importance  and  scope,  for  a 
great  deal  of  matter  is  here  opened  up.  The  limits  of  this  report,  how- 
ever, permit  of  only  a  general  survey  of  the  subjects  propounded  for 
review,  and  for  this  reason  fuller  details  are  not  entered  upon  here 
and  now. 

The  organizations  of  capital  are  much  less  numerous  and  less  complete 
than  those  of  labor  ;  but  in  any  great  labor  dispute  in  any  particular 
trade  the  employers  combine  fairly  as  a  whole  to  assist  each  other  in 
resisting  the  action  of  the  labor  organizations. 

And,  here  again,  comes  in  one  of  the  greatest  questions  of  the  age — 
how  best  to  fairly  hold  the  scales  of  justice  in  the  interest  alike  of  capi- 
tal and  labor.  It  is  a  question  intimately  interwoven  with  the  rights 
and  duties  and  ])rivileges  of  a  rash  multitude  of  men  and  women  who 
earn  a  living  by  honest  toil  alone,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  colossal  cap- 
ital, with  its  due  rights  and  privileges,  on  the  other.  The  solution  of 
this  vexed  and  commanding  question  still  perplexes  the  ingenuity  and 
defies  the  wisdom  of  the  great  economists  of  our  time  ;  and  it  must  rest 
with  the  intelligence  and  patriotism  of  labor,  as  well  as  with  the  confi- 
dence and  justice  of  capital,  to  arrive  at  a  happj^  adjustment  honorable 
to  labor  in  every  right  wa^-,  and  giving  "its  just  due"  to  willing  and 
necessary  capital. 

There  are  no  local  laws  affecting  the  organizations  of  either  capi- 
tal or  labor,  and  the  general  laws  of  the  land  permit  any  such  organ- 
ization, oul3'  prohibiting  and  punishing  any  attempt  to  coerce  on  either 
side  by  intimidation,  threats,  or  violence. 

STRIKES   IN  LANCASHIRE. 

"  The  prevalancy  of  strikes,  and  how  far  arbitration  enters  into  the 
settlement  or  disagreements  between  the  employers  and  employes, 
and  the  manner  and  nature  of  such  arbitration. — The  effects  of  strikes 
on  the  advancement,  or  otherwise,  of  labor,  and  the  general  effects 
thereof  on  the  industrial  interests  affected  thereby." 

I  have  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Thomas  Ash  ton,  a  practical  and  experi- 
enced authority  in  all  trade  dis])utes,  and  as  it  very  clearly  puts  the  case 
as  seen  from  his  stand-point,  I  feel  that  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  furnish 
his  letter  and  let  it  speak  for  itself.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  a  clearer 
idea  of  the  difficulties  and  many  i)erplexiug  questions  which  beset  man- 
ufacturers is  having  an  increasing  influence  in  favor  of  calm,  deliberate 
and  reasonable  action  on  the  part  of  operatives,  and  altogether,  there 
is  a  greatly  improved  feeling  existing  at  present  between  employers 
and  emi)loyed  on  the  vexed  and  great  question  of  "  strikes."     Co-opera- 


744  LABOE  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

tion  opens  out  one  avenue  for  the  settlement  of  tbis  friction,  in  part, 
between  cai)ital  and  labor,  and  it  may  finally  settle  the  question. 

Si'ixNEKs'  Offices,  Rock  Street,  Oldham, 

June  10,  1884. 
Dear  Sir:  Replying  to  your  letter  of  the  6th  instant,  my  delay  in  answering 
same  arises  tliroiit^hWliif  holiday,  having  been  absent  from  home.  Now,  respecting 
strikes  and  arbittVitioii,  1  mast  say  there  has  only  been  two  cases  in  our  trade  where 
arbitration  has  been  brought  to  bear  in  the  settlement  of  same.  One  was  in  Oldham 
in  ISG9,  when  the  employers  gave  notice  to  reduce  wages  by  10  per  cent.  It  was 
agreed  by  the  employers  and  employed  to  have  the  question  settled  by  arbitration, 
and  the  county  court  .judge  of  Wolverhampton,  then  Mr.  Rupert  Kettle,  was  the  um- 
pire. Each  side  got  up  their  own  evidence  to  snbmit  to  the  arbitrators,  and  the  case 
was  heard  in  the  Oldham  Lyceum.  I  may  say  both  parties  collected  all  the  informa- 
tion they  could  from  other  cotton-spinning  towns,  and  endeavored  to  justify  their 
action  in  respectively  proposing  and  resisting  the  reduction.  Employers  attempted 
to  show  that  they  were  paying  higher  prices  than  employers  in  other  towns,  and  that 
they  conld  not  afford  to  do  so.  A  large  amount  of  printed  evidence  was  submitted  on 
each  side,  and  the  question  was  discussed  for  several  hours.  No  lawyers  were  em- 
ployed. Ultimately  the  judge  decided  that  the  reduction  must  be  5  per  cent,  instead 
of  10  percent.  This  decision  gave  much  dissatisfaction  on  both  sides,  and  the  oper- 
atives said  they  had  been  sold  and  declared  that  they  would  never  have  any  more 
arbitration.  Now,  my  opinion  was  that  the  decision  was  a  very  fair  one,  but  no  one 
conld  convince  the  operatives  that  such  was  the  case.  ' 

Another  arbitration  took  placp  in  Bolton.  The  employers  gave  notice  to  reduce 
■wages  by  5  per  cent.  The  question  was  arbitrated  upon,  and  each  side  engaged  law- 
yers ro  put  their  case  before  the  umpire,  who  was  Mr.  Russell,  Q.  C,  of  Manchester. 
Botli  sides  went  to  great  expense  in  collecting  evidence,  and  a  large  number  of  wit- 
nesses were  examined,  the  proceedings  lasting  rhree  days.  The  case  was  heard  in  the 
Bolton  town  hall.  The  decision  was  against  the  operatives,  who  then  declared  that 
they  would  never  have  any  more  "  arbitration  ;"  and  I  may  say,  so  far  as  the  cotton 
trade  is  concerned,  there  will  never  be  any  more  questions  submitted  to  arbitration,, 
as  the  Amalgamated  Spinners,  &c..  Association,  which  extends  throughout  the 
country  have  struck  the  word  "arbitration"  out  of  the  preamble'of  their  rules. 

My  experionce  has  taugliT  me  this  :  that  however  fair  and  honest  a  decision  may  be, 
it  gives  dissatisfivetiou,  and  the  working  classes,  as  a  rule,  have  little  faith  in  such 
settlements,  and  for  the  i)ast  few  years  they  seem  to  have  lost  all  faith  in  such  pro- 
ceedings. I  am  afraid  there  will  be  few  disputes  in  this  country  submitted  to  arbi- 
tration in  the  future.  General  strikes,  as  a  rule,  are  disastrous,  and  are  best  when 
avoided.  Still  there  are  times  when  they  cannot  be  resisted  or  avoided,  and  I  have 
found  them  to  be  beneficial  to  the  workmen;  but  when  the  operative  cotton  spinners 
of  Oldham  resorted  to  a  strike,  which  was  in  1875,  it  lasted  six  weeks,  and  ended  in 
the  revision  of  the  list  of  wages  and  conditions,  and  the  terms  obtained  .were  such 
that,  calculating  the  number  of  spinners  and  piecers,  their  financial  position  was  im- 
proved upwards  of  $r)UO,000  per  annum. 

Speaking  as  a  trade-union  secretary  of  nearly  twenty  years'  experience,  I  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  strikes  are  ruinous  modes  of  settling  differences  between  em- 
ployers and  employed,  and  some  other  system  ought  to  be  adopted  whereby  justice 
can  be  done  to  both  sides.  Now,  I  think  the  best  plan  is  for  employers  and  employed 
to  agree  upon  a  rule  of  wages  as  a  standard,  and  let  the  general  state  of  trade  after- 
wards govern  such  rate  of  wages  up  or  down,  always  allowing  reasonable  profits  to 
capital.  If  the  state  of  trade  was  siicli  that  no  prolit  conld  be  made,  and  the  em- 
ployers proposed  a  reduction  in  wages,  I  should  consider  it  would  be  worse  than 
madness  on  the  i)art  of  the  workmen  to  strike  against  the  proposition.  On  the  otiier 
hand,  if  trade  was  prosperous  and  large  profiti  the  rale,  I  think  the  employer  should 
grant  an  increase  in  wages;  but  if  he  refused,  then,  in  my  opinion,  astrike  would  be 
a  proper  course  tojiursne  under  such  circumstances. 

If  there  was  more  of  that  forbearing  spirit  "  which  is  necessary"  brought  into  play, 
there  would  be  fewer  rniitnies  between  labor  and  capital.  Most  of  the  strikes  arise 
through  not  understanding  the  real  state  of  trade,  and  the  causes  which  require  an 
alteration  in  the  rate  of  wages,  "up  or  down."  I  lind  that  by  educating  the  work- 
men in  these  matters  they  act  reasonably,  and  with  us  hereafter  strikes  will  be  few 
and  far  between,  to  the  benetitof  all  concerned. 
Yours,  truly, 

T.  ASHTON. 

To  Col.  Albert  C.  Shaw, 

United  States  Consul,  Manchester. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  745 

FOOD  rUROHASES. 

"Are  tlie  working  people  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wliere- 
ever  they  choose,  or  do  the  employers  impose  any  conditions  in  this 
regard  ?    Ho  w  often  and  i  n  what  kind  of  currency  is  the  laborer  paid  ? " 

Working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  wherever 
they  please,  and  stringent  laws  are  in  force,  which  protect  the  opera- 
tives from  any  kind  of  i)ayment,  saving  the  "  coin  of  the  realm."  For- 
merly, payments  in  goods,  &c.,  caused  a  great  deal  of  dissntisfnction  and 
no  little  distress,  and  the  abuses  in  this  direction  led  to  the  enactment 
in  1831  of  "1  and  '1  W.  IV,  chai)ter  37,"  commonly  called  "the  truck 
act,"  which  put  a  stop  to  all  such  iiractices.  Section  111  of  the  said 
act  is  as  follows: 

And  be  it  further  enacted,  that  the  entire  amount  of  the  wages  earned  by,  or  payable 
to,  any  artificer  in  any  of  the  trades  hereinafter  enumerated,  in  respect  of  any  labor 
by  him  done  in  any  such  trade,  shall  be  actually  paid  to  such  artificer  in  the  current 
coin  of  this  realm,  and  not  otherwise  ;  and  every  [)ayment  made  to  any  such  artificer 
by  his  employer,  of  or  in  respect  of  any  such  wages,  by  the  delivering  to  him  of  goods,. 
or  otherwise  than  in  the  current  coin  aforesaid,  except  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  shall 
be,  and  is  hereby,  declared  illegal  and  void. 

This  act,  with  stringent  and  ample  powers,  covers-  a  wide  field,  and 
it  is  stricly  enfored.  A  later  act  was  passed  extending  the  same  pro- 
visions to  the  mining  industry  of  the  Kingdom. 

The  following  important  legislation  is  found  in  40  and  48  Victoria, 
chapter  31: 

in.  From  and  after  the  passing  of  this  a^it  no  wages  shall  b;'.  paid  to  any  workman 
at  or  within.  ;iny  public  house,  l)eer  sho]),  or  ]>lace  for  the  sale  of  any  sjjirits,  wine, 
cider,  or  other  si>irituous  or  fermented  liquor,  or  any  office,  garden,  or  place  belonging 
thereto,  or  occupied  therewith,  save  and  except  such  wages  as  are  paid  by  the  resi- 
dent owner  or  occupier  of  snch  public  house,  beer  shop,  or  place,  to  any  workuian 
bona  fide  employed  by  him. 

So  far  as  the  security  for  payment  of  wages  is  concerned — and  these 
are  usually  paid  once  a  week — the  laws  here  are  admirable;  and  the 
hours  of  labor,  also,  are  closely  guarded  in  every  way. 

The  acts  in  relation  to  the  regulation  of  factories,  mines,  &c.,  are  very 
voluminous,  i)recise,  humane,  and  severe  on  all  olfeiiders.  The  work- 
people are  protected  in  many  ways,  and  their  wages,  hours  of  labor,  and 
supervision  are  keenly  and  well  guarded.  1  firtnly  believe  that  the  over- 
sight of  the  work-people  by  the  state  is,  on  the  whole,  the  wisest,  justest, 
and  most  careful  of  any  country  in  the  world.  The  result  is  that  oper- 
atives and  laborers  are  independent,  and  have  the  law  on  their  side  to 
protect  them  from  over  hours  of  labor,  all  kinds  of  makeshifts  in  pay- 
ment of  wages,  and  in  such  official  supervision  as  experience  and  long 
study  suggests  for  their  comfort  and  safety  by  the  Government. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

"  Co-operative  societies :  Give  full  information  concerning  their  formation 
and  i)ractical  working;  whether  they  are  prosperous,  or  otherwise; 
to  what  extent  they  have  fultilled  the  promises  held  out  at  their  for- 
mation of  enabling  the  work-people  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of 
life  at  less  cost  than  through  the  regular  and  business  channels; 
whether  the  establishment  of  co-operative  societies  has  had  any  ap- 
I)reciable  effect  on  general  trade,  &c." 

The  first  conspicuously  successful  co-operative  society  was  established 
in  Eochdale,  England,  in  1844.     It  was  called  the  "Rochdale  Pioneers^ 


746  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND 

Society,"  and  commenced  with  twenty-eight  members,  who  subscribed 
£1  i)0und  each.  From  this  small  bej>inuing  it  has  grown  rapidly  and 
steadily  until  its  present  annual  turnover  amounts  to  more  than 
$1,LM)0,'000.  The  share  capital  is  now  £307,000,  and  a  yearly  profit  of 
£47,000  is  earned. 

This  historic  society,  although  not  the  first  to  practically  put  in  force 
the  principles  of  co-operation,  were  the  first  to  win  such  success  as  made 
the  future  growth  of  the  system  possible  and  safe.  In  managing  the 
affairs  of  the  llochdale  Pioneers,  the  profits  of  the  enterprise  were 
divided  among  the  shareholders  upon  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  their 
purchases  from  the  society. 

FORMATION   OF   RETAIL   COOPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

The  usual  course  followed  in  the  formation  of  a  co-operative  society 
is  for  a  number  to  subscribe  the  necessary  amount  of  capital  that  is 
deemed  necessary  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  locality  in  which  the  "  store" 
is  located.  The  common  course  is  to  seek  advice  from  the  general  sec- 
retary of  the  co-operative  union,  who  furnishes  a  co])y  of  a  very  care- 
fully prepared  set  of  rules,  founded  on  long  experience. 

When  the  desired  capital  is  secured  a  meeting  is  held,  and  the  regis- 
tration of  the  society,  as  provided  for  and  required  by  act  of  Parliament, 
follows.  Each  society  is  at  liberty  to  make  such  provisions  as  it  deems 
best,  as  to  the  number  of  shares  which  shall  form  the  limit  of  individual 
holdings,  if  any,  and  whether  the  member  shall  be  at  liberty  or  not  to 
withdraw  the  whole  of  his  shares,  or  transfer  them  at  will. 

It  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  wisest  course  to  provide  that  each 
member  shall  have  one  share  which  he  cannot  draw  out,  and  any  re- 
maining shares,  under  suitable  conditions,  to  be  "  withdrawable."  The 
reason  why  it  is  thought  best  to  require  each  member  to  have  one  share 
that  cannot  be  withdrawn,  is  to  lessen  the  danger  which  a  panic  might 
eause,  in  the  case  of  a  "run"  on  the  society  through  the  fears  of  its  share- 
holders. Many  societies  have  a  rule  which  enables  committees  to  stop 
withdrawals  in  case  of  a  panic,  and  this  is  looked  upon  as  a  very  proper 
and  important  provision,  as  it  not  only  protects  the  loyal  members,  but 
it  also  prevents  general  distrust  through  the  "  panicky"  action  of  a  few 
easily  excited  shareholders.  The  one  share  is  transferable,  but  cannot 
be  withdrawn,  hence  the  equity  of  the  rule.  In  some  societies  the  com- 
mittee, in  case  a  shareholder  wishes  to  sever  his  connection  with  the 
same,  have  the  power  to  buy  up  the  share  and  extinguish  it  on  behalf 
of  the  society. 

OFFICERS   OP   CO  OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

The  officers  of  co-o])erative  8oci<'ties  or ''stores"  are  chosen  by  the 
shareholders,  and  (jonsist  of  a  chairman  (or  president),  a  secretary, 
treasurer,  and  auditors.  A  committee  of  management,  usually  consist- 
ing of  eight  persons,  is  selected  from  the  shareholders,  and  the  rule  of 
service  varies  in  ditferent  societies.  In  some  cases  the  committee  re- 
tire in  rotation  every  quarter,  in  others  yearly.  Generally  the  retiring 
committeen)en  are  eligible  for  re-election  at  once,  but  in  some  societies 
this  is  not  allowed,  and  some  little  time  must  elapse  before  they  can 
serve.  This  is  done  to  widen  the  circle  of  the  shareholders,  who  may 
become  i)erfectly  familiar  with  all  the  details  of  the  society,  and  thus 
provide  against  any  one-man  power  in  the  same.  Tlie  fees  i^aid  the 
committee  vary  from  12  to  24  cents  for  each  weekly  meeting,  and  for 


I 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  747 

subcommittees  or  artjonriiod  meeting's,  nothing  is  paid.  It  will  thus  be 
clear  that  the  riinuiiig  expenses,  so  far  as  the  committee  is  concerned, 
are  very  small.  The  reason  why  such  small  fees  are  paid  members  of 
the  commitree  is  to  avoid  the  danger  of  having  men  get  on  the  same 
simply  for  the  weekly  fees.  This  plan  is  to  seek  to  secure  the  serv- 
ices of  men  who  have  the  best  interests  of  the  society  at  heart,  and  who 
are  so  situated  as  to  be  able  to  work  for  the  common  good  without  special 
regard  to  the  compensation  offered.  Where  the  common  avocation  of 
operatives  only  occupy  them  for  ten  hours  a  day  it  is  easy  to  hud  plenty 
of  competent  and  desirable  committeemen  in  every  society  who  are 
pleased  to  serve  in  the  capacity  named.  Indeed,  it  is  found  that  tliis 
kind  of  employment  is  very  popular,  and  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  mark  of 
special  confidence  to  be  selected  as  a  committeeman  in  a  well-ordered 
and  prosperous  co  operative  society.  * 

The  committee  of  management  has  ample  powers  under  the  rules, 
maiidy  such  as  a  general  and  special  supervision  over  all  details  of  the 
business;  appointing  subcommittees,  determining  what  goods  shall  be 
purchased,  the  amount  of  stock  to  be  carried,  and  of  what  these  shall 
consist ;  sanctioning  all  contracts,  and,  in  brief,  their  functions  corre- 
spond closely  to  the  pow'ers  and  authority  of  a  chartered  corporation,  as 
represented  by  a  board  of  3'early  elected  directors. 

THE   VOTINa  POWERS   OF   MEMBERS. 

Experience  concerning  a  wide  range  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  the 
rule  that  every  member  of  a  co-operative  society  shall  have  one  rote 
for  one  share,  and  only  one,  no  matter  how  many  shares  he  or  she  may 
possess  therein.  This  unique  rule  is  considered  a  vital  and  important 
principle,  and  it  is  believed  by  those  best  competent  to  express  an 
opinion,  that  this  provision  is  really  the  secret  of  the  great  success  that 
has  attended  co-operation  in  this  Kingdom  during  the  past  quarter  of  a 
century. 

Under  this  rule  the  poorest  member,  owning  only  one  share,  has  pre- 
cisely the  same  voting  power  as  a  wealthy  i>ossessor  of  a  hundred 
shares.  In  theory  this  is  founded  on  the  view  that  what  is  designed 
for  the  well-being  and  happiness  of  the  many  should  be  controlled  by 
the  ujany,  irrespective  of  individual  wealth.  Voting  is  held  to  be  a 
l)rivilege — a  personal  favor,  so  to  put  it — and  so  the  owjier  of  one  share 
is  equal  in  voting  pow^r  to  the  holder  of  many  shares.  It  follows  the 
law  in  the  United  States,  where  a  i)oor  man  has  one  vote  the  same  as 
the  millionaire  has  one,  and  no  more.  It  is  a  i^rivilege  which  allows 
the  man  and  not  the  money  to  vote.  Women  are  allowed  .to  vote  the 
same  as  men,  where  they  own  shares,  and  are  frequently  i^laced  on  the 
managing  committees.  In  selecting  some  lines  of  goods  women  render 
valuable  assistance,  as  their  knowledge  of  textile  fabrics  is  generally 
excellent. 

This  voting  principle  is  so  very  closely  identified  with  the  later  safe 
and  strong  growth  of  co-operation  in  this  Kingdom  that  I  feel  that  I 
should  add  a  fuller  exposition,  of  its  purposes.  It  is  claimed  for  this 
plan  of  allowing  owners  of  one  share  each  to  exercise  as  much  voting 
power  as  the  owner  of  many  shares  that  it  tends  greatly  to  strengthen 
the  system  of  co-operation.  The  rich  and  the  poor  thus  have  a  com- 
mon interest  in  all  co-operative  enterprises,  and  fitness,  not  fortune,  is 
sought  in  selecting  committeemen  to  supervise  their  practical  working. 
There  can  be  no  careless  claim  made  that  the  few  large  shareholders 
outvote  all  the  single  shareholders,  and  thus  no  one  can  fear  that  pov- 


748  LABOK  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

erty  will  be  a  bar  to  honorable  preferment  in  conducting  the  affairs  of 
the  society.  The  old  adage  of  "what  is  everybody's  business  is  no- 
body's business"  is  in  these  societies,  at  least,  non-applicable,  for  no 
more  carefully  or  wisely  conducted  financial  and  eommercial  enterprises 
exist  any  where  at  the  present  day  thiin  the  co-operative  societies  of 
this  United  Kingdom.  The  closest  scrutiny  is  observed  in  every  detail 
of  the  business,  and  the  quarterly  audits  and  balance-sheets  render  any 
considerable  frauds  impossible.  The  ])ractical  working  of  this  co-oper- 
ative system  is  striknigly  shown  among  the  Oldham  cotton-spinning 
companies.  The  first  co-operative  mill  for  producing  yarn  was  estab- 
lished in  Oldham  about  twenty  years  ago.  Previous  to  this  date  some 
attention  had  been  giv^en  to  the  manufacture  of  calicoes  there  in  this 
way,  but  the  venture  soon  gave  place  to  the  spinning  of  yarn.  During 
the  past  twenty  yeivs  som  eseventy  s]>inning-mills  have  been  built  in 
Oldham  on  what  is  popularly"  called  the  "limited  liability"  principle 
— i.  e.,  CO  operative  mills  in  fact — and  more  than  5, 000, ODD  spindles  are 
in  full  operation  there,  representing  a  capital  of  over  $30,000,000.  The 
shares  are  usually  limite<i  to  $25  each,  and  workingnjen  and  small  ca})- 
italists  own  a  consi<lerable  proportion  of  the  same. 

The  practical  management  of  these  mills  is  probably  the  most  inex- 
])ensive  and  the  most  perfect  of  any  similar  enterprises  in  the  world. 
The  directors  are  usually  five  or  seven  in  number,  and  are  chosen  by 
the  shareholders  out  of  their  own  body.  It  is  the  rule  to  select  expert 
abd  practical  workmen  for  these  positions  of  trust,  and  this  plan  insures 
the  most  capable  and  best  informed  supervision  over  all  details  that 
it  is  i)Ossible  to  select.  The  average  compensation  for  directors  aver- 
ages less  than  $100  per  year;  probably  $90  would  be  nearer  the 
amount  paid  each.  I  think  it  a  very  surprising  and  most  complimentary 
fact  that  during  the  the  past  twenty  years  in  the  history  of  these  Old- 
ham mills,  covering  an  output  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars,  not  a 
single  criminal  investigation  has  been  necessary  into  the  conduct  of  any 
director.  I  look  upon  this  as  a  most  remarkable  showing,  and  one  that 
does  high  honor  to  the  workiugmen  of  Oldham.  These  vvorkingmen 
have  conducted  these  vast  enterprises  with  marked  and  conspicuous 
success,  and  without  a  single  defalcation  or  fraud  of  any  noteworthy 
character.  Such  a  record  is  indeed  a  proud  one;  and  it  speaks  volumes 
for  the  practical  sagacity,  general  intelligence,  integrity,  and  business 
ability  of  these  men.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  nowhere  in  the 
world  is  competition  keener  than  in  the  district  where  these  co-operative 
spinning-mills  are  located.  There  is  an  almost  endless  detail  of  i)oints 
to  be  looked  after  in  these  concerns.  The  imrchases  of  raw  cotton ;  the 
freight  accounts;  the  sale  of  yarns ;  the  payment  of  wages  ;  the  perfec- 
tion and  renewals  of  machinery;  the  re[)airs  and  supervision  of  mills; 
and,  in  brief,  all  the  delicate  minuti.i  which  enters  into  a  business  where 
to  such  an  imj^ortant  extent  trifles  make  perfection,  and  where  per- 
fection is  no  trifle.  Should  the  above  necessarily  brief  reference  to  the 
Oldham  spinning-mills  lead  to  a  desire  on  the  i)art  of  any  reader  to 
know  nu)re  of  the  special  features  of  their  organization,  a  full  report  can 
be  found  in  the  annual  report  from  my  consulate  on  the  "  cotton -goods 
trade  of  Lancashire,  for  1S82." 

CO-OPERATIVE   STORES. 

It  may  be  set  down  as  a  general  principle  of  successful  co-operation, 
as  established  by  practical  tests  in  Great  Britain,  that  co-operative  stores 
flourish  mainly  where  there  are  large  centers  of  poi^ulation.     I  was  re- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  749 

cently  shown  a  map  of  Great  Bi'itaiu  on  wliicli  were  plainly  marked  the 
points  where  coo])erative  stores  are  in  operation.  I  was  especially 
struck  by  the  fact  that  few  stores  of  tliis  character  are  located  away 
from  <ireat  industrial  towns.  In  Wales,  outside  of  the  coal-fields  and 
great  mines,  no  encourao-ing  success  has  attended  this  system.  This 
would  seem  to  i)rove  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  large  industrial  popu- 
lation to  fnsure  any  considerable  success  to  co  operaliv^e  stores.  A  dense 
population,  with  large  demands  for  goods  and  witli  abundant  assistance 
near  at  hand  to  sui)ervise  the  business,  are  indispensable  re(juisites.  To 
l^lace  the  tVicts,  as  shown  by  results  here,  in  few  words,  this  can  be  truth- 
fully stated :  That  wliat  is  needed  to  insure  success  to  a  cooperative  store 
hen;  is  a  constant  demand  for  food  ])roducts  and  all  arti(;les  entering 
into  the  daily  wants  of  the  working  classes.  Where  there  is  such  a  de- 
maud  CO  operative  stores  are  making  excellent  headway  and  are  proving 
a  great  boon  to  the  working  people.  The  minimum  of  ex[)enses  in  the 
cost  of  management,  coupled  with  cash  sales  and  the  purchase  of  su})- 
plies  from  first  hands,  enables  these  stores  to  furnish  their  customers 
with  cheap  and  good  articles  at  low  cost,  and  at  the  same  time  return  to 
})urchasers  a  considerable  bonus  on  their  outlay  in  the  shape  of  surplus 
profits.  The  net  sa  ving  all  round  is  estimated  to  average  nearly  or  quite 
S  per  cent.,  and  this  is  a  very  important  advantage  to  the  class  benefited 
by  the  system. 

THE   ENGLISH   WHOLESALE   CO  OPERATIVE   SOCIETY. 

The  establishment  of  a  wholesale  co  operative  society  in  England  was 
a  necessary  sequence  of  the  success  of  retail  co-o[)erative  societies.  Ri- 
valries and  jealousies  among  shopkeepers  who  were  naturally  stronglj^ 
opposed  to  the  new  co-operative  movement  made  constant  complaints 
to  the  wholesale  dealers,  of  whom  both  then  had  to  make  purchases,  and 
caused  great  friction  and  ill-will. 

This  state  of  things  led  to  the  formation  of  a  wholesale  co-operativ^e 
society  for  England,  which  enabled  the  retail  co-operative  societies,  who 
were  shareholders  in  the  wholesale  society,  to  obtain  their  supi>lies  di- 
rect from  first  hands,  and  where  the  price  and  quality  could  always  be 
relied  on. 

The  aim  of  wholesale  societies  is  to  secure  all  supplies  direct  from  pro- 
ducers, and  to  dispense  with  the  cost  of  middlemen  as  far  as  possible. 
To  this  end  buyers  are  stationed  at  all  producing  points,  both  on  the 
Continent  and  in  the  United  States,  who  make  large  purchases  for  cash 
direct  from  the  mills,  the  factory,  and  thefarm,  nearest  where  the  needed 
articles  are  ])roduced. 

This  enables  the  retail  co-operative  societies  to  keep  constantly''  on 
hand  an  unfailing  supply  of  the  necessary  stores,  and  to  purchase  the 
same  tit  the  best  possible  advantage.  The  system  now  well  organized 
for  securing  the  vast  sup])lies  needed  by  co-operative  stores  in  Great 
Britain  is  a  most  admirable  and  extensive  one,  and  is  being  brought  to 
a  point  of  perfection  unrivaled  in  many  respects. 

They  have  their  own  banking  facilities  and  necessary  branches,  and 
own  several  coasting  steamers,  which  are  employed  in  freighting  butter, 
eggs,  &c.,  from  Ireland  and  from  the  Continent.  To  carry  the  principle 
of  indept^ndence  into  as  many  branches  of  supply  as  possible,  a  biscuit 
and  confectionery  establishment  near  Manchester  was  purchased  in  1873. 
To  this  the  manufacture  of  dry  soap  was  added,  the  annual  output  of 
both  being  about  $100,000. 

In  the  same  year  a  boot  and  shoe  manufactory  was  opened  at  Leices- 
ter.   This  has  been  a  marked  success,  and  the  annual  production  is  now 


750  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

fast  ai)i)roacliinjj:  $1,000,0()().  In  1880  another  similar  work  was  opened 
at  Hockniondurke.  Here  the  production  is  about  $100,000  a  year.  Soap 
■uorks  were  also  oi)ene(l  at  Durham  in  1874,  the  output  of  which  amounts 
now  to  something'  like  8100,000a  year. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  leadinii'  minds  of  this  co-operative  movement  iu 
this  couiUry  to  gradually  meet  the  wan^s  of  retail  co-operative  stores  by 
co-o])erative  nuinu factories  as  fast  as  these  can  be  safely  and  wisely  es- 
tablished. The  present  purpose  is  to  supply  the  demands  for  a  few 
articles  of  general  consumption,  such  as  boots  and  shoes,  confectionery,, 
soap,  «SjC. 

The  wholesale  co-operative  society  is  made  up  of  shares  subscribed 
by  retail  co-operative  societies,  each  oi'  the  latter  taking  shares  in  the 
former,  and  so  sharing  in  its  profits.  The  unit  of  the  retail  society  is, 
in  a  sense,  the  unit  of  the  wholesale  society.  The  net  profits  of  the 
wholesale  society  are  paid  jiro  rata  to  the  retail  societies,  and  the  profits 
of  the  retail  societies  are  in  turn  paid  to  the  shareholders  and  purchasers 
of  goods  at  a  pro  rata  percentage  on  the  amount  purchased.  Five  i)er  cent, 
is  the  dividend  aimed  to  be  paid  by  the  wholesale  society  on  its  shares, 
and  this  is  the  average  dividend  paid  on  the  shares  of  the  retail  co- 
operative societies.  The  net  surplus  profits  of  the  wholesale  society', 
after  due  allowance  for  contingencies,  &c.,  of  various  kinds,  iiu^luding 
a  safe  reserve  and  the  payment  of  5  per  cent,  interest  on  share  capital, 
is  paid  pro  rata  to  the  various  retail  societies  comprising  its  share- 
holders. This  same  plan  is  followed  by  the  retail  societies,  and  what 
surplus  is  available,  after  the  payment  of  the  shareholders'  5  i>er  cent., 
goes  in  the  shai)e  of  a  bonus  to  the  purchasers  of  goods.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  the  shareholders  of  retail  co-operative  societies  have,  first, 
the  benefit  of  the  profits  of  the  wholesale  society  which  come  to  the 
society  from  its  subscribed  shares  in  the  wholesale  society  and,  second, 
the  profits  of  the  retail  society  after  the  payment  of  5  per  cent.,  which 
go  to  the  shareholders  who  i)urchase  goods.  This  system  has  now  be- 
come very  popular,  and  the  organization  and  management  are  admira- 
ble. The  ordinary  rule  is  to  cliarge  the  common  prices  which  rule  in 
any  district  for  all  articles,  and  the  saving  secured  by  "  co-operation  " 
comes  back  iu  the  shape  of  dividends  on  shares  and  on  purchases  made. 

BENEFITS   OF   CO  OPERATION. 

The  system  of  co  operative  societies  has  had  a  remarkable  influence  in 
educating  workinginen  to  become  careful  and  very  critical  examiners  of 
the  quarterly  balance  sheets  of  the  various  enterjjrises  in  which  they 
are  interested.  It  is  a  rule  of  cooperative  societies  to  furnish  quarterly 
balance  sheets  to  all  members,  and  these  areshari)ly  investigated  by  all 
liolders  of  shares.  To  enter  a  i)ublic  house  in  a  quarter  where  oi)era- 
tivcs  congregate  and  listen  to  the  intelligent  criticisms  which  are  nuide 
oif  the  last  quarter's  balance  sheet  would  astonish  a  stranger  unac- 
quainted with  the  habits  and  keen,  ])ractical  business  insight  of  this 
class.  The  result  is  that  all  operations  of  the  society  are  perfectlj^  un- 
derstood, and  a  safe,  supervisory  control  is  thus  kept  over  its  business. 
There  is  no  conceahnent  or  mystery  about  it,  and  publicity  tends  to  ])re- 
veut  the  ])erpetration  of  frauds,  and  to  render  any  considerable  wrong- 
doing next  to  impossible.  This  interest  in  the  affairs  of  co-operarive 
societies  on  the  part  of  operative  shareliolders  educates  young  men  as 
to  tne  great  importance  and  desirability  of  beconnng  i)ossessors  of 
shares  in  well-to-do  concerns,  and  is,  in  brief,  a  powerful  incentive  to  the 
practiee  of  thrift  among  the  working  classes. 

I  believe  that  co-operation  is  bound  to  have  a  great  growth  iu  the 
near  future,  and  that  the  plan  of  paying  a  few  favored  persons  about  a 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  751 

mill  or  factory  larjie  salaries  must  sooa  be  a  thino-  of  tlie  ])ast.  The 
useful  aud  important  lesson  tau<;'lit  in  Jldliam  by  co  oi)erati()n  points 
stroni^ly  to  this  conclusion.  There,  at  present,  yarn  is  turned  out  in 
vast  (pianlities,  and  forcpiality  and  cost  of  production  it  cannot  be  sur- 
passed in  the  whole  world. 

The  mills  are  mana.i;ed  honestly  and  very  ably,  and  no  large  salary  is 
paid  in  connection  with  them.  I  believe  that  no  official  connected  with 
the  Oldham  spinning-mills  receivt^  to  exceed  $2,000  a  year,  and  very 
few,  if  any,  are  i>aid  tiiis  amount.  I  submit  that  the  facts  embodied  in 
this  r(^[)ort  should  be  closely  studied  by  all  who  have  at  heart  the  bc-st  in- 
terests of  American  working  men  and  women,  to  the  end  that  our  wealth 
producers  may  be  as  fiivorably  surrounded  as  English  operatives  are,  so 
so  far  as  the  aids  afforded  by  co  oi)eration  affect  the  great  and  command- 
ing question  of  securing  for  the  laborer  the  best  possible  rewards  for 
intelligent  and  happy  toil. 

The  following  letter  was  written  me  in  reply  to  inquiries  about  the 
practical  working  of  co-o[)eration  in  Oldam  by  the  secretary  of  a  lead- 
ing cotton  spinner's  association  there,  and  I  give  it  in  this  connection 
as  a  very  valuable  contribution  to  this  discussion.  Mr.  Ashton  was  for 
some  years  an  operative,  aud  speaks  from  practical  knowledge  of  an 
extended  character.  I  wish  to  thank  him  sincerely  for  his  clear  aud 
practical  letter. 

Rock  Strket,  Oldham, 

Jnli/27,  1884. 

Sir  :  In  reply  to  yonrs  of  Ji  recBiii  date  I  beg  to  state  that  the  success  of  co-opera- 
ative  societies  and  the  limited  liability  cotton-spinning  companies  is  due  more  to 
the  princii)le  of  "one  man  to  one  vote"  than  to  any  other  cause.  It  is  quite  true  That 
we  in  Oldham  are  \ery  demoeraficiu  all  our  business  transactions,  and  the  man  with 
one  £5  share  claims  and  gets  the  sauie  power  in  voting  at  all  meetings  as  the  man 
with  one  hundred  shares  of  £5  each.  At  the  commencement  of  the  great  movement 
of  company  operation  and  limited  liability  concerns  the  rules  were  so  drawn  as  to  give 
a  rich  shareholder  votes  iu  accordance  with  the  number  of  shares  held,  but  it  was 
found  out  that  the  system  did  not  work  well,  besides  giving  dissatisfaction  to  the 
poorer  shareholders,  and  the  system  gradually  broke  down.  All  our  large  concerns 
are  now  acting  upon  the  jirinciple  of  equal  voting  power  to  each  shareholder,  and  it 
has  proved  to  be  the  best  ])lan  by  far.  The  cotton-mills  managed  by  workingmen 
as  directors — aud  there  are  hundreds  uf  them — are  the  most  9uccess?ful ;  and  it  would 
do  you  good  to  hear  them  discuss  the  various  matters  pertaining  to  the  ecouomical 
"working  and  management  of  the  different  mills.  The  manner,  also,  iu  which  quar- 
terly bahmce  sheets  are  perused  and  criticised,  and  the  expenditure  compared  with 
other  mills  of  a  like  character,  is  deeply  interesting  to  all  who  study  these  co-opera- 
tive questions.  The  shareholders  at  the  quarterly  meetings  often  keenly  questi  n 
chairman  aud  directors,  if  they  are  not  satisfied  with  the  result  of  the  quarter's 
operations. 

A  cotton-mill  with  70,000  to  80,000  spindles  will  be  managed  by  a  board  of  direct- 
ors, seven  in  number,  aud  some  have  only  live,  all  of  whom  are  workingmen,  such  as 
brick-makers,  brick-setters,  joiners,  mechanics,  cotton-spinners;  in  fact,  all  kinds  of 
trades  are  represented  on  the  diiferent  directorates  of  our  numerous  companies.  The 
salary  of  a  director  ranges  from  £3  to  £.'>  per  quarter,  and  the  chairman  only  receives 
the  same  salary  as  his  colleagues.  The  auditors  are  elected  by  the  shareiiolders  for 
twelve  mouths,  but  are  eligible  for  re-election,  aud  all  the  books  of  the  company  have 
to  be  carefully  gone  through  each  quarter,  being,  in  a  great  many  instances,  kept  upon 
the  double-entry  principle.  Each  auditor  receives  from  £2  to  £3  per  quarter,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  mill.  The  secretary  aud  salesman  receive  £4  per  week,  aud 
the  manager  £5  10s.  per  week.  He  buys  the  cotton  aud  attends  Manchester  market 
as  well,  aud  is  considered  a  good  man  at  his  business.  I  aui  one  of  tiie  auditors  of  one 
company  with  nearly  80,000  spindles,  producing  over  50,000  pounds  of  yarn  each  week, 
and  my  salary  is  £3  per  (quarter.  The  wages  of  the  other  officers  are  giveu  above. 
I  am  well  acquainted  with  most  of  the  managei's  in  and  near  Oldiiam,  and  I  know 
that  in  their  younger  days  they  received  their  education  mostly  in  the  night  schools; 
but  I  can  assure  you  that  the  most  difficult  part  iu  managing  a  cotton-mill  iu  Oldham 
"is  getting  the  situation."  All  the  hands  iu  a  cotton-mill  out  here  are  so  thoroughly 
well  trained  aud  taught  to  work  on  a  mechanical  principle  that  they  can  turn  off  the 
work,  both  in  quautity  and  quality,  without  the  aid  of  a  manager  :  so  the  latter  is  more 
Bseful  in  giving  orders  and  maintaining  proper  discipline,  really,  than  anything  else. 


752  LAHOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

There  are  very  few  mill  manaj;ors  in  Oldham  who  earrt  £:500  a  year,  the  majority  receiv- 
ing nearer  £250,  and  still  they  attenil  Liverpool  cotton-market  and  Manchester  yarn- 
uiarket.  Tlnsre  is  scarcely  a  business  but  what  workingmen  can  manage  with  suc- 
cess, and  more  so  than  by  the  iirivileged  class,  because  they  are  so  mindful  of  little 
details  and  always  look  after  getting  on  in  the  world  and  checking  all  unnecessary- 
expenditure, 

I  am,  respectfully,  vours, 

THOMAS  ASHTON. 
To  Col.  Alhekt  D.  Sn.vw, 

United  States  CouimL  .ILtn Chester. 

Public  attention  is  more  and  more  being'  focused  npon  the  iiossibili- 
ties  and  benefits  of  co-operative  societies  in  this  kingdom,  and  some  of 
the  leading  economists  of  the  age  are  giving  the  wide  and  important 
subject  a  great  deal  of  attention.  It  is  one  of  the  living  and  growing 
questions  of  the  time,  and  one  that  has  passed  tlie  stage  of  experiment. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  London  Times,  forcibly  and  truly  de- 
scribes the  situation  here  at  present : 

THE   CO-OPERATIVE   CONGRESS. 

The  Co-operative  Congress  at  Derby  comes  opportunely  to  claim  attention  dur- 
ing a  momentary  lull  in  political  warfare.  There  are  many  questions  warmly  con- 
tested in  party  politics  whose  intrinsic  importance  is  far  beneath  that  of  the  future 
of  co-operation  in  this  country.  Every  one  has  heard  of  the  Rochdale  Pioneers, 
and  the  mavelous  success  of  co-operation  as  applied  to  distribution  is  recorded  in 
every  text-book  of  i)olitical  economy.  But  a  glance  at  our  rei)ort  of  yesterday's 
proceedings  of  the  Co-operative  Congress  at  Derby  is  sutficient  to  show  that  the 
thoughts  of  those  interested  in  the  co-operative  movement  are  now  turning  seri- 
ously to  other  fields  than  that  of  distribution.  In  this  field  the  co-operative  princi- 
ple has  long  ago  established  itself  as  a  potent  and  pregnant  factor  in  the  social 
economy  of  the  age.  It  needs  no  explanation  and  calls  for  no  Apology.  It  some- 
times exhibits  itself  in  spurious  forms,  as  when  a  joint-stock  company  chooses  to 
masquerade  in  the  guise  of  a  co-operative  society,  and  furnishes  idle  persons  with  a 
harmless  and  more  or  less  useful  occupation  in  making  out  their  own  bills  and  carry- 
ing home  their  own  parcels.  But  co-operation,  pure  and  simple,  as  applied  to  distri- 
bution has  now  taken  its  place  as  an  established  fact  of  society,  and  no  longer  furnishes 
even  a  holiday  theme  for  practical  discussion.  The  main  object  of  yesterday's  gather- 
ing at  Derby  was  the  discussion  of  a  fresh  application  of  the  co-operative  principle. 
It  has  long  been  foreseen  by  those  who  have  given  attention  to  the  subject  that  sooner 
or  later  a  serious  attempt  would  be  made  to  apply  the  principhi  of  co-operation,  which 
has  proved  so  successful  in  the  Held  of  distribution,  to  the  lield  of  production.  If  the 
principle  of  giving  to  every  ])urchaser  a  share  in  the  profits  of  retail  trade  proportioned 
to  the  extent  of  his  purchases  has  proved  so  successful  and  so  easy  of  application,  why 
should  not  a  similar  principle  be  applied  with  equally  good  etfe(!ts  to  the  proiits  of 
pro<luction '/  This  was  in  substance  the  question  asked  i>y  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor  in  his 
address  on  "Profit  sharing"  delivered  yesterday  at  the  congress  at  Derby,  and  his 
treatment  of  the  subject  is  eminently  worthy  of  consideration. 

To  my  mind,  the  probability  that  co-operative  production  will  win  a 
commanding  position  in  this  country  in  the  near  future  is  a  settled  con- 
viction, and  in  view  of  this  change  it  will  be  wise  for  our  people  to  be 
uj)  and  doing,  to  prepare  for  similar  action  in  our  own  country  at  the 
earliest  i)racticable  moment. 

The  genius  of  numnfacturing  supremacy  is  both  "born"  and  "made," 
and  exi)erience  ami  age  greatly  add  to  the  advantages  which  skilled 
labor  and  wisely  ;ipi)lied  capital  bring  to  producers. 

The  children  of  skilled  oi)eratives,  as  a  i-ule,  take  naturally  to  follow- 
ing the  ])ursuit  of  their  parents,  and  easily  acquire  a  delicacy  of  touch 
and  swiftness  of  execution  which  others  of  eijual  brightness,  but  lack- 
ing inherited  gifts,  never  can  or  do  equal.  This  I'avoring  element  is 
well  understood  in  all  ditticult  and  debcate  lines  of  manufactures,  as 
some  ot  the  inost  sensitive  astronomical  instruments  made  in  France 
can  only  be  produced  by  workmen  who  have  descended  through  three 
or  four  generations  of  these  instrun)ent  makers. 

In  a  less  degree,  but  still  of  great  value  to  manufacturers,  is  the 


LABOR    IN   EUROPE ENGLAND. 


753 


skilled  labor  which  is  the  growth  of  generations  in  any  general  line  of 
luannfactnres.  To  secure  fixity  of  purpose  in  those  who  as  children 
grow  up  from  the  ages  of  twelve  to  fourteen  years  in  the  mill,  is 
an  ever-important  consideration.  To  follow  any  line  of  manufacturing 
merely  as  a  makesliift  never  will  lead  to  safe  and  strong  results.  It  is 
necessary  for  steady,  intelligent,  suid  fixed  employment  to  be  secured 
before  the  manufacturer  can  be  sure  either  of  commanding  orders  or  a 
permanent  market.  To  this  end,  everything  that  tends  to  cultivate  a 
satisfied  taste  for  any  line  of  manufactures  is  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  successful  career  and  rendering  competition  from  abroad  less  and  less 
dangerous.  Co-o])eratioii,  by  securing  to  those  who  do  the  work  an 
adequate  share  of  the  rewards  of  merit  and  of  toil,  will  do  much  to 
elevate  the  standard  of  working  men  and  women,  and  thus  compensate 
them  for  the  wealth-developing  power  which  tliey  so  nobly  exert  in 
every  civilized  land.  Labor  is  fast  asserthig  its  rights  and  its  power. 
To  meet  its  just  claims  promptly  and  wisely  is  the  work  for  statesmen, 
and  there  is  no  time  to  lose  in  preparing  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the 
loud  demands  which  are  sure  soon  to  be  made,  in  the  interest  and  for 
the  advancement  of  those  who  work  with  their  hands. 

I  am  indebted  to  a  very  useful  and  well-written  little  book  by  Arthur 
H.  Dyke  Acland  and  Benjamin  Jones,  entitled  "  Workingmen  Oo-oper- 
ators,"  for  valuable  data  in  preparing  the  above  report,  and  also  for 
Table  No.  1,  showing  ''Progress  of  the  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society." 
The  amounts  have  been  reduced  to  American  currency. 

Table  No.  2  is  taken  from  the  "annual"  of  the  Wholesale  Co-opera- 
tive Society  of  England,  and  the  amounts  in  this  have  been  reduced  to 
American  currency  also. 

These  tables  present  full  and  reliable  data  of  great  value  in  connec- 
tion with  the  history  of  cooperative  societies  in  this  United  Kingdom. 
I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Thomas  Wood,  an  ofiflcial  of  the  Wholesale 
Co-operative  Society,  for  much  valuable  information  concerning  co- 
operation in  general. 

Table  1. — Progress  of  the  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society. 


Tear  ending — 

Number 
of  mem- 
bers in 
.sbare- 
bolding 
societies. 

Share  capi- 
tal paid  up. 

Loan  capital. 

Eeserve 
funds. 

Sales. 

Increase  of   sales 

over   corre.sponding 

period  ofprevious 

year. 

Amount. 

Kate 
per 
cent. 

Oct    1864* 

38,  337 

24,  005 

31,  030 

59,  349 

74,  734 

79,  245 

89,  880 

114,588 

134,  276 

168,  985 

198,  608 

249.  516 

276,  !')22 

274,  649 

305, 161 

331,  625 

361,. 523 

307,  973 

404,  006 

433, 151 

$11,947  25 
34,  951  20 

53,  375  77 

54,  874  15 
72,  452  45 
80,  569  77 
92,  536  49 

118.  791  26 
152;  574  00 
234,  205  17 
296,  515  84 
380,  798  75 
460,  332  23 
501,  692  .25 
572,  577  79 
63.i,  637  89 
710,80.5  85 
759,  427  05 
836,  746  01 
908,  536  6] 

$252,  362  09 
587,  649  34 
854,016  71 

1,  614,  432  17 

2,  006, 165  96 

2,  468,  371  53 

3,  298, 192  51 
3,  692,  525  00 
5,611.716  87 
7,966,217  17 
9,  561,  840  32 

10,  936,  947  76 
13,  126,  731  63 
13,  757,  848  55 
13, 166,  924  06 
12,  873,  503  31 

16,  242,  5.57  58 

17,  393,  333  31 
19,  652, 185  22 
22, 127,  435  31 

Oct    1805 

Oct.   1866     .. 

$399  05 

3,  318  95 

5,426  14 

6,  229  12 

13,  752  72 

9,  295  01 

14, 190  71 

18,888  48 

42,  620  80 

71,751  67 

117,  321  58 

135,  765  61 

158,  248  84 

204,611  99 

282,  198  60 

180,  887  80 

211,  256  96 

236,  560  56 

$266,  367  87 

548,  396  15 

603,  752  58 

462,  205  57 

775,  617  90 

421,  239  37 

1,919,191  87 

2,  354,  500  29 

1,  595,  623  15 

1,375,107  43 

1,  951,  928  81 

919,267  25 

§590,  923  62 

110,  829  67 

?,  974,  803  85 

1,  140,  705  73 
2,258,751  90 

2,  476,  350  09 

45 

Jan.',  18(i7t 

Jan.,  1869 

Jan.,  1870 

Jan.,  1871+ 

Jan.,  1872 

Jan.,  1873 

Jan.,  1874 

Jan.,  1875 

Jan.,  1870 

Jan.,  1877t 

Jan.,  1878 

Jan.,  1879 

Dec,  187911 

Dec,  1880 

Dec,  1881 

Dec,  1882 

Dec,  1883 

$69,  858  60 

78,  151  12 

111,063  26 

108,  034  87 

125,  399  97 

547,914  36 

719,993  80 

942,  125  20 

1,  394,  807  03 

1,4,56,480  18 

1,  399,  293  94 

1,420,721  14 

1,  565,  407  05 

1,  760,  724  03 

1,  882,  478  99 

2,  028,  512  92 
2,  218,  535  15 

51 

43 

23 

31 

13 

52 

42 

20 

14 

17 

7 

4 

1 

22 

13 
13 

*  Thirty  weeks. 

92  A- 


t  Si.\ty-flve  weeks. 
-LAB 48 


X  Fifty- three  weeks.     §  This  is  a  decrease.      ||  Fifty  weeks. 


754 


LAROR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Table  2. — Co-operative  societies   United  Kingdom — general  summary  of  returns  for  each 
year  from  1862  to  1881,  inclusire. 


Number  of  societies. 

Number] 
of  mem- 
bers. 

Capital  at  end  of  year. 

Sales. 

Tear. 

a 

^  >> 

a)  o 

a 

=  a 

r 

o 

ca 

Share. 

Loan. 

Net  profit. 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866. 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

354 

51 

146 

101 

163 

137 

190 

65 

67 

56 

141 

226 

130 

117 

82 

67 

52 

52 

69 

66 

68 
73 
110 
182 
240 
192 
93 
133 
153 
235 
113 
138 
232 
285 
177 
246 
121 
146 
100 

332 

381 

394 

403 

441 

577 

673 

754 

748 

746 

935 

983 

1,031 

1,170 

1,167 

1,148 

1, 185 

1,151 

1,183 

1,240 

90,  341 
111,  163 
129, 429 
124,  659 
144,  072 
171,  897 
211,781 
229,861 
248, 108 
262, 188 
330,  550 
387,  765 
412,733 
480,  076 
508,  067 
529,  081 
560,  993 
572,  621 
604,  063 
643,  617 

$2,084,691  80 

2,  822,  093  08 
3,329,571  70 

3,  987,  449  ."0 
5,  091,  867  61 

7,  179,0.55  93 
8,329,710  65 

8,  840,  834  28 

9,  906,  373  92 
11,  219,  910  54 
14,451,427  00 
17,  428,  907  43 
19,004,135  08 
21,429,861  47 

25,  020,  573  93 

26,  500,  277  55 

27,  483,  281  35 

28,  009,  247  80 
30,  328,  480  58 
33,774,351  90 

$265,219  38 
266,  382  47 
433,712  21 
521,  995  38 
574,  358  92 
66.5,416  01 
864,  806  24 
871,  366  29 
958,  841  62 
1,  048,  502  02 

1,  808, 104  27 
2,417,823  19 

2,  858,  299  84 
4, 136,  476  33 

4,  476,  070  43 

5,  223,  092  78 

5,  .575,  631  78 
7,  281,  953  20 

6,  .527,  387  78 

7,  219,  856  66 

$11,356,089  67 
13,011,940  63 
13,  804,  343  09 
16,  418,  826  42 
21,  717.  612  75 
29,204,611  07 

34,  660,  964  94 

35,  785, 141  03 
39,913,500  05 
46,  055,  441  .57 
63,323,481  98 
76,110,668  18 
79,  684,  328  92 
90,029,768  21 
96,  94,S,  814  29 

104,  096,  610  32 
104,  153,  898  76 
99,  192,759  93 
113, 137,  920  08 
121,  395, 148  83 

$805,  707  4T 
1,0.51,188  33 
1,  092,  334  59 
1,  358,  853  3? 
1,811,832  01 

1,  939,  679  83 

2,  065,  439  93 
2,132,018  51 

2,  693,  291  42 

3,  243,  030  73 

4,  558,  523  54 

5,  405,  017  15 

5,  976,  246  92 

6,  954,  666  48 
8, 487,  078  67 
9,  365,  827  44 

8,  942,  972  3& 

9,  040,  935  03 
9,  093,  537  03 
9,  641,  066  94 

STATEMENT   OF   A  MANCHESTER  RAILWAY  PORTER. 


Question.  What  is  your  age  ? — Answer.  I  am  tbirty-two  years  old. 

Q.  What  is  your  business  ? — I  ara  a  foreman  porter  of  the Railroad  at  Man- 
chester. 

Q.  Are  you  married  or  single  ? — A.  I  am  married  and  have  a  wife  and  two  children, 
one  five  and  the  other  sexen  years  of  age. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  receive?— A.  Six  dollars  and  eight  cents  a  week.* 

Q.  How  many  hours  a  day  and  how  many  days  in  a  week  do  you  work  for  these 
wages  ? — A.  Eleven  hours  a  day  is  the  rule,  every  day  in  the  week. 

Q.  What  are  the  hours,  generally  speaking? — A.  From  7  a.  m.  to  (5  p.  in.,  change 
and  change  about. 

Q.  How  much  time  is  allowed  out  of  your  eleven  hours  for  meals  ? — A.  Cue  hour 
at  noon  and  half  an  hour  for  lunch. 

Q.  Can  you  give  me  an  average  description  of  your  way  of  living,  particularly  as 
to  the  kind,  cost,  find  variety  of  food,  &c.? — A.  Yes,  cheerfully.  Taking  an  average 
for  one  week  in  the  year  I  should  say  that  the  following  is  a  fair  idea  of  our  way  of 
living,  viz:  Monday — breakfast,  bread,  butter  or  treacle  (un)lasso8),  tea  an<l  milk; 
dinner,  roast  beef  or  mutton,  potatoes  and  cabbage,  or  cauliflower;  tea,  similar  to 
breakfast;  supper,  bread,  cheese  now  and  then,  and  milk.  Tuesday,  Wednesday, 
Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  we  have  the  same  general  food,  only  meat  has  to 
be  cut  close  mostly  ;  l)ut  on  Sunday  we  indulge  a  little,  as  a  rule.  Such  as  roast-beef 
or  mutton,  potatoes,  cabbage  or  cauliflower,  custard,  and  some  kind  of  pudding.  I 
estimate  the  actual  expenses  of  a  day's  food,  on  the  average,  month  in  and  month  out 
for  my  family  of  four,  at  61  cents.  When  it  ia  more  it  comes  from  our  loved  Sunday 
dinners. 

Q.  What  rent  do  you  pay  ? — A.  I  pay  for  my  house  with  one  living  room,  two  bed- 
rooms, scullery  and  kitchen,  $1.09  per  week.  Now,  adding  cost  of  food  to  cost  of  rent 
amounts  to  %'i.'M\.  This  leaves  us  7:^  cents  per  week  to  pay  for  coals,  lamp  oil,  and  all 
sundries  retpiired  for  wanhiug,  cleaning,  »fcc  I  may  say  that  it  costs  us  36  cents  a 
week  for  coals  ami  oil  alone.  This  leaves  37  cents  per  week  extra  for  clothing  and  all 
other  expenses,  sick  or  well. 

Q.  How  do  you  manage  to  clothe  yourself  and  family  on  such  a  small  weekly  bal- 
ance ? — A.  Well,  you  see  the  railway  company  furnish  us  one  new  business  suit  or 
uniform  each  year,  and  we  get  one  more  for  Sundays,  which  serves  us  pretty  well; 
and  then  my  wife  works  out  and  earns  a  good  bit  by  da.y's  work.     She  was  a  fustian 

*The  wages  and  cost  of  living  named  have  boon  reduced  to  American  currency. 


T.ABOR    IN    EUROPE— ENGLAND.  755 

cutter  before  I  married  her,  aii<l  she  works  nt  that  uow  more  or  less  to  help  us  on.  If  it 
was  not  for  this  I  don't  know  how  wo  conld  keep  up  with  onr  ex])eMses.  The  wajjes 
I  earn  all  go  as  I  have  told  yon,  only  I  pay  lo  cents  a  week  to  my  cJnl),  and  the  extra 
earuiu^s  of  my  wife  hidji  us  to  buy  our  clothing  and  pay  our  way.  Manage  as  we  may, 
it  is  a  hard  thing  to  do  to  make  both  enda  meet,  and  we  pay  for  boots,  clothing,  and 
so  on,  by  weekly  installments. 

Q.  What  do  you  mean  by  beinga  member  of  a  club  ? — A.  I  am  a  member  of  a  "club" 
or  friendly  society,  called  the  "Ancient  Order  of  Forresters,"  to  which  I  pay  13  cents 
a  week,  and  this  entifles  me  to  the  snm  of  !|-2.43  per  week  during  sickness  and  a  doctor 
free  for  a  period  of  twenty-six  weeks,  and  a  further  grant  of  !j;l.'.i2  per  week  for  twenty- 
six  weeks  afterwards,  when  all  sick  benefits  cease.  At  my  deal  h  my  wife  or  family  will 
be  entitled  to  $48.*iG.  On  the  death  of  a  first  wife  I  should  be  entitled  to  §48. 6H.  If 
I  married  again  and  the  second  wife  died  I  should  receive  $34.06.  I  have  also  my 
children  in  the  same  company,  and  at  death  §'.^4.33  are  paid.  I  have  lost  one  and  re- 
ceived this  sum  to  ]>ay  for  its  burial. 

Q.  Is  there  much  hope  of  a  man  in  your  line  of  employment  saving  up  money  to 
enal)le  him  to  buy  a  home  and  lay  by  something  for  old  age  ? — A.  No,  sir;  there  is 
very  little.  I  have  given  you  a  plain  and  faithful  account  of  the  wages  earned  by 
me  and  my  mode  of  living,  and  these  fairly  represent  ti  e  average  of"  my  class  era- 
ployed  on  railways  in  this  country  at  this  time,  and  from  the  ligures  I  liave  given 
you  can  see  that  with  these  wages,  good  health,  and  lull  employment  the  husband 
and  father  Avill  have  his  hands  full  to  feed,  clothe,  and  house  his  family.  As  to  sav- 
ing anything  beyond  paying  one's  frugal  way,  as  things  go  now  it  is  utterly  impos- 
sible. Remember,  the  ligures  I  have  given  you  are  for  a  "  blue-ribbon  family,"  and 
there  has  been  no  allowance  for  beer  or  drink.  Where  these  come  into  the  calcula- 
tion then  hardships  multiply  and  much  sutfering  follows,  I  can  assure  you.  The  fact 
is  we,  as  a  class— and  there  are  many  of  ns  in  England — be  we  ever  so  careful  w^e  can- 
not get  ahead  much,  and  there  is  little  proS()ect  of  our  ever  being  in  pos.session  of  a 
bank-book  unless,  after  hmg  service,  one  secures  one  of  the  few  superior  posit  ions  on  tlie 
line  at  better  pay.  But  few  of  us  great  army  of  railway  emplnyds  reach  these  rare 
berths.  The  great  majority,  therefore,  work  away  to  find  themselves  at  the  eud  of 
the  year  as  poor  as  they  were  when  the  year  began. 

Q.  Do  not  the  "  tips"  help  a  good  deal  ?— A.  Yes  ;  but  these  vary,  and  where  there 
are  many  porters  the  average  receipts  i)er  man  are  not  large.  No,  sir,  the  grand  total 
all  around  from  this  source  is  not  as  much  as  people  generally  think  ;  and,  sir,  it  is  a 
kind  of  "receipts"  that  is  not  very  elevating  to  character,  either.  Our  life,  sir,  is  an 
existence  merely;  it  is  not  hopeful,  manly  living  at  all.  I  wish  I  conld  get  to  the 
United  States,  so  that  I  could  become  somebody.  Can't  you  help  me  over,  sir  ?  Here 
the  road  is  a  long  and  a  iiard  one. 

INTERVIEW  WITH   AN  ENGLISH   GARDENER. 

An  intelligent  and  very  competent  gardener  living  near  Manchester, 
with  whom  I  am  personally  acqnainted,  and  who  bas  charge  of  the 
flowers,  plants,  and  also  the  oversiglit  of  the  vegetable  ganlen  of  a 
wealthy  gentleman,  has  given  me  the  following  particulars,  which  pre- 
sent a  fair  and  graphic  picture  of  the  condition,  cost  of  living,  and  pros- 
pects of  his  class  of  laborers.  It  may  be  well  for  me  to  mention  tbat 
the  term  "gardener"  in  England  refers  to  the  person  who  has  charge 
of  the  tlowers,  ornamental  j)lants,  &c.,  of  wealthy  people,  answeiing  to 
the  "florist"  in  the  United  States.  Those  who  work  in  vegetable  gar- 
dens come  under  the  head  of  "  market  gardeners,"  and  as  a  class  receive 
considerably  lower  wages  than  "gardeners." 

Question.  How  old  are  you  ? — Answer.  I  am  fifty-four  years  old. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  I  am  a  gardener,  and  have  been  one  all  my  life. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  eaj-n  ? — A.  Seven  dollars  and  twenty-nine  cents  per  week 
(30  shillings  sterling). 

Q.  What  are  the  average  wages  of  head  gardeners  and  their  helpers  in  this  part  of 
England  f — A.  Well,  the  wages  I  receive,  $7.*-i9,  is  a  round  average  for  head  gardeners, 
a  few  receiving  more,  but  many  less,  and  my  pay  is  a  safe  average.  Second  gardeners 
or  "  helpers"  are  paid  from  $A.8G  to  $b.^[)  per  week.  This  is  as  close  an  estimate  as  I 
can  give,  and  it  is  not  far  from  right. 

Q.  Wl  at  are  the  hours  of  labor  for  gardeners? — A.  They  vary  somewhat — from  6.30 
a.  m.  to  5  p.  m.  is  the  general  rule,  except  on  Saturdays,  when  work  ends  at  4  p.  m. 

Q.  What  time  is  allowed  for  meals? — A.  Half  an  hour  for  breakfast  and  one  hour 
for  dinner;  this  is  all.  The  gardener  goes  home  at  5  p.  m.  and  has  his  own  time  after- 
wards. 


756  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

Q.  What  is  the  iiverage  rent  paid  by  your  class  for  houses  ? — A.  One  dollar  and  nine 
cents  per  week  is  the  rule  ;  this  for  two  up  and  two  down  rooms,  with  a  little  scullery. 

Q.  What  food  constitutes  your  daily  "bill  of  fare"? — A.  Well,  we  have  to  live 
very  plainly,  I  can  assure  you.  I  have  only  a  wife,  no  children,  and  so  I  can  get 
along  and  live  better  on  my  wages  tlian  those  can  who  have  children,  for  children 
•wear  out  clothes  and  eat  u\)  food  very  fast.  We  live  about  like  this:  For  breakfast, 
one  egg  each,  tea  and  bread  and  butter  ;  for  dinner,  some  kind  of  meat  as  a  rule,  ham 
or  beef,  and  i)otatoes,  or  an  egg,  with  bread  and  cheese,  and  now  and  again  a  bit  of 
jam;  for  tea  we  have  bread,  butter,  and  tea,  with  occasionally  a  bit  of  currant  loaf. 
I  don't  have  meat  every  day  because  I  don't  care  for  it  always,  but  those  who  have 
families  of  children  can't  have  meat  on  an  average  twice  a  week  on  the  wages  our 
class  receive.  The  cost  of  the  plainest  food  and  clothes  for  the  little  ones  and  the  big 
ones,  and  the  trifle  weekly  for  "club"  and  "burial  societies"  use  up  every  penny  of 
the  bread-winners  weekly  wages,  and  often  more  too.  The  wife  and  some  of  the 
children  have  to  take  in  washing  or  do  odd  jobs  of  scrubbing,  &c.,  in  order  that  the 
expense  of  the  plainest  kind  of  food  and  the  cheapest  clothing  can  be  provided  for. 

Q.  What  does  it  cost  yoji  for  your  clothing  yearly? — A.  Let  me  see.  1  usually  buy 
one  pair  of  corduroy  pants  each  year,  costing  $3.04,  one  coat  at  |l8.51,  and  a  vest  for 
$ii.02.  This  does  nie  pretty  well.  I  wear  this  suit  one  year  for  best,  and  the  next 
year  for  every  day  work,  so  that  one  new  suit  a  year  keeps  me  going  pretty  comfort- 
able like. 

Q.  What  does  it  cost  to  clothe  your  wife? — A.  That  I  can't  tell  exactly;  it  takes  so 
many  fixings  to  rig  her  out,  hats  and  bonnets,  and  so  on.  Still,  my  wife  is  a  saving 
kind' of  woman,  and  she  dresses  in  prints,  cheap  like,  and  has  a  best  dress  once  a  year. 
Her  bonnets  and  such  things  cost,  I  suppose,  a  bit  more  than  my  clothes  do,  but  not 
a  very  great  deal. 

Q.  Are  you  a  member  of  any  club? — A.  Yes;  I  belong  to  two — the  Odd-Fellows  and 
to  a  burial  society. 

Q.  What  are  your  dues  to  these  societies? — A.  In  the  Odd-Fellows  I  pay  42  cents 
every  four  weeks ;  in  the  burial  society  I  pay  1  cent  a  week,  and  the  same  for  my 
wife. 

Q.  What  does  this  insure  you? — A.  In  the  Odd-Fellows'  society,  at  my  death,  for 
my  family,  .$48.()(i;  in  case  of  severe  sickness,  for  first  six  months,  1^2.43  a  week;  for 
second  six  months,  $1.82  per  week;  for  third  six  mouths,  .'$1.22  per  week;  and  in  case 
of  permanent  disease,  73  cents  per  week  for  life.  In  the  burial  society,  which  is  only 
for  providing  expenses  of  interment,  $26.74  is  paid  at  death  of  man  or  woman  or  both. 
For  children  special  rates  are  charged,  so  that  a  man  with  a  family  can,  at  small 
weekly  cost,  secure  means  at  their  death  for  their  burial.  No  sick  money  is  paid  by 
the  burial  society,  the  fees  being  made  low  so  as  to  allow  even  the  poorest  to  be  in- 
sured, young  and  old,  to  meet  the  cost  of  burials. 

Q.  What  do  you  think  of  the  system  of  friendly  societies  for  the  benefit  of  the  la- 
boring classes  here? — A.  I  am  greatly  in  favor  of  them,  and  I  always  urge  work-peo- 
ple to  join  them.  They  teach  the  poor  to  save  money  that  might  be  spent  in  drink, 
and  so  secure  enough  to  provide  for  bodily  comforts  when  sick  and  to  pay  for  their  de- 
cent burial  when  they  die.  Yes,  sir;  these  friendly  societies  are  a  great  blessing  to 
us  poor  people.  We  could  not  well  get  along  without  them,  I  can  assure  you.  There 
is  more  than  $50,000,000  invested  in  our  friendly  societies,  and  over  half  of  this  is 
held  by  Odd-Fellows.     Aye,  it  is  a  grand  thing  for  us,  it  is. 

Q.  Is  it  often  the  case  that  laborers  in  your  class  lay  up  money  to  buy  homes  and 
provide  for  old  age? — A.  Why,  bless  you,  as  a  rule,  no;  for,  just  think  of  it,  on  the 
pay  they  get  all  goes  for  expenses  of  food,  clothes,  and  the  like.  Look  for  yourself. 
The  average  pay  of  our  class  is,  say,  $.5.83  jier  week.  The  cost  of  living  is  about  as  fol- 
lows: 

Per  week. 

Food  for  two  persons,  49  cents  per  day $3  41 

Rent  of  house 1  09 

Coal  and  oil 49 

Society  dues,  average 12 

Sundi-ies,  soap,  &c 10 

Total  for  family  of  two 5  21 

This  leaves  a  balance  of  (52  cents  per  week  for  clothes  and  any  other  extras  neces- 
sary, let  alone  the  burden  of  sickness.  This  will  prove  to  you  clear  enough  that,  with 
families,  it  takes  a  keen  manager  to  make  weekly  incomings  cover  the  outgoings  with 
our  class.  No;  saving  nj)  money  under  present  conditions  is  out  of  the  question.  It 
is  hard  work,  low^  pay,  plain  fare,  cheap  clothes,  and  a  tight  fit  to  make  the  year  end 
free  from  debt.  This  is  the  honest  conditiou  of  things  with  us  as  gardeners  and  with 
laborers,  too,  for  that  matter,  on  farms  here  in  this  country.  In  fact,  the  farm  day- 
laborers  are  even  worse  off  than  gardeners  are,  and  how  they  manage  to  live  on  the 
])ay  they  get  is  almost  a  mystery  to  me.  Their  fare  is  of  the  iilainest,  and  they  can- 
not save  up  anything. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  757 

A  FARM  laborer's  STATEMENT. 

Q.  What  is  your  occupation  ? — A.  I  am  a  farm  laborer. 

Q.  Hosv  old  are  you  ? — A.  I  am  forty  years  old. 

Q.  Have  you  always  worked  ou  a  farm  ? — A.  Yes ;  I  am  the  son  of  a  farm  lahorer 
before  me. 

Q.  What  wages  do  you  earn  ? — A.  For  the  past  two  years  I  have  had  —  per  month 
and  "  beer  allowance"  during  sunnner. 

Q.  Have  you  any  family  ? — A.  Yes;  a  wife  and  five  children,  aged  as  follows:  one 
boy  fifteen,  one  twelve,  and  one  girl  len,  another  eight,  and  baby  seven  years  old. 

Q.  How  do  you  manage  to  live  and  support  your  family  ou  —  per  week  ? — A.  Oh, 
I  don't  manage  at  all  ou  my  wages.  You  see  my  wife  takes  washing  and  sometimes 
goes  out  working  in  the  fields,  and  the  children  too  work  to  help  us  get  along.  No, 
sir ;  Ave  live  poor  enough  as  it  is,  and  have  a  hard  time  all  the  year  through, 

Q.  .What  house  rent  do  you  pay  ? — A.  I  pay per  week,  as  I  live  in  one  of  mas- 
ter's ]S  ttle  cottages. 

Q.  What  are  your  hours  of  labor? — A.  In  summer,  as  a  rule,  from  7  in  the  morning 
till  8  at  night;  at  times  when  work  is  pressing,  and  it  looks  like  bad  weather,  then 
I  work  earlier  and  later. 

Q.  What  time  is  allowed  you  for  meals  ? — A.  It  varies.  When  work  is  not  partic- 
ularly pressing  I  get  half  an  hour  for  lunch  at  10  a.  m.,  an  hour  for  nooning,  and 
half  an  hour  for  tea.     When  in  a  hurry,  I  have  to  cut  it  short  a  bit. 

Q.  What  food  do  you  live  on  chiefly  ? — A.  It  varies  some;  but  potatoes,  vegetables, 
bread,  cheese,  with  a  good  deal  of  porridge  and  milk,  and  now  and  again  some  meat. 
You  see,  on  our  wage,  we  have  to  be  pretty  close  like,  and  we  eat  mostly  the  cheap- 
est food  w^e  cau  get. 

Q.  Cau  you  tell  me  the  items  that  go  to  make  np  your  living  expenses? — A.  Well, 
not  very  fully,  may  be.  I  don't  buy  everything,  but  all  I  get  goes  for  food,  living, 
an  d  clothes,  and  we  all  work  pretty  hard,  too.  If  we  get  to  the  end  of  the  year  out  of 
debt,  sir,  we  feel  happy  enough,  we  do.  There  are  seven  of  us,  you  see,  and  seven  is 
a  large  family  to  be  supported  on  small  hand  earnings,  sir. 

Q.  Can  farm  laborers  lay  up  money  on  preseut  wages  ? — A.  No,  not  apenny,  if  they 
have  families.  They  don't  expect  to,  for  it  all  goes  as  fast  as  it  is  got  for  food,  clothes, 
and  expenses.  If  a  farm  laborer  comes  to  the  eud  of  the  year  with  a  sovereign  ahead, 
and  no  debts,  he  would  feel  rich,  I  can  tell  you. 

Q.  Do  you  ever  think  of  emigrating  ? — A.  Yes,  often  enough  ;  but  I  have  no  money 
to  ^o  with,  and  how  could  I  get  away  ?  Enough  would  go  to  America  or  Australia 
if  they  had  money  to  do  so,  but  this  they  lack.  We  are  too  poor  to  go,  and  so  we 
have  to  stay  here  and  work  for  a  bare  living. 

Q.  Do  farm  laborers  ever  purchase  land  aud  work  it  for  themselves? — A.  Oh,  dear, 
no;  hardly  ever.  Laud  is  so  dear,  and  no  one  would,  or  does,  trust  farm  laborers  for 
it.  No;  those  who  own  the  laud  keep  it,  and  only  the  rich  can  do  this,  and  we  labor- 
ers have  to  do  the  work,  which  we  are  glad  to  do. 

Q.  You  tell  me  you  can't  lay  up  any  money.  What  will  you  do  when  you  cannot 
work  ? — A.  The  parish  will  have  to  grant  me  relief.  There  is  nothing  else  to  look  to, 
unless  my  children  can  take  care  of  me.  This  is  the  way  us  laboring  poor  has  to  do. 
There  is  no  other  way. 

LANCASHIRE   VS.   AMERICAN   FARM  LABORERS. 

The  average  wages  of  this  class  appear  in  their  order.  The  contrast 
between  the  average  agricultural  laborer  in  the  United  States  and 
England  is  sharp  enough  and  most  suggestive.  Here  the  laborer  fur- 
nishes his  own  food  aud  eats  it,  as  a  rule,  in  the  fields.  It  is  plain  and 
cold,  and  the  pot  of  beer  washes  it  down.  In  the  harvest  season  large 
numbers  of  laborers  come  over  from  Ireland  aud  aid  in  gathering  the 
crops.  Their  pay  averages  $1  per  week,  with  a  daily  grant  of  a  quart 
of  beer,  and  frequeutl^^  a  dish  of  porridge  added.  At  this  pay  they 
must  "  find  themselves"  in  food  and  lodging.  The  farmer  usually  sets 
apart  some  room  for  them  in  an  out-house,  where  they  "  bunk  in  "  at 
night  in  the  roughest  fasliion.  They  cook  their  own  food  in  the  grate 
furnished  by  the  farmer,  and  few  American  farm  laborers  couUl  be  got 
to  live  as  these  men  are  compelled  to,  in  order  that  they  may  save 
something  to  subsist  on  after  returning  to  Ireland.  I  luive  seen  hun- 
dreds of  these  poorly-clad  aud  weary-looking  laborers  making  tlieir  way 


758  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

back  to  their  homos,  after  the  season  here  was  over,  with  little  bundles 
of  clothing  tied  up  in  colored  handkerchiefs  sluu<;"  over  their  scythes, 
and  the  si<>-ht  made  my  heart  sick.  They  were  brave  fellows,  who  man- 
fully did  their  best,  under  discouraging  conditions,  to  earn  a  livelihood, 
and  I  could  but  feel  that,  if  they  found  it  necessary  to  leave  their  native 
Ireland  to  labor  in  England  as  they  do  at  such  wages,  their  condition 
at  home  must  be  pitiful  indeed.  The  contrast  to  this  truthful  picture 
su])plied  by  the  way  farm  laborers  in  the  United  States  are  |)aid,  boarded, 
and  treated  is  remarkable.  It  amounts  to  an  entirely  different  system, 
and  there  is  room  for  no  fair  comparison  between  the  two  phases  of  a 
farm  laborer's  life  as  presented  in  our  country  and  in  this.  . 

SAFETY   OF  FACTORY  EMPLOYES. 

"  What  are  the  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  employes  in  factories, 
mines,  mills,  on  railroads,  t&c,  and  what  are  the  provisions  made 
for  the  work-people  in  case  of  accident "?  What  are  the  general 
considerations  given  the  employers  to  the  moral  and  physical  well- 
being  of  the  eraj)loyes'?  What  are  the  general  relations  which 
prevail  between  the  employer  and  the  employed  f " 

The  general  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  operatives,  so  far  as 
their  surroundings  when  at  work  are  concerned,  are  of  an  efiicient  and 
complete  character.  Fire  escapes  are  fitted  to  the  outside  of  mills,  and 
stairways  are  provided  in  ample  accommodation  as  a  rule.  The  weav- 
ing sheds  are  generally  placed  on  the  ground  floor,  and  have  separate 
one-story  buildings  with  a  glass-covered  roof.  This  prevents  any  danger 
from  fire,  as  it  is  impossible  for  a  tire  to  endanger  the  lives  of  weavers 
under  these  conditions.  The  usual  supply  of  hose  and  chemical  appa- 
ratus is  also  provided  in  all  or  nearly  all  cases.  In  mines,  the  rigid 
and  efficient  inspection  by  duly  qualitied  and  efficient  inspectors  is  re- 
garded as  careful  and  competent.  In  connection  with  the  weather  re- 
port daily  sent  out  to  all  i)oints  within  the  Kingdom,  special  warning 
is  given  in  the  mining  districts  when  the  dangerous  areas  of  low  press- 
ure are  indicated  by  the  information  gathered  at  the  chief  signal  and 
meterological  office.  The  ventilation  and  care  of  mines  within  this  con- 
sular district  are  best  shown,  perhaps,  by  the  statement  of  the  fact  that 
it  has  been  a  long  time  since  any  serious  loss  of  life  has  resulted  from  a 
colliery  accident  here.  The  press  constantly  keeps  the  subject  of  proper 
ventilation,  &c.,  as  regards  mines  befoie  the  people,  and  I  believe  the 
English  system  of  inspection  and  ventilation  admirable.  Recently  Mr. 
Ellis  Lever,  of  Manchester,  has  offiM'ed  a  prize  of  82,500  for  the  best 
electric  safety  lamp,  and  the  examination  of  the  inventions  sent  in  is 
now  taking  place.  It  was  his  aim  to  encouraue  inventors  to  invent  a 
lani])  that  would  be  perfectly  safe  in  mines,  under  all  conditions,  a  point 
which  the  celebrated  Davy  lamp  cannot  compass.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  Mr.  Lever's  enteri)rise  and  liberality  may  be  rewarded  by  the  dis- 
covei-y  of  such  a  life  saving  lamp  as  he  seeks. 

The  railroads  in  this  country  are  very  carefully  managed,  and  the 
"block  system"  of  signals  on  all  the  main  lines  is  i)robably  the  most  com- 
plete and  ])erfect  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  use  of  air-brakes  on  all 
trains  is  also  very  effective  and  general.  The  Westinghouse  brake 
is  as  well  known  and  generally  used  here  as  it  is  in  our  own  country, 
and  tiie  use  of  a  cord,  by  pulling  which  a  i)assenger  can  alarm  the  en- 
gineer and  so  stop  the  train  in  case  of  any  emergency,  is  sinnlar  in  all 
ess(Mitial  respec^ts  to  the  custom  in  tlie  United  States.  The  provisions 
made  for  work-people  in  case  of  accident  vary  in  different  couoerus  and 
on  diiferent  lines  of  i'aihvays. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  759 

In  broad  and  general  terras  it  may  be  affirmed  tbat  so  far  as  is  possi- 
ble, both  in  mills  and  on  the  railways,  servants  who  have  been  injured 
'while  in  the  line  of  duty  are  cared  for  as  well  as  circumstances  will  per- 
mit by  the  proprietors.  In  mills  work  is  often  found  of  a  light  charac- 
ter or  of  a  kind  suitable  for  one  who  has  been  injured,  and  on  the  rail- 
ways this  same  general  statement  holds  good.  While  there  is  no  law 
compelling  proprietors  to  support  those  who  have  been  disabled  by 
accidents  for  which  the  owners  of  mills,  &c.,  are  in  no  way  responsi- 
ble, yet  there  is  a  pretty  general  custom  among  all  interests  which 
•causes  care  to  be  taken  of  unfortunate  work  people  who  by  accidents 
become  helpless.  In  case  of  accidents  resulting  from  the  neglect  or 
■carelessness  of  proprietors  in  any  way  ample  damages  are  always 
readily  obtained,  as  the  courts  of  law  stringently  enforce  the  rights  of 
operatives  in  all  cases  where  they  have  suffered  illegally. 

In  some  instances,  in  fact  in  very  many,  employers  of  labor  in  this 
consular  district  take  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  the  moral  and  physical 
education  and  well-being  of  their  work-people,  and  manifest  it  in  a 
practical  way.  School-rooms  are  provided  near  mills  where  the  chil- 
dren of  operatives  attend  for  half  a  day  and  work  as  "half-timers"  the 
other  half.  These  schools  are  provided  by  the  mill  owners,  and  great 
care  is  taken  to  insure  the  attendance  of  the  children  of  operatives,  in 
order  that  intelligent  and  educated  labor  may  in  dne  time  be  secured 
for  the  mdls.  I  have  frequently  visited  schools  of  this  class,  and  have 
always  been  greatly  pleased  with  the  evidences  of  happiness  and  intel- 
ligence shown  by  the  scholars  at  their  tasks  and  in  their  appearance. 

In  addition  to  schools  for  the  smaller  and  younger  children,  there 
have  been  established  "mechanics'  institutes"  and  "technical  schools" 
in  many  of  the  chief  towns  about  this  city,  mainly  intended  for  the  use 
and  instruction  of  working  people  of  either  sex.  Great  good  is  done  in 
these  higher  and  ca])ital  institutions.  Evening  classes  are  kept  up  and 
no  one  who  has  ambition,  a  taste  for  study,  and  capacity,  need  lack  for 
opportunities  to  acquire  a  good  practical  education.  The  fees  are  very 
low,  and  the  instruction  is  of  a  really  useful  and  high  class.  Prizes  are 
given  by  wealthy  manufacturers  and  others,  and  the  usefulness  and 
value  of  these  generous  contributions  are  frequently  surprising  in  num- 
ber and  amount. 

The  general  relations  which  prevail  between  the  employer  and  the 
emi)loyed  are  of  a  friendly  character.  Katurally,  in  large  mills  where 
many  hundreds  and  often  thousands  of  operatives  are  employed,  the 
heads  of  firms  see  little  of  the  social  life  of  their  emi)loyes  and  have 
small  intercourse  with  them.  Yet  the  respect  and  esteem  shown  by  the 
employes  of  great  mills  for  their  employers  are  evidence  of  the  kindly 
and  cordial  relations  existing  between  them.  In  many  large  establish- 
ments a  great  deal  of  interest  is  shown  in  the  welfare  of  the  work-peo- 
ple both  by  employers  and  by  philanthropic  citizens  who  attend  during 
noon  hours  and  speak  to  the  operatives,  generally  in  some  public  hall 
or  room  set  apart  for  the  purpose.  Twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  is 
-allowed  extra  time  for  such  addresses,  and  the  influence  thus  exerted  is 
most  valuable.  These  gatherings  usually  are  held  once  or  twice  a 
mouth,  and  prominent  ministers  and  speakers  are  gratuitously  engaged 
to  deliver  the  addresses.  I  have  been  frequently  invited  to  address 
meetings  of  this  kind,  and  the  attention  shown  rendered  the  occasion, 
specially  pleasing,  combining  as  they  did  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
work-people  in  their  daily  occupation,  and  to  speak  of  the  civilization 
and  hopes  of  our  own  people  and  land  to  those  who  would  fully  realize 
the  sacredness  of  the  trust  committed  to  our  keeping.  I  believe  this 
•custom  worthy  of  being  tried  in  the  United  States. 


760  LABOE    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND, 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS   OF  WORKINGrMEN. 

"What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingmen,  and  what  are  their 
iutiuences,  through  such  rights,  on  legislation  ?  What  is  the  share, 
comparatively,  borne  by  the  working  people  in  local  and  general 
taxation f  What  is  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  regard  to  labor 
and  the  working  people?" 

Operatives  who  pay  for  house  rent  £10  a  year  are  entitled  to  vote^ 
Those  having  votes  exercise  a  voter's  influence,  and  where  party  poli- 
tics are  keen  the  workingiuau  exerts  a  very  j)oteutial  influence  in  every 
locality.  Trade  organizations  cultivate  and  to  a  certain  extent  control 
the  action  of  the  operatives  by  insisting  on  legislation  supposed  to  be 
in  their  interest.  This  course,  with  pretty  evenly  balanced  parties^ 
enables  workingmen  to  become  imjjortant  factors  in  everj-  great  party 
contest  at  the  jiolls. 

•  The  working  people  bear  in  the  main  only  a  comparatively  small 
share  of  local  and  general  taxation.  The  householders  or  property- 
holders  usually  pay  all  taxes,  where  houses,  «&c.,  are  rented  at  so  much 
per  week.  These  cover  poor  rates  and  other  taxes  of  a  local  character^ 
leaving  only  a  small  annual  tax  to  fall  on  the  operatives  for  school 
purposes,  &c. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  is  always  in  favor  of  the  safety,  protec- 
tion, and  freedom  of  the  working  people.  There  is  a  keen  interest  taken 
in  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  this  class  in  this  country,  and  a  public 
sentiment  responds  sharply  to  any  oppression  or  omission^  when  either 
is  brought  before  the  public,  affecting  the  working  people  of  the  King- 
dom. This  results,  no  doubt,  in  some  measure  from  the  growing  power 
of  work  people  in  this  country  exerted  through  their  influence  at  the  polls. 
Those  who  toil  and  are  fortunate  in  saving  money  have  learned  to  make 
use  of  an  independent  and  commanding  vote,  and  this  is  rapidly  placing 
working  people  on  a  more  influential  plane,  so  far  as  the  Government 
and  law-making  power  is  concerned.  An  extended  franchise  means- 
a  powerful  and  fostering  interest  in  behalf  of  working  people.  Free 
trade  in  votes,  and  a  fair  trade  too,  where  one  man  shall  have  one  vote^ 
will  level  up  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  laboring  class  as  nothiug 
ever  has  before  in  the  history  of  the  domestic  legislation  of  this  country. 

This  is  perfectly  understood  by  the  statesmen  of  the  day,  and  an  en- 
laiged  franchise  bill  is  at  i)reseut  on  its  way  through  Parliament.  Its- 
final  adoption  is  only  a  question  of  time,  as  is  admitted  by  the  thoughtful 
leaders  of  both  political  parties. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

"  What  are  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the  working- 
people,  and  which  influence  their  selection  of  their  new  homes  f 
W^hat  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the  euiigrants,  &c.  ?  " 

The  causes  which  lead  the  working  classes  iu  England  to  emigrate 
are,  generally  speaking,  two,  viz:  (1)  Lack  of  stea<ly  and  well-paid  em- 
])loyment,  owing  to  an  over  supply  of  labor;  and  (2)  a  desire  to  find  a 
new  home  iu  a  country  where  better  and  more  promising  prospects  cart 
be  found  for  their  own  and  their  children's  future. 

It  is  natural  for  intending  emigrants  to  look  about  so  as  to  settle 
ui)on  some  point  where  they  can  go  aiul  find  similar  employment  to- 
that  with  whicli  they  are  familiar  in  England.  This,  in  the  main,  is  the 
controlling  consideration  of  a  great  majority  of  emigrants  from  this 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  761 

consular  district.  The  principal  occupations  of  emigrants  from  Lan- 
cashire and  Clioshirc  are  those  of  mill  o})eratives  and  machinists,  in  the 
wide  range  of  the  employments  in  these  leading  branches  of  manufact- 
ures in  and  about  Manchester. 

The  yearly  increase  in  the  population  of  England,  with  the  rate  of 
wages  in  force,  reuders  it  almost  impossible  for  the  husband  and  father 
to  support  a  family  on  his  own  earnings,  even  in  the  most  humble  way. 
This  fact  renders  it  necessary  for  the  wife  and  mother,  in  a  vast  majority 
of  cases,  to  take  her  place  in  the  mill  or  to  turn  her  hand  to  some  toil 
in  order  that  additions  may  be  secured  to  the  living  fund.  In  doing 
this  small  children  are  often  left  inadequately  cared  for  at  home  during 
the  absence  of  the  parents.  I  saw,  in  a  recent  visit  to  a  manufacturing 
district,  many  groups  of  young  children  in  the  bare  streets,  near  their 
homes,  whose  parents  were  away  at  work  iu  the  mill,  leaving  their  little 
ones  of  tender  age  to  shift  for  themselves  from  7  a.  m.  to  1  p.  m.,  and 
from  2  p.  in.  to  5  or  6  j).  m.  Such  sights  were  very  sad,  and  yet  they 
are  common  all  over  this  district.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the 
social,  moral,  and  intellectual  condition  of  children  reared  under  such 
uufav'orable  surroundings  can  be  of  a  safe  or  satisfactory  character. 
The  school  of  the  street  is  the  graduating  ground  for  vice,  crime,  and 
every  social  weakness  possible  to  the  state. 

Many  parents  here  appreciate  fully  this  fact,  and  so  long  to  escape 
from  a  state  of  things  so  discouraging  by  emigrating  to  some  country 
where  better  conditions  can  be  found.  Thousands  from  this  district 
have  found  homes  in  the  United  States,  and  are  contented  and  happy 
there.  Many  more  would  follow  if  they  were  able  to  do  so,  but,  alas^ 
the  needed  funds  cannot  always  be  had.  Some  go,  and  after  a  time  re- 
turn, not  so  much  because  they  could  not  do  better,  but  mainly  for  the 
reason  that  their  associations  and  habits  of  life  here  unfitted  them  for 
the  employment  of  other  and  widely  different  surroundings  in  the 
United  States.  They  could  not  adjust  themselves  to  new  associations^ 
and  so  come  back  to  their  old  haunts,  and  walk  the  weary  round  of  the 
old  mill  as  their  fathers  did  before  them. 

Part  II. — Female  Labor. 

In  preparing  this  report  amid  a  multitude  of  consular  duties,  I  have 
availed  myself  of  the  advice  and  assistance  of  several  experts,  in  order 
that  the  data  furnished  may  be  both  full  and  reliable.  At  my  request 
Mr.  Henry  W.  Sales,  editor  of  the  Textile  Manufacturer,  of  Manchester, 
consented  to  prepare  replies  to  this  portion  of  the  report  called  for  in 
Part  II  of  the  circular  from  the  Deiiartment  of  State,  to  whom  I  wish  to 
tender  my  best  thanks  for  the  intelligent  manner  in  which  he  did  the 
works. 

1.  "  State  the  number  of  women  and  children,  or  the  closest  possible  ap- 
proximation thereto,  em[)loyed  in  your  district  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, not  including  ordinary  household  duties  or  domestic  servants^ 
classifying  the  same  soniewhat  as  follows  :  {a)  Manufacturing  and 
mechanical ;  {h)  commercial,  including  transportation  ;  (c)  profes- 
sional and  personal,  including  Government  ofiBcials  and  clerks^ 
teachers,  artists,  chemists,  hotel  and  boarding-house  keepers,  jour- 
nalists, laundresses,  musicians,  inventors,  bankers,  brokers,  lectur- 
ers, public  speakers,  &c.;  (<?)  agriculture;  (6')  mining;  (/)  all  other 
inirsuits." 

In  the  following  {Statistics  the  order  of  occupation  given  in  the  circular 
is  followed  as  closely  as  possible,  but  there  is  nothing  so  unsatisfiictory 


762 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


as  returns  of  the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  large  area  where  the 
ramifications  of  enii)loyinent  are  endless.  In  the  table  a  general  classi- 
fication has  been  adopted,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  trustworthy  for 
all  practical  purposes.  When  dealing  with  the  occupations  of  females 
in  a  statistical  return  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  a  large  number 
are  married  women  who  assist  their  husbands  in  their  business,  but  are 
iiQt  paid  specially  for  their  services.  The  husband  may  be  a  clerk  or 
warehouseman  in  the  city,  but  he  has  a  small  draper's,  or  tobacconist's, 
or  some  similar  shop  which  is  looked  after  by  his  wife  during  the  day, 
and  is  virtually  the  shopkeeper,  still  the  husband  returns  himself  as 
the  shopkeeper  and  his  wife  of  no  business  occupation. 

FEMALE   OCCUPATIONS   IN  MANCHESTER   AND   SALFORD. 

Total  number  of  females  in  Manchester,  177,939  ;  total  number  of  fe- 
males in  Salford,  91,025. 

Statistics  of  occupations  in  Manchester  and  Salford. 


Occupations. 


(a)  Manufacturing  and  mechanical 

Worljers  and  dealers: 

Macbinery 

Tools  and  implements 

Watches  aud  philosophical  instruments  

Tacklers  for  sports  aud  yaraes 

Buihlers,  house  Curnisliers,  &.C  

'Chemical  manufacturers,  druggists 

Workers  in  textile  fabrics: 

Wool  and  worsted 

Silk 

Cotton  and  flax 

Hemp  and  other  kindred  fibers 

Mixed  or  unspecified  textile  materials 

Dressmakers,  shoemakeis,  haberdashers 

"Workers  and  dealers  in  precious  metals,  jewelry,  &c 

Blacksmiths,  ironmongers,  &c ." 

Tin-plate  wurkers 

"Workers  and  dealers  in  various  metals  unspecified 

Workers  and  dealers  in  vegetable  substances: 

In  oil.s,  gums,  resins,  including  water-proof  clothing 

In  cane,  rush,  and  straw 

In  wood  aud  bark 

In  paper,  including  stationery  

(6)  Commercial,  including  transportation. 

Booksellers  and  stationers 

Tobacconists 

Hotel  and  boarding  house  keepers  

lletailers  of  alcoholic  liquors 

Ketailers  of  food  generally 

Merchants  and  agents 

On  1  ailways 

Carriers 

On  Ijarges  .    

Warehousemen   

Messengers,  telephonists,  &c.,  other  than  Government  officials 
Dealers  in  cai  riages  and  harness 

(c)  Professional  and  personal,  d-c. 

Government  officials  and  clerks 

Parochial  oilicials  

Script ure  renders,  local  missionaries,  &c 

Metfieal  profession  : 

Physician 

Medical  students 

Midwife 

Subordinate  (including  professional  nurses) 

Teacliers  and  lecturers 

<Tourualisis 


Manches- 
ter. 

Salford. 

98 

47 

16 

4 

8 

2 

45 

9 

705 

223 

82 

25 

M4 

153 

!»G0 

700 

13,  633 

10,  228 

133 

64 

2,  970 

1,138 

13,  282 

3,984 

30 

7 

58 

36 

10 

59 

23 

283 

33 

33 

8 

76 

23 

815 

375 

580 

343 

401 

41 

866 

166 

250 

58 

1,714 

625 

388 

90 

11 

7 

4 

3 

1 

133 

31 

i46 

64 

25 

2 

33 

5 

13 

22 

68 

22 

1 

2 

57 

85 

316 

131 

1,342 

692 

8 

4 

LAIJOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Stadstice  of  occupations  in  Manchester  and  Salford — Continued. 


763 


Occiipationa. 


Manches- 
ter. 


Salford. 


(c)  Professional  and  personal,  <f-c. — Continued. 

Artists  and  enuravers 

TeacluTs  of  music 

Art  students 

Photo^iMjihi'ra 

Actiesscs,  public  singers,  &c  

Domestic  service,  otfice-kcopera,  charwomen 

(d)  Agriculture. 

yarnicra  and  farm  servants,  Rardenera,  and  engaged  about  animals 

(e)  Working  and  dealing  in  various  mineral  substances, 

■Coal  mines  

Coal  dealers      

Stone  and  clay  dealers 

Eartlicnware  and  glass  dealers 

Salt  

(/)  All  other  pursuits. 

General  shopkeepers,  hucksters,  street  saleswomen 

Eag  gatherers 

Undefined  laborers  other  than  those  above  specified  


24 

12 

291 

68 

11 

6 

23 

4 

100 

3 

16,  539 

7,655 

1 

27 

19 

13 

10 

146 

20 

2 

1,715 

419 

152 

3 

245 

119 

"fin  the  above  table  are  not  inchided  sinjj^le  women  who  derive  their 
livinji^from  property,  investments  of  various  kinds,  or  who  are  supported 
by  their  parents  and  are  occupied  with  domestic  duties.  The  number 
of  tliese,  toi^ether  with  the  married  women  who  do  not  profess  to  have 
anv  business  occui)ation,  are:  In  Manchester,  about  95,131;  in  Salford, 
about  50,840. 

The  remainder  of  the  female  population  of  Manchester  and  Salford 
consists  of  children  at  school  or  at  home,  of  whom  there  are  in  Man- 
chester 23,241  and  in  Salford  12,045  under  five  years  of  age. 

FEMALE   WAGES. 

2.  "  What  are  the   minimum,  maximum,  and   average  wages  paid  to 

female  adults?" 

Colonel  Shaw  has  dealt  with  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  Lancashire 
cotton  industry  so  exhaustively  in  his  able  report,  pages  1-02,  in  Cotton 
and  Woolen  Mills  of  Europe  (N"o.  23,  September,  1882),  and  again  in  his 
report  page 00 1,  United  States  Consular  Reports (Xo.  38,  February,  1884), 
that  no  further  statistics  can  be  given  respecting  wages  in  the  cotton 
mills.  A  few  brief  remarks  may,  however,  be  made  with  special  refer- 
ence to  female  operatives. 

*^ Women  are  for  the  most  part  paid  by  the  piece  in  cotton  mills  here, 
and  their  wages  vary  much  according  to  their  aptitude  and  industry. 
The  weekly  wages  may  be  stated  generally  within  the  following  limits: 

Drawing-frame  tenters  from  82.43  to  •$3.8'J  or  $1.3S;  slubbing-frame 
tenters  from  $3,05  to  $4.38;  throst'e  spinners,  about  $2.92;  winders 
from  $2.43  to  $4.80;  beam  warpers  from  $4.38  to  $4.80;  weavers  from 
$1.22  to  $1.40  per  loom;  average  looms  3;  wages  therefore  from  $3.05 
to  $4.38.  Wages  vary  in  different  factories,  but  the  average  weekly 
wages  of  an  adult  female  in  a  Manchester  mill  is  $3,05  per  week.  And 
a  close  examination  of  the  wages  paid  to  adult  females  in  all  other  oc- 


764  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

cupations  in  Mancbester  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  $3.65  per  week 
may  fairlj  be  taken  as  the  avetage  amount.  A  very  large  number  en- 
gaged in  shops  only  receive  $2.43  a  week,  while  a  fair  number  earn  from 
$4.80  to  $7.29  per  week.  Manj*  forewomen  in  the  large  warehouses  re- 
ceive as  much  as  $14.59  per  week.  None  of  these  remarks  apply  to  do- 
mestic servants. 

HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

3.  "  What  are  their  hours  of  labor  ?  " 

In  mills  the  hours  of  labor  for  the  first  five  days  of  the  week  are  from 
6  a.  m.  until  5.30  p.  m.,  or  from  C.30  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.,  with  an  interval  of 
half  an  hour  for  breakfast  and  one  hour  for  dinner.  'ii  Saturday  work 
ceases  at  1  p.  m.  The  hours  of  labor  therefore  are  fifty-six  and  one-half 
per  week.  It  is  impossible  to  give  the  hours  of  female  labor  in  other 
occupations  in  detail.  Dressmakers  and  such  like  are  under  the  work- 
shops act,  by  which  their  working  hours  are  limited.  In  retail  shops  the 
females  are  at  work  from  8  a.  m.  to  9  p.  m.,  and  in  some  cases  later. 
But  it  may  be  said  generally  that  female  labor  in  Manchester  commences 
at  8  a.  m.  and  continues  to  G  p.  m.,  with  an  interval  of  one  hour  at  mid- 
day. 

MORAL   AND   PHYSICAL   CONDITION. 

4.  "What  is  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  such  employes?" 

The  morality  of  the  adult  female  population  in  Manchester  will  bear 
favorable  comparison  with  other  large  centers  of  industry.  To  the 
facilities  now  afforded  for  country  excursions  and  the  increase  of  public 
parks  may  be  attributed  the  healthier  physical  condition  of  females  in 
this  and  other  industrial  districts.  The  great  drawback  to  a  fine  phys- 
ique is  early  marriages  which  seem  to  be  on  the  increase,  and  resulting 
in  the  production  of  a  stunted  and  feeble-bodied  offspring.  Were  it 
not  that  Manchester  has  a  constant  inflow  of  recruits  from  the  agricult- 
ural districts  who  intermarry  with  the  natives,  the  results  of  early  mar- 
riages on  the  physical  condition  of  the  female  population  would  be  still 
more  prominent  than  they  are. 

5.  "  What  are  the  means  provided,  and  by  whom,  for  the  improvement 

of  these  employes  ?" 

There  are  no  special  means  provided  beyond  what  is  done  for  the  popu- 
lation at  large,  by  the  city  corporation,  and  school  board.  It  is  only  in 
isolated  cases  that  an  employer  of  labor  takes  any  personal  interest  in 
the  moral  and  social  improvement  of  the  persons  in  his  employ. 

6.  "What  are  the  means  provided  in  case  of  tire  or  other  dangers  for 

their  safety?" 

All  the  safeguards  against  fire  or  other  dangers  are  those  insisted  on 
by  law,  whicli  does  not  specially  recognize  danger  from  fire.  What  m 
done  in  this  respect  is  for  the  employer's  own  security,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  his  insurance  policy.  The  law  provides  for  the  secure  fencing 
of  upright  shafts  and  other  dangerous  machinery,  and  the  "eiuployers 
liability  act"  makes  the  employer  responsible  for  injuries  to  his  work- 
people. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  765 

7.  "  What  are  the  provisions  made  by  the  employers  in  regard  to  sani- 
tary measures  and  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  disabled  ?" 

Employers,  as  a  rule,  do  not  do  anythinj^  for  their  female  employ6s 
•directly  with  respect  to  their  sanitary  welfare  beyond  what  is  required 
by  law.  Work-rooms  are  required  to  be  whitewashed  annually,  or  in 
case  of  paint  be  washed  with  soap  and  water.  Factories  are  kept  for  the 
most  part  in  a  good  sanitary  condition.  With  respect  to  diseases,  em- 
ployers generally  subscribe  to  one  or  more  of  the  hospitals  and  dispen- 
saries and  give  "recommends"  to  their  work-people.  Aseraployers,  tbey 
do  nothing  only  what  the  law  requires,  as  men  or  women,  they  are  neither 
more  nor  less  charitable  than  other  people. 

S.  "  Has  there  been  any  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the  wages 
paid  women  and  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  or  otherwise  f 

No. 

9.  '*  What  are  the  effects  of  employment  of  women  on  the  wages  of  men, 

and  on  general,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  ?" 

This  is  more  of  an  academical  than  practical  question,  and  cannot  be 
answered  in  a  few  sentences.  It  may  be  said  that  in  this  district  meu's 
wages  are  not  affected  by  the  employment  of  women.  On  general, 
social,  and  industrial  conditions  their  employment  increases  the  wealth 
of  the  community,  using  here  the  term  wealth  in  its  widest  sense,  and 
not  restricting  the  term  to  mere  "riches." 

10.  "What  is  the  state  of  education  among  the  women  employed  and 

among  their  children,  &c.  1 " 

Compulsory  attendance  at  school  being  enforced  by  the  education  act 
for  all  children,  the  standard  of  education  is  becoming  higher  every 
year.  The  remainder  of  the  question  is  of  a  general  character,  and  has 
no  special  reference  to  female  employment  in  Manchester. 


766 


LABOR    IN    EUKOPE — ENGLAND. 


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LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND 


767 


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768  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

It  is  believed  that  this  report  fairly  covers  the  important  queries  pro- 
pounded by  the  Dei>artment  of  State,  and  while  I  have  been  more  or 
less  troubled  by  illness  in  my  family  during-  its  preparation,  I  have 
endeavored  to  make  my  report  worthy  of  the  high  aspirations  of  the 
Department,  and  the  useful  character  of  consular  reports  in  general. 

ALBERT  D.  SHAW, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Manchester,  June  26,  1884. 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  LOCKE. 

I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  upon  the  condition  of 
labor  in  this  consular  district,  in  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  labor 
circular  issued  by  the  Department  February  15,  1884. 

The  importance  of  tlie  subject  and  the  necessity  for  the  utmost  accu- 
racy in  every  detail  demanded  the  most  careful  study  and  investiga- 
tion, and  to  the  thoroughness  with  which  this  has  been  done,  must  be 
attributed  the  apparent  delay  in  forwarding  the  report. 

WAGES   NOW  AND   IN   1878. 

In  making  "  a  comparison  between  the  present  rate  of  wages  and 
those  which  prevailed  in  1878  (and  since  that  time)  when  the  last  labor 
circular  was  issued  from  the  Department,  and  between  the  conditions 
which  then  prevailed  and  which  now  prevail,"  it  is  necessary,  for  a  full 
understanding  of  the  matter  to  briefly  review  the  condition  of  the  gen- 
eral trade  of  the  district  from  the  time  mentioned  to  the  present.  For 
some  time  previous  to  1878  business  was  greatly  depressed  in  all 
branches.  Shipbuilding,  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  Newcastle's  pros- 
perity, W'as  in  a  languishing  state;  the  coal  trade  suffered  by  reason  of 
strikes ;  iron  workers  were  short  of  orders  ;  chemicals  were  lower  than 
they  had  been  at  any  time  since  the  foundation  of  the  trade  on  the  Tyne, 
and  everywhere  and  in  everything  there  was  a  dullness  that  could  not 
be  overcome.  The  culminating  point  was  reached  in  the  latter  part  of 
1878  and  the  first  of  1879,  and  then  there  was  a  slight  improvement  no- 
ticeable. This  improvement  was  not  in  any  way  speculative,  but  was 
entirely  legitimate,  being  the  reaction  that  business  men  of  energy  and 
talent  will  always  make  follow  a  season  of  great  depression.  During 
1879,  1880,  and  1881,  the  trade  in  all  branches  was  better  than  it  had 
been  for  years,  and  1882  and  the  first  half  of  1883  the  flood  of  good 
times  reached  its  height.  Business  never  was  so  good.  The  hard  times 
of  1878  were  forgotten,  and  every  one  used  his  utmost  endeavors  to 
profit  to  the  fullest  by  the  unprecedented  prosperity.  Manufacturers 
of  all  kinds  enlarged  their  cai)acity,  increased  tlieir  forces,  and  shared 
W'ith  the  men  their  good  fortune  by  raising  wages  in  all  departments. 
New  ship-yards  were  established  and  old  ones  enlarged.  And  they  all 
had  every  berth  filled  and  long  orders  ahead.  The  chemical  trade  felt 
the  influence  of  the  revival,  iron  and  coal  trades  regained  their  old-time 
standing.  In  short,  the  whole  north  of  England  was  prosperous  to  a 
degree.  But  unfortunately,  the  good  times  had  not  come  to  stay.  An 
era  of  heavy  returns  on  short-time  investments  began  at  last  to  make 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


769 


itself  felt.  There  was  too  great  an  eagerness  to  go  into  all  sorts  of  busi- 
ness ventures,  and  the  inevitable  result  followed.  Trade  began  to  fall 
off,  employers  found  they  could  not  live  and  pay  the  wages  they  were 
doing,  an  occasional  failure  added  to  the  feeling  of  uneasiness  tjiat  be- 
came greater  and  greater  each  week.  The  entire  business  community 
began  to  see  that  everything  had  been  overdone,  and  there  was  a  con- 
sequent rush  in  the  opposite  direction.  Result,  the  condition  of  trade 
on  the  Tyne  to-day  is  even  worse  than  at  the  same  time  in  1878,  and 
there  is  no  prospect  of  its  immediate  recovery.  This  great  depression 
has  naturally  affected  labor  in  all  branches,  and,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
accompanying  tables,  the  wages  of  laborers  have  fallen  in  proportion  to 
the  decline  of  business. 


GENERAL  TRADES. 

Wages  paid  in  Newcastle  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average 

BUILDING    TBADES. 

Brick-layers 

$8  10 
5  50 

Hod-carriers 

$5  00 

$6  00 

8  10 

Tenders 

4  86 

6  07 

5  54 

Plasteicra 

8  72 

5  48 
7  30 

6  00 

8  24 

5  50 

Slaters  

7  75 

Tenders 

2  43 

7  00 

1  eo 

7  78 

7  35 

Assistants .  .       , 

5  00 

Carpenters 

per  hour.. 

8  10 

Gas-fitters 

8  02 

OTHER  TRADES. 

Bakers 

7  44 

Blacksmiths 

7  78 

Strikers 

4  38 

Book-binders , 

7  30 

Brick-makers 

5  83 
5  34 

7  29 
6  56 

6  56 

Brewers 

6  07 

Holders 

7  75 

Butchers 

4  38 

5  24 
5  83 
5  32 

5  48 
7  78 
7  78 
7  30 

4  93 

Cabinet-makers 

7  50 

Confectioners 

7  00 

Coopers 

6  25 

Drivers : 

Dravmen  and  teamsters 

6  08 

Cab  and  carriage 

4  37 

4  85 

4  60 

Street  railways 

6  08 

Dyers 

6  07 

6  07 

4  38 

5  32 

5  32 

7  29 
2  43 

6  07 

7  29 

8  75 
7  29 
7  30 
7  00 

10  00 
4  38 
7  78 

6  50 

Engravers 

8  00 

Gardeners .- 

5  84 

Hatters , 

Horseshoei  s 

Jewelers 

piece-work. . 

floormen . . 

6  30 
6  25 
9  30 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

3  40 

Lithographers 

7  00 

Potters 

5  32 

House  painters 

per  hour.. 

7  00 

215  00 

973  30 

Saddle  and  harness  makers 

7  00 

5  32 

7  00 

6  16 

Stevedores 

9  36 

6  00 

7  30 

8  24 
8  75 

7  00 

Tailors 

7  29 

7  30 

Kope-making 

6  00 

7  30 

5  32 

92  A — LAB- 


-49 


770  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

FACTORIES   AND   MILLS. 

Jf'ages  ^aid  in  factories  or  mills  in  the  chemical  trade  in  Xeiccasile-upon-Tyne. 

[Per  week  of  fifty-six  to  eighty-four  hours.] 


Occupations. 


Chambere : 

Burnermen  (week  of  fifty-six  hours) 

Columnineu  (week  of  eighty- four  hours) 

Bleaching  powder,  (week  of  seventy-two  hours) : 

Stillmon 

Chambermen 

Lime-burners - 

Lime-timpsers 

Ball  furnace-house  (week  of  seventy-two  hours)  : 

Mixers,  bogies,  and  revolvers  (per  ton  sulphate  balled) 

Tanks 

Tramway  boys 

Black  salt  (week  of  seventy-two  hours) : 

Pans  on  revolver  woi'k 

Drawers  on  carbonate 

Limestone  crushing  (per  ton  sulphate  balled) 

"White  alkali  (week  of  seventy-two  hours) : 

Evaporating  strong 

Mothers 

Driers 

Packers  and  grinding per  ton 

Dissolvers do.. 


Lowest. 

$5  58 
6  00 

7  30 

7  30 

8  48 
7  30 

27 
5  34 
2  42 

7  06 

5  58 

06 

5  58 

5  58 

7  30 

19 

12 

$6  56 
6  24 

14  58 

14  58 

9  72 

14  58 

27 

6  32 
2  42 

7  06 
5  58 

06 

5  58 

5  58 

7  30 

19 

12 


Average. 


$6  08 
C  10 

II  00 

n  00 

9  12 
11  00 

27 

5  82 
2  42 

6  80 
5  58 

06 

5  58 
5  58 

7  30 
19 
12 


[Per  week  of  seventy -two  to  eighty-four  hours.] 


Gashouse  (week  of  eighty-four  hours) : 

Gasmen  (per  1,000  cubic  feet  gas  produced) 

Soda  crystals : 

Taking  out per  ton . . 

Packing 

Liquor  runners per  week.. 

Dissolvers per  ton.. 


$0  09 

$0  09 

14 

14 

08 

08 

5  00 
02 

5  00 
02 

$0  09 

14 

*08 

tl4 

5  00 

02 


'  Per  ton  gross  weight. 


tPer  ton  special  weight. 


[Per  week  of  fifty -four  hours.] 


Boiler-smiths 

Brick -layers 

Joiners 

Masons 

Millwrights 

Plate-layers 

Plumbers 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Laborers 

Cartmen 

Enginemen  (week  of  eighty-four  to  ninety  hours) 


$5  48 

$7  78 

7  18 

7  18 

7  18 

7  18 

7  18 

7  18 

6  80 

7  78 

6  00 

6  00 

6  00 

7  66 

C  48 

7  78  1 

5  48 

5  48  1 

4  38 

4  62 

5  24 

5  24 

6  80 

7  30 

$e  56 

7  18 
7  18 
7  18 
7  30 
6  00 

6  74 

7  06 
5  48 

4  50 

5  24 
7  06 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


771 


LEAD  WORKS. 


Followinjj  is  a  schedule  of  wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours, 
when  on  time,  in  the  lead  works  of  Messrs.  Cookson  &  Co.,  of  Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne : 


Occnpations. 


Lowent. 


Highest.  {Average. 


Simple  laborers  (very  few  employed) . 
Potmen . 


Pipe-m.akers 

Head  millnian  (piece-work) 

Helpers  to  millman  (piece-work) . 

Mcohaiiicfl  

Siiiclters  (piece-work 

Kod-load  men  (piece-work) 

Enjrinemoii  and  firemen 

Keliuers  (piece-work) 

CooperB  (piece-work) 

White-lead  women 


7  30 


$6  00  . 
9  00  . 
7  00  I. 


$12  00 
9  36 

9  12 

7  30 
6  56 

8  12 
8  48 
3  00 


IRON-WORKERS. 

The  condition  of  this  important  class  of  laborers  is  and  has  been  for 
some  time  past  the  reverse  of  prosperous.  The  dullness  in  the  shipping 
trade  has  had  its  effect  in  the  iron  works,  necessitating  the  restriction 
of  the  output,  the  discharge  of  men,  and  reduction  in  wages,  though  it 
may  be  said  that,  as  a  rule,  the  iron-works  of  the  district  have  not  as 
yet  felt  the  depression  to  such  an  extent  as  other  branches  of  trade. 
There  has  not  been  that  universal  closing  of  business  noticeable  in  the 
ship-building  trade,  and  there  are  comparatively  fewer  laborers  out  of 
employment.  But  there  is  a  slackness  in  the  trade,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  many  works  which  last  year  at  this  time  were  running  full  forces 
full  time,  are  now  working  a  mucli  smaller  staff  three-quarter  to  half  time, 
while  in  a  few  instances  firms  have  been  obliged  to  suspend  work  alto- 
gether. This  state  of  affairs  has,  of  course,  had  its  effect  on  wages, 
which  have  been  gradually  reduced  (usually  by  means  of  arbitration) 
from  1878  to  the  present  time. 

Wages  i>ald  per  day  to  men  employed  at  llast  furnaces  in  iron  works  in  this  dinirici. 


Occnpation.s. 


Ban-owmen 

Onsotters  (men  at  lift  or  hoist) 

Chargers 

Keepers 

Slajigers 

Laborers  (men) 

Laborers  (boys) 

Stovemen 

Metal  carriers  (pi<i-iron  men) 

Weishiiijr  minfrala  on  top  of  blast  furnaces 

Tijjpinj;  iiiinerals        

Driviii j;  nictal-tlag  locomotive 

I'iriufi  mi-tal-tiag  locomotive 

Blast  eiiiiiiH'iiicu 

Hoist  eufiiiienicii 

Minding  fiasboilers 

Blast  cnfiiuc  cleaners 

Driving  mineral  locomotive 

Firing  mineral  locomotives 

Sand-boy,  mineral  locomotive 

l-inipstoue  breakers 


No.  of 

shifts 

per 

week. 


Lowest.  I  Highest.  ]  Average. 


7i 

7i 

74 

7* 

74 

74 

74 

7 

74 

64 

74 

74  , 

74  I 

74 

74 

74 

64 

64 

64 

64 


$0  86 
1  20 
1  04 
1  66 


1  16 

74 
90 


$1  38 
1  38 

1  66 

2  72 

1  70 


1  02 


1  30 
92 
94 

70 


$1  12 
1  28 

1  36 

2  18 
1  28 

74 

.=■.0 

84 

94 

1  46 

1  03 

1  02 

80 

1  22 

84 

92 

70 

1  24 

84 

r>2 

84 


772  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  per  day  to  men  employed  at  forges  in  iron  works  in  this  district. 


Occupations. 


Puddlers 

UniU'rliard  puddlers 

Hammemieu 

Assistant  iiauiruermen 

Eollers 

Assistant  rollers 

Bogieiug,  shearing,  and  stocking  hot  pnddlod  bars 

Breaking  and  wheeling  pig-iron  to  puddling  fur- 
naces  

Dragging  and  filling  taps 

Cleauuii  lianimers 

Grinding  and  wheeling  fettling  to  puddling  fur- 
naces   

Burning  tap  cinder 

Wheeling  taps 

"Wheeling  scrap  to  puddling  furnaces 

Wheeling  coals  and  ashes 

Charging  and  drawing  bull-dog  kilns 

Sundry  labor 

Sundry  account-keepers 

Forge-enginemen 

Forge-hammer  attendants 

Forge-boilermen 

Forge-engine  cleaners 


Hours 
per 
shift. 


11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 

10 
10 
10 

10 

11 

10 

10 

10 

lOJ 

lOi 

m 

12 
11 
12 
12 


Lowest. 


$1  58 
84 

2  48 
96 

1  80 
60 

1  00 

1  40 


Highest. 


Men.     Boys.    Men.     Boys. 


$0  26 
32 


1  44 


$0  40 
52 


Average. 


Men.     Boys. 


92 
3  21 

1  35 

2  94 
96 

1  26 

1  42 
83 
76 

83 

1  20 

96 


92 
98 
72 
99 
1  04 
81 
94 


$0  26 

40 


40 


Wages  paid  per  day  to  men  employed  at  plate  mills  in  iron  works  in  this  district. 


Occupations. 


Hours 
per 
shift. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Men.     Boys.    Men.     Boys, 


Average. 


Men.     Boys. 


Heaters 

A  ssistant  heaters 

Hiaters'  fire-boys 

Riillers 

i;  oilers'  assistants 

Shearmen 

Shearmen  assistants 

Filers    

Wheeling  iron  to  piling  benches 

Cold  chargers 

Hot  chargers 

Bogiemen 

Coal  wheelers 

Scrap  wheelers 

Plate  loaders 

Sundry  labor 

Plate  inspectors 

Stock  takers 

Mill-cngincmeu 

Mill-boilermen 

Mill-firemen 

Reverse  orabmen 

Steam-crane'attendants 

Boys  attending  to  steam  lifts  and  cleaning  engines. 


12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

lOJ 

lOi 

10 

10 

11 

12 

12 

10 

10 

lOi 

10^ 

10§ 

lOi 

12 

12 

12 

12 

lOi 

12 


$2  50 


4  34 

1  00 

4  68 

68 

98 

1  32 

82 

1  02 

1  02 

80 

60 

72 

60 

96 

80 

1  04 


1  21 

78 


$3  88 


36 


10  00 
2  52 
6  00 
2  00 
1  54 
1  66 
1  24 
1  38 
1  44 
1  04 
96 
88 
84 
1  40 
1  36 
1  16 


1  36 


$0  48 


48 


56 


56 


48 


$3  24 
1  02 


7  16 

1  76 

5  34 

1  34 

1  28 

1  49 

1  03 

1  20 

1  23 

92 

78 

80 

'72 

1  18 

1  08 

1  10 

97 

82 

1  28 

82 


44 


52 


54 


42 


42 


40 


52 


42 


GLASS  WORKS. 


In  giving  the  rates  of  wages  paid  in  this  important  branch  of  New- 
castle manufacturing  tratle,  it  is  tliought  advisable  to  explain  in  detail 
the  tigures  in  the  accompanying  table. 

Pot-makers,  whose  wages  are  given  at  $7.30  to  $8.72  per  week  of  fifty- 
nine  and  one-iialf  hours,  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  $1.08  to  $1.20  per  pot. 
Furnacemeu  and  casters  are  paid  upstanding  wages. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


773 


Grinders,  smoothers,  polishers,  cutters,  and  packers  are  paid  so  much 
per  1,000  feet,  according  to  the  situation  of  the  department  and  the  work 
to  be  done,  the  respective  wages  averaging,  per  week,  $7,  $7.24,  $6.68. 

The  mechanics  and  laborers  attending  the  machinery  are  paid  at  the 
usual  rate  i)er  hour.  Laborers  make  about  $4.48  to  $5  a  week.  Me- 
chanics, such  as  fitters,  engine-drivers,  joiners,  masons,  &c.,  from  $6.34 
to  $8.48  a  week. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-m»e  and  one-half  hours  io  glass-tvorkers  in  the  Tyne  Plate- 
Glass   Works,  South  Shields. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 

Highest. 

$7  30 

$8  72 

7  30 

9  72 

8  00 

11  68 

5  58 

8  48 

5  00 

12  16 

72 

3  76 

5  10 

9  00 

0  00 

8  00 

ATerage. 


Pot-makers 

Furnacem  n 

Casters 

Griuders 

Smoothers 

Smoothers,  women  ... 

Polishers 

Cutters  and  pacters. 


$8  24 

8  48 

9  00 
7  00 
7  00 
2  42 
7  24 
6  68 


MINES   AND   MINING. 

Coal  has  played  a  most  important  part  in  the  commercial  history  of 
the  north  of  England  ever  since  it  was  first  mined  in  a  small  way,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Henry  III,  in  1239,  when  that  sovereign  granted  a 
license  to  certain  Newcastle  men  "  to  dig  coals  and  stones  in  the  Castle- 
field  and  the  Forth."  It  is  beyond  the  province  of  this  report  to  attempt 
a  history  of  the  development  and  growth  of  the  industry  from  the  small 
beginning,  six  hundred  years  ago,  to  its  present  enormous  proportions. 
But  there  is  such  a  vast  population  dependent  entirely  upon  the  produce 
of  the  miners,  and  there  are  so  many  phases  in  the  question  of  those 
peoples'  wages,  that  it  may  not  perhaps  be  out  of  place  to  carefully  re- 
view the  condition  of  coal  miners  in  this  district  during  the  past  ten 
years,  referring  briefly  to  their  wages  at  different  periods  during  that 
time,  their  hours  of  work,  the  reductions  and  advances  that  have  been 
made,  and  such  other  facts  as  will  indicate  the  actual  present  condition 
of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  laboring  classes  of  England. 

Up  to  1874  the  coal  trade  in  Northumberland  and  Durham  had  been 
exceptionally  prosperous.  There  was  a  great  demand  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  and  both  owners  and  miners  made  large  profits.  While  the 
owner  received  23  shillings  per  ton  for  his  coal ;  the  hewer  obtained 
9  shillings  per  day.  But  the  reaction  came.  The  demand  fell  olf ; 
prices  declined  and  the  wages  of  the  hewers  suffered.  First,  there  was 
a  reduction  in  April,  1874,  of  6f  per  cent.,  followed  by  another  in  Octo- 
ber of  the  same  year,  10  per  cent.  During  1875  there  was  a  further  re- 
duction of  8  per  cent.,  and  in  1876  one  of  7  per  cent,  and  another  of  8 
per  cent.  In  1877  wages  remained  steady,  but  in  the  following  year 
they  were  reduced  12^  per  cent,  in  Februaiy  and  10  per  cent,  in  Novem- 
ber. The  next  year,  1879,  showed  an  improvement.  The  very  hard 
times  had  passed,  and  trade  was  beginning  to  revive.  In  January, 
1880,  there  was  a  reduction  of  2i  i)er  cent.,  followed  by  an  advance  of 
the  same  amount  in  July ;  1881  saw  the  same  reduction  and  advance, 
and  1882  was  worked  throughout  at  the  previous  year's  figures  ;  1883 
opened  with  an  advance  of  2.4  per  cent.,  followed  by  a  reduction  of  1^ 
per  cent,  in  April,  with  advances  of  1:^  per  cent,  and  2.^  per  cent.,  re- 
spectively in  July,  and  October. 

Then  came  the  depression  in  ship- building,  with  its  low  rates,  the 
falling  off  in  the  iron  trade,  consequent  upon  the  empty  berths  in  the 


774 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


Tyue  shipyards,  aud,  of  course,  a  diilluess  in  coal,  which  the  hewers 
felt  by  a  reduction  of  I4  per  cent,  in  January  of  the  present  year,  fol- 
lowed by  another  of  1^  per  cent,  in  the  present  mouth  (April).  These 
great  reductions  have,  of  course,  caused  uo  little  dissatisfaction  among 
the  miners,  but,  owing  to  the  system  of  arbitratiou,  referred  to  in  an- 
other paragraj)!!  of  this  report,  by  which  these  matters  have  been  settled, 
there  has  been  uo  disturbance  of  the  amicable  relations  existing  be- 
tween masters  and  men  ;  the  only  strike  at  all  serious  being  in  Durham, 
in  May,  1879,  which  lasted  a  little  over  a  month,  and  was  finally  settled 
by  arbitration. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  and  amount  of  reductions  iu 
the  wages  of  hewers  iu  Northumberland  and  Durham,  from  April,  1874, 
to  April,  1884: 


Northumberland. 

Durham. 

No. 

Date. 

Reduction  or  advance. 

Per  cent. 

No. 

Date. 

Reduction  or  advance. 

Per  cent. 

1 

Apr.,  1874 
Oct.,  1874 

Mar.,  1875 

Feb.,  1876 
Oct.,  1876 
Feb.,  1878 

Nov.,  1878 

Jan.,  1880 
July,  1880 
Apr.,  1881 
Sept.,  1881 
Mar.,  1883 
Apr.,  1883 
July,  1883 
Oct.,   1883 
Jan.,  1884 
Apr.,  1844 

Reduction 

10 

C    8* 

UOt 

7 

8 

<10  * 
i    7Jt 
2i 
2J 
'2h 
24 
2J 

i 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

Apr.,  1874 
Nov.,  1874 
Apr.,  1875 
Feb.,  1876 
Sept.,  1876 
Apr.,  1877 
May,  1879 
July,  1879 
Dec,  1880 
Apr.,  1882 
Aug.,  1882 
Nov.,  1882 
Feb.,  1883 

10 

?! 

....do  

do 

9.1 

...  do  

...do 

5 

...  do 

....do  

...do 

4 

...  do  

7 
6 

5 

...do 

7i 
8J 
ij 

6 

....do 

...  do 

....do 

...  do  

do 

2i 

8 

do    

3| 

n 

H 

<» 

10 

Advance 

. .  do 

11 

Advance 

1? 

....do  

IS 

Reduction 

14 

A  d vance 

It 

...do  

16 

Reduction 

17 

...  do 

'  steam. 


f  Manufacturing 


"  The  period  of  prosperity  that  followed  the  depression  of  1878-'80 
brought  back  to  the  coal  i>its  vast  numbers  of  miners  who  left  in  the 
bad  times  to  seek  employment  elsewhere.  The  coal  trade  revives 
rapidly  when  once  improvement  sets  in,  aud  miners  who  counted  on 
bettering  themselves  iu  other  branches  quickly  came  back  to  their  work 
when  demand  enabled  employers  to  work  the  pits  to  the  full  capacity. 
Compared  with  1873  and  1878, 1883  showed  a  very  marked  falling  off 
in  the  average  wages  paid,  though  the  number  of  hours  worked  per 
day  was  much  larger.  But  these  details  may  best  be  understood  by  a 
glance  at  the  following : 

General  view  of  the  trade. 


Occui>ationH. 


Northumberland : 
fejr.  1873 

1878 

1883 

Durham: 

1883 


Number 
of  men 
employed 
under 
ground. 

Hours 
■worked 
by  coal- 
getters 

in  Iho 
face. 

Wages 
oarnod 
by  coal- 
getter.s. 

16,000 
12,  000 
19,  542 

60,  585 

6 

6i 

6to6i 

6  to  Bit 

$2  16 
1  28 
1  16 

1  10 

Wages 
earned  by 
off-band 


Hours 
■worked 
per  day 
by  off- 
hand 
men 
bank  to 
bank. 


$1  68 

84  [  8 

.60  to      96  !    10  to  31 

I 
62  to  1.  02  I    10  to  11 


Days 

■worked 

per 
week  by 

coal- 
getters. 


5 
3i 
5  to  6 

5  to  6 


Days 
■worked 

per 
week  by 
off-hand 


5  to  6 
5  to  6 


I 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


775 


A  comparison  between  the  figures  paid  coal  laborers  in  1878  and 
those  now  paid  shows  that  there  is  not  a  great  difference  in  the  general 
average,  although  in  almost  every  branch  a  decline  is  noticeable.  This 
comparison  may  be  easily  made  by  referring  to  the  following  table, 
which  shows  the  number  of  hours  worked  and  the  average  wage  per 
day  over  both  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  in  1878  and 
1884: 


Hours  worked. 

1878. 

1884. 

Occupations. 

English 
money. 

TJnited 
States 
money. 

English 
money. 

United 

States 
money. 

7  to  7§  bank  to  bank. . . 

£   «.    d. 
0    4    9i 
0    4    5 

0    3  10 
0    4    1 
0    4    8 
0    3    6 
0    4    2 
0    3    9 
0    4     1 
0    3    3 
*0  18    6 
0    3  11 
0    3  11 
0    3    4 
0    2    9 
0    3    6 
0    3    8 
0    3     6 
0    3  10 
0    3    7 
0    2    9 
0    4    8 
0    3  11 
0    3    0 

$1  15 
1  06 

92 
98 

1  12 
84 

1  00 
90 
98 
78 

4  50 
94 
94 
80 
66 
84 
88 
84 
92 
86 
66 

1  12 
94 
72 

£   s.    d. 

0    4    8 
0    4    7 

0    4    1 
0    4    0 
0    4    0 
0    3  11 
0    4    4 
0    3    3 
0    3  11 
0    2    9i 
0    2    8 
0    4    0 
0    3    2 
0    3    6 
0    2  11 
0    3    8 
0    3    8 
0    3     8 
0     3  10 
0    3    8 
0    2  10 
0    4    9 
0    4    0 
0    3     1 

$1  12 

1  10 

Engineers: 

...do  

98 

11  to  12  hours 

96 

96 

Fan 

do 

04 

do 

1  04 

Shifters 

78 

.   .  do 

94 

67 

8  hours  .   

64 

06 

do    

V6 

.do 

84 

.   ..do 

70 

54  hours  per  week 

.do 

88 

88 

..  do       

88 

.do         

92 

Fitters     

do     

88 

10  to  11  hours  per  day. . 

68 

1  14 

Coke  tillers 

do 

96 

74 

■  Per  week. 


The  majority  of  all  the  above  classes  of  labor,  that  is,  all  married  men, 
with  the  exception  of  putters  and  cokemen,  are  supplied  with  free  houses 
and  coals,  they  paying  6d.  per  fortnight  for  loading  the  coal. 


RAILWAY  EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemen,  railroad  laborers,  <fc. )  in  Northern  Division, 
Northeastern  Railway  Company. 


Occupations. 


PASSENGER  DEPARTMENT 

Inspectors  (yearly  salary) 

Station  masters  (yearly  salary)  

■Station  masters'  assLstants 

Booking  and  parcel  clerks 

Telegraph  clerks 

Guards 

Guards'  assistants 

Foremen  porters 

Parcel  porters 

Excess  porters 

Porters 

Laiupmen 

Carriage  cleaners 

Ticket  collectors 

Signal  men 

Gatemen 

Water  closet  attendants 


Lowest. 


$438  00 
253  00 

4  00 
1  38 
1  38 

5  48 
4  40 
4  64 

4  00 

5  24 
4  00 
4  24 

4  24 

5  00 
5  00 
4  00 
4  00 


Highest. 


$851  58 

1,  703  28 

10  00 

15  44 

10  00 

8  12 

5  48 

6  24 

5  72 

6  24 

4  64 

5  00 
4  48 

7  30 
7  00 
4  24 
4  48 


Average, 


$644  72 

1,  022  00 

8  24 

8  38 

5  68 

6  84 
5  00 
5  48 

4  76 

5  72 
4  36 
4  60 
4  36 

6  24 
6  00 
4  12 
4  24 


776  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes,  c^c. — Coutiuued. 


Occupations. 


GOODS  DEPARTMENT. 

Inspectors 

Goods  agents 

Goods  guards 

Foremen 

Porters 

Timber  loaders 

Shunters 

Rollj'men 

Horsemen 

Number  takers 

ENGDJEEBING  DEPARTMENT 

Inspectors 

Gangers 

Navies  (pickmen) 

Navies  (sbovelers) 

Plate  layers 

Plate  layers,  extra  gang 

Joiners  - 

Joiners'  laborers 

Brick  layers .   

Plumbers  and  gas-fitters 

Signal  fitters 

Gas  makers 

Painters 

Smiths 

Strikers 

Masons 

Masons'  laborers 


Lowest. 


$6  48 
9  12 
5  72 
5  48 

4  40 

5  00 
4  40 
4  24 
4  64 
1  20 


7  30 

5  72 
4  48 
4  48 
4  64 

4  48 

6  72 

5  00 

7  04 
7  30 

6  72 

4  24 

5  24 

7  04 
4  64 

4  48 

5  00 


Highest.  Average. 


$15  44 
29  20 
7  30 
11  00 
6  00 
6  24 
6  90 
6  24 
6  00 
6  00 


12  16 

7  78 
6  48 
6  48 
6  24 

6  48 

7  78 

5  72 
7  04 
7  78 
7  78 

6  48 

7  30 

7  78 
5  72 

8  00 
C  00 


$8  16 
17  82 
7  06 
7  04 
5  20 
5  60 
5  72 
5  62 
5  48 
4  12 


8  48 

6  48 
5  48 
5  48 
5  60 
5  48 

7  54 
5  36 
7  04 
7  54 
7  04 

5  48 

6  36 

7  42 

5  24 

6  72 
5  4S 


Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes,  4~c. — Coutinued. 
[Per  -week  of  fifty-four  hours  for  men  in  repairing  departments.] 


Occupations. 


LOCOMOTIVE  WORKS. 

Foremen 

Chargemen  (erectors) 

Fitters 

Boiler  smiths 

Boiler  smiths'  assistants 

Tin  and  copper  smiths 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Turners  and  machinemen 

Brass  molders 

Brass  finishers 

Carriage  builders 

Wajfou  builders 

Carriage  ])ainters 

Engine  painters 

Pattern  makers 

Sawyers 

Laborers 

Engine  drivers 

Firemen 

Mineral  guards 

Engine  cleaners I 

Boiler  cleaners 

Lighters-up 

Stationary  engine-drivers 

Coke  and'  coal  fillers 

Wagon  greasers 


Lowest. 


$9  72 
8  48 
4  64 
6  72 

4  48 

5  24 

5  24 

3  64 

4  24 

6  24 
6  48 
4  48 

4  48 

5  00 
4  64 

6  00 
4  24 

3  64 

7  30 

4  48 

5  72 
1  44 
4  48 
4  48 
3  64 
3  40 
3  40 


Highest. 

$11  00 

8  72 

8  72 

9  48 

7  54 

9  36 

8  72 

6  24 

8  72 

8  72 

8  36 

7  78 

7  78 

8  00 

8  00 

8  36 

7  78 

6  00 

11  00 

6  72 

6  72 

4  48 

6  48 

6  24 

7  30 

6  00 

5  24 

Average. 


$12  16 
8  66 

7  33 

8  30 

6  03 
8  00 

7  13 
4  51 

6  39 

7  13 

8  12 
6  36 
6  36 

4  51 

6  12 

7  39 

5  27 

4  69 

9  45 

5  69 

6  36 

3  03 

4  70 

5  27 
5  45 
4  76 
4  39 


Tlie  above  rates  are  irrespective  of  piece-work  profits,  overtime,  &c.    Boys  and  apprentices  have 
beeu  disregarded  in  this  return,  except  in  the  case  of  engine  cleaners. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


777 


SHIP-YARDS   AND    SHIP-BUILDING. 

The  buikliDg  of  ships  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  many  in- 
dustries in  the  North  of  England.  The  three  North  of  England  rivers, 
Tyne,  Wear,  and  Tees,  are  lined  with  ship-yards  wherein  thousands  of 
men  are,  or  have  been,  employed.  With  the  introduction  of  iron  and 
steel  in  place  of  wood,  an  incredible  impetus  was  given  ship-building, 
and  all  the  branches  of  trade  accessory  to  it.  New  yards  sprang  into 
existence  everywhere,  and  orders  were  looked  for  months  ahead.  High 
wages  prevailed.  Heavy  i)rices  were  asked  and  received  by  builders. 
Large  dividends  were  declared  to  share-owners,  and  every  one  was  on 
the  high  road  to  fortune. 

This  great  tidal  Avave  of  prosperity  began  about  two  years  ago,  but 
did  not  reach  its  height  till  the  latter  part  of  1883,  and  then  it  receded 
even  more  rapidly  than  it  had  come  up.  The  whole  market  was  over- 
done, and  there  was  a  sudden  and  serious  collapse.  The  smaller  yards 
■went  to  the  wall  first,  and  then  the  larger  ones  found  themselves  unable 
to  withstand  the  impetuous  backset  that  threatened  to  overwhelm  every- 
thing in  its  way.  They  could  not  obtain  fresh  orders.  No  one  would 
order  new  vessels  when  hundreds  were  lying  idle  for  want  of  remunera- 
tive freights.  The  dividends  began  to  grow  smaller  and  finally  ceased 
altogether.  Builders  saw  empty  stocks  staring  them  in  the  face,  and 
they  discharged  their  hands  and  reduced  the  hours  of  work.  Laborers, 
skilled  and  unskilled,  who  dreamed  their  good  times  would  last  forever, 
found  themselves  without  work,  or,  at  the  best,  on  short  time  and  low 
wages.  Such  is  the  condition  of  affairs  here  at  this  writing  (April, 
1884).  There  are  over  one  hundred  steamships  laid  up  on  the  Tyne 
alone.  There  have  been  numerous  failures  both  here  and  at  Sunder- 
land. The  shipyards  present  a  very  suggestive  scene  of  idleness. 
Briefly,  ship-building  is  at  very  low  ebb. 

Wages  now  paid  in  the  yards,  where  there  is  work,  are  quoted  as  fol- 
lows, noting  the  fact  that  iron  workers  in  a  ship-yard  can  make,  on 
piece-work,  about  2  shillings  an  hour.  They  do  not  work  fifty-four  hours 
per  week  when  they  are  on  piece-work,  but  they  probably  do  twice  as 
much  work  in  an  hour  as  when  working  on  time  wages. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  ietween  iron  and  wood 

ship-building — in  Newcastle. 


Occupations. 


Carpenters 

Joiners 

Painters"  . 
Smiths* . . . 
Platers*  .. 
Calkera*.. 


Average. 

$8  51 
8  03 

6  80  1 

7  78  ' 

8  03 
7  54 

Occupations. 


I  Average. 


Riveters* 

Sawyers" 

Pattern-makers 

Fitters 

Machinists 


$8  03 

7  78 

8  51 
8  15 

7  42 


*A  great  deal  of  piece-work  is  done  by  these  classes. 

STORE  AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  in  dry  goods  and  grocery  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  malts  and 

females,  in  Newcastle. 

[Dry -goods  stores,  clerks  in  various  departments,  working  from  8  a.  m.  to  11  p.  m.  on  Saturdays,  fiom 
8  a.  m.  to  9  p.  m.  on  Fridsiys,  and  from  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.  on  other  days.] 


Occupations. 

Lowest.     HigheBt. 

Males 

$4  87 
4  00 
4  87 

$24  3a 

Females 

14  60 

Grocers'  clerks 

8  52 

778 


LABOR  IN  EUEOFE ENGLAND, 


HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (toivns  and  cities)  in  Newcastle. 

Occupations. 


Housekeepers  $97  33 

Cooks 97  33 

Houaemaids 58  39 

Cbambermaids 

Maid-of  all- work 

Kursemaida 

Grooms  or  coachmen 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

There  still  prevails  iu  this  district  the  old  system  of  half-yearly  hir- 
ing of  servants  and  farm  laborers.  In  the  first  week  of  May  the  corn 
market  in  this  city  was  the  scene  of  the  hiring  for  the  ensuing  half  year. 
There  was  a  large  attendance  of  both  masters  and  men,  women,  and 
girls.  The  latter  were  all  decided  as  to  the  wages  they  were  to  receive, 
and  in  almost  every  instance  their  terms  were  accepted  by  those  seek- 
ing labor.  Male  farm  laborers  were  engaged  for  the  half  year  at  from 
$48.65  to  $73;  bovs  at  from  $17  to  $24.33;  females  from  $31.64;  girls 
to  $43.80. 

This  system  of  public  hirings  is  gradually  coming  into  disfavor,  and 
will  soon  be  done  away  with  entirely.  The  recent  hirings  here  were 
disgraceful  to  a  degree,  there  being  continual  disturbance  of  the  peace, 
free  fights,  and  general  disorder,  that  necessitated  the  calling  in  of  a 
large  force  of  police,  who  were  onl^^  able  to  quiet  matters  by  locking  the 
doors  and  using  their  staffs  iu  the  most  effective  manner.  May  hirings 
have  degenerated  into  a  mere  pretext  for  unlicensed  carousing  on  the 
part  of  the  country  people  and  the  lower  classes  in  the  city.  Public 
sentiment  is  strongly  against  them,  and  they  will  soon  become  a  thing 
of  the  past. 

CORPORATION   EMPLOYES. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty  hours  to  the  corporation  emploijes  in  the  city  of  Xewcantle-upon- 

Tyne. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

17  30 

6  58 

7  30 
7  10 

3  40 

5  34 

6  00 
5  12 

5  64 

7  00 

8  08 
8  08 
8  00 

7  48 

4  00 

8  08 

6  56 
8  36 
6  56 

5  34 

6  24 

7  30 
6  36 

5  34 

6  58 
5  34 

$13  60 
8  08 
8  08 
8  08 

6  56 

5  34 

7  00 
5  58 
5  58 

7  30 

8  08 
8  08 
8  00 
8  24 
5  34 
8  08 

7  34 

8  36 
7  48 

5  34 

6  24 

7  30 
6  36 

5  34 

6  58 
5  34 

$10  22 

7  58 

7  70 

7  56 

5  40 

Cartnien: 

Day 

5  34 

Night 

6  34 

Roadmen  

5  20 

4  74 

Plato-layers 

7  12 

Cartwrights 

8  08 

8  08 

8  00 

8  00 

Strikers 

4  60 

8  08 

7  14 

Plumbers 

8  36 

7  06 

5  34 

6  24 

Roails  enginemen 

7  30 

6  36 

5  34 

Satidlors 

6  58 

Gardeners 

5  34 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


779 


GOVERNMENT   DEPARTMENTS. 

Ill  the  Newcastle  post-otfice  the  postmaster  receives  a  salary  of 
$3,700  per  aunum.  The  chief  and  senior  clerks  are  also  paid  bj-  the 
year.  Sorting  clerks  and  telegraphists  are  divided  into  two  classes. 
In  the  second  the  pay  is  at  first  $3  per  week ;  proficiency  brings  an  in- 
crease by  48  cents  up  to  $9.24  per  week.  Then  when  vacancies  occur 
the  second-class  men  are  promoted  to  the  first  at  a  salary  of  $10  per 
week,  which  is  increased  from  time  to  time  to  $12,  thus  making  the 
pay  of  sorting  clerks  and  telegraphists  from  $3  to  $12  j)er  week. 

Letter-carriers  or  postmen  receive  from  $4.38  to  $6.32.  Postmen  of 
good  character  having  served  fifteen  years  and  upwards  receive  72 
cents  in  addition  to  their  regular  salary ;  those  having  ten  years'  service 
get  48  cents  extra  per  week,  and  the  five  years'  men  24  cents  extra. 

The  ordinary  duty  of  post-office  employes  in  eight  hours  per  day  or 
a  maximum  of  forty-eight  hours  in  a  week  of  six  days.  On  Sundays  the 
average  of  duty  is  two  hours. 

Wages  per  week  of  forty-eight  hours  to  employe's  in  the  post-office  in  Netccastle-upon-Tyne. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average 


Postmaster per  annum . . ' 

Chief  clerk do $1,411  28 

SoFting  clerks  and  telegraphists per  week..  4  00 

Letter-carriers do 4  38 

Telegraph  clerks,  females do 3  00 

Country  postmen do 4  00 


$1,  606  00 
12  00 
6  32 
8  00 
5  00 


$3,  700  00 


PRINTERS  AND   PRINTING  OFFICES. 

Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  fiftij-foar  hours  to  printers  (compositors, 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  t^'c.)  in  Newcastle-vpon-Tyne. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Compositors "?'/  7> 

Stereotirpers 8  48 

Employes  in  press-room 5  12 

Employes  in  mailing  department 5  00 

Job-room  compositors 7  78 

Engineers 6  08 

Firemen     6  08 

News-room  compositors 8  24 

Job-room  pressmen ,  7  78 


$16  12 
17  00 
10  22 
8  72 
8  72 
6  08 
12  64 
«  72 


'  And  18  and  20  cents  per  hour  overtime. 
COMPOSITORS. 


$11  00 

2  28 

7  00 

8  24 

7  28 
6  08 

9  72 

8  24 


Long  primer  to  emerald per  1,000  ens. 

Nonpareil do 

Knby do 

Pearl do 


Day- 
work. 


seamen's   WAGES. 

Seamen  are  beginning  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  general  dullness  in  all 
branches  of  trade  very  strongly,  and  they  will  be  obliged  to  draw  upon 
earuiuas  they  laid  by  during  the  more  prosperous  times  of  the  past 


780 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 


three  years.  English  seameu  are  more  provident,  it  seems,  than  their 
fellow-laborers  in  other  callings,  and  have  husbanded  the  high  wages 
of  1881  and  1883,  recent  official  statistics  showing  that  the  amount  of 
seamen's  money-orders  issued  has  increased  considerably  in  the  past 
three  years,  and  the  amonnt  received  and  paid  at  the  seamen's  savings 
banks  has  also  largely  increased  in  that  time,  so  that  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  during  the  past  three  years  the  sailors  have  been  in  receipt  of 
larger  wages  than  before  that  time,  and  that  they  have  saved  more  out 
of  those  wages.  But  with  the  laying  up  of  vessels  that  began  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  year,  wages  began  to  fall.  Despite  the 
low  figures  at  which  they  are  now  quoted,  there  are  hundreds  of  sailors 
at  this  port  eager  to  accept  them  if  they  could  only  find  a  berth.  But 
there  is  no  demand  for  seameu.  Where  there  is  one  berth  there  are 
dozens  of  applicants.  A  careful  estimate  places  the  number  of  sailors 
and  sea-going  men  idle  in  the  United  Kingdom  at  3,500,  and  it  is  in  con- 
templation to  increase  that  number  by  additional  withdrawal  of  carry- 
ing tonnage. 

Following  is  a  statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  by  the 
Tyne  Steam  Shipping  Company  for  coast  navigation,  as  compared  with 
the  wages  of  1878,  together  with  the  average  wages  paid  per  month  for 
sail  and  steam,  ocean  and  coast  navigation  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne: 


Occupations. 

steam    coast — 
navigating. 

Steam 
laid 

coast — 
up. 

Ocean 
tion, 

naTiga- 
1884. 

Coast 

navigation, 

1884. 

1878. 

1884." 

1878. 

1884. 

Steam. 

SaU. 

Sail. 

Master 

$12  12 

11  00 

8  24 

8  72 
7  08 
7  00 

7  00 

5  72 
15  80 

9  72 

8  00 
7  00 

6  36 
5  34 

$19  46 
11  44 
8  24 
8  48 
7  30 
7  06 
7  06 

5  60 
17  00 
10  34 

7  78 
7  06 

6  56 

$14  58 

7  54 

6  36 

8  24 
5  72 
5  72 

7  00 

5  72 

9  72 
7  30 

6  36 
5  72 
5  72 

*6  00 

$14  58 

7  54 

6  32 

8  24 
5  60 
5  60 
5  60 

5  60 

9  72 

7  30 

6  32 
5  60 
5  60 
5  36 

Chief  mate 

$9  io 
7  00 
6  00 

4  10 
3  10 

6  00 

5  00 
18  00 
12  10 

7  10 
3  15 
3  10 

$7  00 

5  10 

6  00 

4  05 

3  00 

5  00 

4  10 

$7  00 
5  10 

5  10 

5  GO 

3  00 

Cook  and  steward 

4  15 

Cook 

4  10 

Chief  engineer 

Fireman 

Watchmen 

Eight  nights. 


THE   COST    OF   LIVING. 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  subjoined  table,  there  is  no  material  change 
in  the  cost  of  living  now  as  compared  with  1878.  There  have  been  quite 
wide  fluctuations  in  that  time,  and  during  the  general  boom  of  1882-'83 
prices  went  up  in  proi)ortion  to  the  advance  in  wages.  But  the  condi- 
tion of  affairs  now  very  closely  resembles  those  of  1878,  when  trade  was 
dull  and  prices  of  all  kinds  were  low.  In  the  provision  market  there 
is  but  very  little  change,  the  ruling  quotations  being,  if  anything,  a 
trifle  lower  than  those  of  a  corresponding  period  of  1878.  Groceries 
are  steady  at  about  the  same  figures.  Dry  goods  show  the  most  marked 
decrease,  prices  for  the  various  grades  ranging  considerably  lower  than 
those  quoted  five  years  ago.  Flour  is  lower  and  better  now  than  it  ever 
has  been  in  the  history  of  Newcastle.  There  is  comparatively  little  made 
here,  the  greater  portion  of  it  coming  from  America,  though  no  incon- 
siderable quantity  is  imported  from  Hungary.     This  is  one  branch  of 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


781 


trade  to  which  especial  attention  shonld  be  called.  American  flour  takes 
the  highest  rank  in  this  market,  on  account  of  its  purity  and  its  cheap- 
ness. It  is  the  prime  favorite,  and  every  year  sees  a  steady  increase  in 
the  amount  of  its  importation.  There  is  still  room  for  a  vast  increase 
in  the  sales  here  and  in  this  neighborhood,  and  a  little  effort  on  the  part 
of  our  millers  would  drive  all  other  manufacturers  out  of  the  market. 

PRICES   OF   THE  NECESSARIES   OF  LIFE. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparative  statement  of  the  prices  paid 
for  the  necessaries  of  life  in  1878  and  in  1884 : 


Articles. 


PROVISIONS. 

Flour,  wheat : 

Superfine 

Extra  family 

Ovdiuary 

Flour,  rye 

Beef: 

Fresh  roasting  pieces , 

Fresh  soup  pieces 

Fresh  rump  steaks 

Corned 

Veal: 

Forequarters 

Hindquarters 

Cutlets 

Mutton  : 

Forequarters  

I^eg... 

Chops 

Porls: 

Fresh 

Corned  or  salted 

Bacon 

Hams,  smoked  (Wiltshire) 

Shoulders  (American) 

Sausages  (ham) 

Lard 

Batter 

Cheese 

Rice 

Beans 

Milk 

Milk  (condensed,  pint  tins)  . . . 


GROCERIES. 

Tea,  colony  and  good  black  . . . 
CoflFee : 

Eio,  green 

Rio,  roasted 

Sugar : 

Good  brown 

Yellow  C 

Coftee  B 

White  A 

Molasses : 

Xe w  Orleans 

Porto  Rico 

Sirup 

Soap,  common 

Starch 

Coal 

Oil,  petroleum 


DOMESTIC   DRY  GOODS,    ETC. 


Shirtings: 

Brown,    44-inch,    standard 

quality 

Bleached,  44-inch,  standard 
quality I do 


1878. 


1884. 


Unit  of  quantity. 


per  barrel - 

...do 

...do 

...do 


perponnd. 

!!  do!!!.'! 
...do 


.do 
.do 
.do 

.do 
.do 
.do 

.do 
.do 
.do 
do 
do 
do 
.do 


...do  

...do  .... 
per  quart 
do 


per  dozen. 


per  pound 


do 
.do 


.do 
.do 
.do 
.do 


Value. 


$7  66 
8  03 


24  to 

16  to 

3  to 


5  71 

20 
14 
24 
16 

18 
20 
24 

18 
20 
22 

16 
16 

14 
24 
10 
18 
16 
36 
22 
10 
16 
07 
15 


40  to       60 


per  gallon. 

do 

...do  

perponnd. 

...do 

per  ton 

per  gallon . 


per  yard 


40 
48 
60 
07 
10 
2  91  to  3  64 
48 


Unit  of  quantity. 


per  stone 

do 

...do 

...do  .... 


per  pound 

—  do 

...do 

...do 


...do 
...do 

...do 

..do 
..do 
...do 


...do 

...do  

...do  

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

per  stone  . 

—  do 

per  pound, 
per  dozen. 


per  pound. 


...do 
...do 

...do 
...do 
...do 
...do 


per  stone. . 

do 

per  gallon, 
perponnd. 

per  ton 

per  gallon. 


per  yard 
....do  ... 


Value. 


$0  50 


42  to 


22  to 


14  to 


22  to 
18  to 


16  to 
24  to 
12  to 


32  to 


05  to 


46 
42 

20 
16 
24 


11 
16 
24 
25 
16 
04 
72 


72 


72 
06 
10 
2  55  to    3  40 

42 


07 
09 


782 


LABOR    IN    EUEOPE ENGLAND. 


Articles. 


Domestic  dry  goods,  etc. — 
Continned. 

Slieetings: 

BroAVD,  72-inch,  standard 
quality 

Bleached,  98-inch,  standard 

quality 

Cotton  flannel,  good  quality 

Ticking,  good  quality: 

Single  linen 

Double  linen 

Union  single 

Prints 

Mousseline  de  laines 

All  wool  cloth : 

Suitable  for  working  men. . 

Unions  

Boots,  men's  heavy 


Unit  of  quantity.  Values. 


per  yard 


do 
do 


-do 
do 
.do 
.do 
.do 


....do  ... 
....do  ... 
per  pair. 


1884. 


Unit  of  quantity.  Values 


18  I  per  yard 


....do 
....do 
....do 
...do 

...do 


72    .-..do  ... 

48  |....do  ... 

2  55     per  pair. 


$0  14 


do $    28to       32 

do I  09 


24 

47 

12 


05  to       23 

72 

48 

1  56  to   2  55 


House  rent — 1878. 


Price. 


Four.roomed  tenements  ..per  week..    $1  20-$l  80 

Two-roomed  tenements do 84-  1  20 

Six-roomed  tenements do i    1  92-  2  43 


Board  and  lodgings— 1878-1884. 


For  men  per  week. 

For  women do... 


Price. 


$2  91-$3  8» 
2  19-  2  91 


HABITS   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

Ill  speaking-  of  the  habits  of  the  working  classes,  paragraph  4,  it 
must  be  understood  that  in  this  district  there  are  a  great  many  miners 
whose  hours  of  work  are  necessarily  irregular,  and  blast  furnacemeu, 
glass-workers,  and  iron-puddlers,  whose  work  is  done  in  shifts.  This 
system  throws  a  greater  proportion  of  men  into  the  temptations  of  the 
"public  houses"  than  does  the  system  of  a  continuous  day's  work  in 
the  strictly  manufacturing  districts.  All  things  taken  into  consider- 
ation, their  methods  of  work,  the  peculiar  hours  for  relaxation  and 
amusement,  the  opportunities  afforded  them  for  legitimate  and  harm- 
less entertainment,  the  working  classes  here  may  be  safely  said  to  be 
steady  and  trustworthy,  though  they  are  but  little  inclined  to  be  sav- 
ing. Many  of  them,  it  is  true,  own  their  little  patches  of  ground,  and 
a  little  house,  but  the  great  majority  of  them  are  tenants,  who,  so  long 
as  they  can  satisfy  the  monthly  demands  of  the  landlord,  and  can  de- 
cently clothe  and  feed  themselves  and  families  week  by  week,  seem  to 
be  satisfied  to  let  the  future  take  care  of  itself.  This  is  very  clearly 
shown  in  the  case  of  the  engineers  in  Sunderland,  a  city  near  here. 
They  went  out  on  strike  some  nine  months  ago,  and  their  ranks  have 
been  steadily  increased  by  laborers  thrown  out  of  employment  on  ac- 
count of  the  closing  of  works  dependent  upon  the  Avorks  of  the  engi- 
neers, until  the  number  of  idle  men  in  Sunderland  now  amounts  to  over 
5,000.  For  a  while  the  funds  of  their  various  labor  unions  supported 
them  ;  they  could  not  support  themselves.  But  as  month  after  month 
rolled  on  those  funds  were  reduced  to  such  a  point  that  they  have  been 
obliged  to  appoint  committees  to  canvass  tlie  town  soliciting  aid.  Great 
destitution  and  misery  prevails,  and  as  both  strikers  and  employers  are 
firm  in  their  respective  positions,  there  is  no  telling  what  the  end  will  be. 

The  "public  house"  is,  unfortunately,  the  bank  in  which  most  of  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  783 

deposits  of  the  working  classes  are  made,  and  it  is  a  bank  that  pays  no 
interest. 

In  nearly  all  the  great  corporations  the  workmen  are  paid  off  Friday 
night  or  Saturday  noon,  and  are  given  the  Saturday  afternoon  for  a 
half  holiday.  Then  it  is  that  the  public  houses  reap  their  golden  harvest. 
There  are  in  the  city  of  Newcastle  alone  three  hundred  and  ninety-four 
public  houses,  where  wine,  beer,  and  spirits  are  sold,  and  from  12  o'clock 
Saturday  noon  until  11  at  night  they  are  crowded,  the  counters  often 
being  four  and  five  deep.  The  laborer  (female,  unfortunately,  as  well  as 
male),  has  half  a  day  on  his  hands  with  nothing  to  do.  The  public  house 
is  always  free  to  him,  and  there  he  sits  and  smokes,  and  talks  and 
drinks,  until  turned  out  by  the  closing  of  the  place  at  11  o'clock. 
Beer  and  whiskj'  are  the  tipples,  the  former  a  very  strong,  heady  stuff, 
totally  unlike  the  lager  beer  of  Germany,  being  nearly  as  conducive  of 
drunkenness  as  the  latter.  The  women  drink  beer  and  gin,  oftentimes 
in  company  with  the  men,  but  more  frequently  in  little  side  rooms.  The 
amount  of  drinking  among  all  conditions  of  the  laboring  classes  is  ap- 
palling. 

On  Sundays  the  streets  are  deserted  till  half  past  12,  and  then,  as 
if  by  magic,  with  the  taking  down  of  the  public-house  shutters,  the 
laborer  springs  into  sight,  only  to  be  lost  within  the  saloon  until  half 
past  2's  closing  puts  him  out.  From  6  to  10  the  saloons  are  open  on 
Sunday  nights,  and  the  experience  of  Saturday  night  is  repeated. 

There  are  in  Newcastle  one  public  library  and  small  reading-room, 
free  to  every  one  who  is  indorsed  by  a  known  citizen,  one  place  where 
free  concerts  are  given  every  Saturday  evening  during  the  winter,  and 
three  hundred  and  ninety-four  public  houses. 

THE   FEELING  BETWEEN   EMPLOY:^   AND  EMPLOYER. 

"The  relations  existing  between  employers  and  employes"  is  of  the 
most  amicable  nature.  Employers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  simply  require  the 
regular  attendance  of  their  employes,  and  the  faithful  performance  of 
the  duties  to  which  they  are  assigned — they  go  beyond  that,  and  in- 
terest themselves  in  the  home  life  of  the  people  who  work  for  them,  not 
infrequently  visiting  their  houses,  and  in  an  unobtrusive  kindly  way 
making  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  their  surroundings.  These 
attentions  are  taken  in  the  spirit  in  which  they  are  offered,  and  greatly 
enhance  the  relations  of  mutual  confidence  between  the  two  classes. 
The  workingman  feels  that  he  is  not  a  mere  machine,  of  which  a  stated 
amount  of  work  is  required  each  day.  He  realizes  that  his  industry, 
frugality,  and  correct  habits  will  not  only  be  known,  but  appreciated 
by  his  employers,  and  this  knowledge  is  oftentimes  the  one  thing  that 
stimulates  him  to  renewed  efforts  and  strengthens  him  in  a  course  of 
life,  which  under  different  circumstances  he  would  find  full  of  tempta- 
tions he  could  not  easily  withstand. 

The  few  masters  who  are  harsh,  tyrannical,  and  overbearing  are  known 
to  have  the  most  dissipated  workmen,  men  who  spend  their  spare  time 
and  money  in  the  public  houses,  and  whose  work  is  never  so  satisfactory 
as  that  of  the  steady  trustworthy  laborer  who  works  for  his  own  and 
his  master's  interests,  knowing  that  by  advancing  the  latter  he  is  help- 
ing himself.  Employers  are  always  accessible  to  even  the  humblest  of 
their  men.  If  any  one  has  a  grievance  he  may  state  it  clearly  and  freely, 
without  any  fear  of  prejudice,  and  it  will  be  investigated.  All  ques- 
tions affecting  the  rights  of  workingmen  are  discussed  in  the  most 
friendly  manner  by  representatives  of  the  workmen  and  of  the  em- 


784  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

ployers,  and  if  they  cannot  arrive  at  an  understanding  arbitration 
almost  invariably  follows,  thus  doing  away  with  the  long  and  disastrous 
strikes  that  were  formerly  used  to  force  a  settlement  of  differences. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION   OF  LABOR. 

The  various  trades  and  industries  in  the  north  of  England  are  most 
perfectly  organized,  and  these  several  organizations  are  a  power  in  the 
community.  Their  influencie  is  very  great,  and  it  makes  itself  felt  on 
every  possible  occasion.  In  the  lesser  societies  rates  of  wages  are  fixed 
and  maintained  hy  the  united  action  of  the  members,  who  not  only  de- 
termine what  wages  they  themselves  shall  receive,  but  also  what  shall 
be  paid  those  who  are  not  members  of  their  organizations. 

The  larger  associations,  such  as  the  miners,  the  amalgated  engineers, 
the  iron  ship-builders,  and  boiler- makers,  who  number  their  members 
by  tens  of  thousands,  have  very  wisely  abandoned  the  old-time  i:)olicy 
of  striking  to  enforce  their  decrees,  but  almost  invariably  refer  what- 
ever they  may  have  in  dispute  to  a  board  of  arbitration,  as  is  noticed  in 
another  portion  of  this  report.  But  they  are,  nevertheless,  most  per- 
fectly organized,  and  have  an  immense  capital  with  which  to  carry  out 
any  j^lan  of  action  that  may  be  decided  upon. 

The  principal  object  of  these  trades  associations,  next  to  the  protec- 
tion of  themselves  in  the  matter  of  wages,  is  provision  for  members  in 
case  of  sickness,  disability,  or  want  of  employment,  and  almost  every 
society  has  a  large  fund  for  this  purpose,  kept  up  by  voluntary  monthly 
payments  of  the  members  and  outside  donations.  As  showing  the  ex- 
tent to  which  this  is  done,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  engineers'  strike 
at  Sunderland,  which  has  been  on  for  forty-six  weeks,  the  relief  com- 
mittee reported  for  the  week  ending  May  17  the  total  income  for  the 
week  was  $2,254.03.  and  the  expenditure  $2,075.08,  leaving  a  balance 
on  hand  of  $178.95. ' 

The  societies  are  non-religious  and  non-political,  though  there  is  no 
denying  the  fact  that  they  exercise  a  very  considerable  influence  in  mold- 
ing public  sentiment  about  election  times. 

THE   PREVALENCY   OF  STRIKES. 

The  north  of  England  is  particularly  free  from  strikes;  that  is  to  say 
free  from  those  great  contests  between  labor  and  capital  that  entail 
great  misery  and  suffering  on  the  one  and  great  pecuniary  loss  on  the 
other.  Of  course,  there  are  in  some  trades  occasional  differences  of 
opinion  between  masters  and  men,  when  the  men  decline  to  work  until 
such  differences  are  adjusted.  But  for  the  past  eighteen  years  there 
has  been  no  great  strike  here.  This  very  fortunate  state  of  affairs  has 
come  about  through  the  masters  and  men  learning,  after  long  and  ex- 
pensive lessons,  that  there  is  as  much  business  method  to  be  observed 
in  treating  the  labor  question  as  in  any  purely  commercial  transaction. 
Hence,  when  there  is  a  disagreement  between  the  purchasers  of  labor 
and  the  disposers  thereof,  the  matter  is  treated  as  similar  difficulties  in 
other  branches  of  business  would  be.  Instead  of  following  the  old  plan 
of  attempting  to  force  a  settlement  of  the  trouble  by  long  and  costly 
strikes  an  entirely  different  method  of  i)rocedure  is  now  resorted  to. 

Perhaps  this  method,  which  obtains  in  all  the  great  industries  of  the 
north  of  England,  especially  in  the  coal  and  manufactured  iron  trades, 
where  differences  of  opinion  are  constantly  arising,  might  best  be  illus- 
trated by  briefly  reporting  a  case  in  the  manufactured  iron  trade,  which 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  785 

has  just  been  decided  here  in  Newcastle.  It  must  first  be  understood 
that  these  enormous  industries,  representing  millions  of  capital  and  arm- 
ies of  laborers,  have  what  is  known  as  a  board  of  conciliation  and  ar- 
trabition,  consisting  of  two  members  representing  the  employers,  two 
members  representing  the  employes,  and  an  umpire. 

The  employers,  in  the  case  referred  to,  claimed  a  reduction  of  one  shil- 
ling per  ton  on  puddling,  and  10  per  cent,  on  all  other  forge  and  mill 
wages. 

This  claim  the  employes  contested,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  board  of 
conciliation  and  arbitration,  it  being  impossible  to  come  to  an  agree- 
ment, the  whole  matter  was  referred  to  Dr.  Spence  Watson,  as  arbitra- 
tor, his  decision  to  regulate  wages  for  a  jDeriod  of  three  months. 

Both  sides  appeared  before  Dr.  Watson,  and  a  representative  of  the 
employers  stated  their  side  of  the  case,  arguing,  among  other  things, 
the  fall  in  the  net  realized  price  of  iron  of  6s.  11AM.  per  ton,  and  in 
the  current  market-price  since  the  last  arbitration  in  January ;  the  de- 
pression at  present  prevailing  in  the  finished  iron  trade,  as  evidenced 
by  the  number  of  works  that  are  standing  still  and  the  shortness  of 
work  at  those  that  are  still  able  to  keep  going ;  the  absence  of  the  slid- 
ing scale ;  the  necessity  that  the  cost  of  production  should  be  lowered 
if  works  are  to  be  kept  going,  which  is  not  the  case,  as  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  at  the  last  arbitration  there  were  1,157  puddling  furnaces  in 
operation,  whereas  now  there  are  but  852. 

The  representative  of  the  workmen  replied  by  maintaining  that  no 
alteration  has  taken  place  justifying  any  reduction,  nor  have  the  em- 
ployes any  right  to  claim  a  reduction  in  lieu  of  the  sliding-scale,  enter- 
ing into  a  full  explanation  of  previous  awards  and  the  cause  that  did 
away  with  the  sliding-scale.  He  argued  that  the  lying  idle  of  the  fur- 
naces should  tend  to  increase  the  price;  that  reduction  in  wages  and  re- 
duction in  prices  never  created  confidence  nor  brought  better  trade; 
that  the  reduction  of  5  per  cent,  in  November,  1882,  with  the  addition 
of  7^  per  cent,  in  October  last,  failed  to  secure  orders,  and  the  employers 
now  complain  of  depressed  trade ;  that,  owing  to  the  low  cost  of  man- 
ufacture and  their  unusual  facilities  northern  manufacturers  are  under- 
selling the  manufacturers  in  other  districts,  and  are  comjjelling  them  to 
close  their  works;  endeavoring  to  prove  (1)  that  comparing  the  past 
with  the  present  the  claim  of  the  employers  is  unjustifiable;  (2)  that 
reductions  never  stimulated  nor  improved  trade;  and  (3)  that  the  em- 
ployes views  on  the  basis  of  the  sliding-scale  are  in  accordance  with  the 
basis'  awarded  and  the  principle  laid  down  at  the  previous  arbitration. 

Dr.  Watson,  after  carefully  considering  the  employers'  case  and  the 
workmen's  reply,  awarded  as  follows: 

That  for  the  period  heginuiug  April  12  and  ending  June  28, 1884,  there  shall  be  a  re- 
duction of  3  pence  ]ier  ton  on  jniddling,  and  24  per  cent,  on  all  other  forge  and  mill 
wages. 

Although  this  award  was  not  made  until  the  18th  of  April,  it  was  ac- 
cepted by  both  sides,  and  the  wages  of  the  men — who  had  been  working 
right  along  through  all  the  meetings  and  discussions  of  their  representa- 
tives—  were  paid  from  the  12th  of  April  on  that  basis. 

The  benefit,  both  to  employers  and  workmen,  of  this  system  of  arbi- 
tration, by  which  all  their  disputes  are  settled,  is  incalculable,  and  it  is 
to  this  system  alone  that  the  great  coal  and  iron  industries,  the  base  of 
the  mighty  commercial  power  of  the  north  of  England,  are  so  free  from 
the  demoralization  invariably  attendant  upon  labor  strikes. 
92  A— LAB 50 


786  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

The  awards  made  during  the  past  six  years  are  as  follows  : 

August  2,1877. — Employers' application  for  a  geiieriil  reductiou  of  10  per  cent,  in 
wages.  Awarded  that  "  the  present  rate  of  wages  continue  till  either  party  give  to 
tlieother  uotless  than  three  mouths'  notice  for  a  change. 

January  V.i,  1879. — Employers'  claim  for  a  redimtion  in  the  wages  of  iron-workers. 
Awarded  a  reduction  of  6  pence  per  ton  in  puddling,  and  5  per  cent,  in  all  other 
wages. 

September  18, 1879. — Employers'  claim  for  a  special  reduction  of  15  per  cent,  in  cer- 
tain plate  mill  wages.  Awarded  that  "  the  tonnage  rates  payable  to  rollers,  heaters, 
and  shearmen  in  plate  and  sheet  mills  be  from  the  pay  commencing  next  after  the 
date  of  this  award  124  per  cent,  less  than  the  rates  in  etl'ect  on  the  12th  of  April  last." 

Sepieniber  18,  1879. — Employers  claim  for  a  reduction  of  (5  pence  per  ton  in  puddling 
and  5  per  cent,  in  other  forge  and  mill  wages.     Award  against  any  reduction. 

December  17, 1880. — Workmen's  claim  that  the  7^  per  cent,  reduction  taken  off  Oc- 
tober 6,  1879,  be  returned.     Claim  disallowed. 

AprU  29,  1882. — Workmen's  claim  of  7^  per  cent,  advance  for  the  current  three 
months  ending  April  29,  1882.     No  sum  due  the  operatives. 

"  Future  rates  of  wages  for  six  months  conunencing  May  1,  1882."  Award  :  Opera- 
tives entitled  to  no  advance  for  the  first  three  months,  but  on  the  final  three  months 
there  shall  be  an  advance  of  3  pence  per  ton  on  puddling  and  2^  per  cent,  on  other 
wages  up  to  the  16th  of  Septemi)er,  and  from  that  date  to  Octt>ber  28  a  further  sum  of 
3  pence  per  ton  on  puddling  and  2|  per  cent,  on  other  wages. 

November  23,  1882. — Operatives  claim  for  an  advance  of  9  pence  per  ton  on  puddling 
and  7^  per  cent,  in  other  wages.     No  advance  awarded. 

Employers  claim  for  a  reduction  of  9  pence  per  ton  on  puddling  and  7^  per  cent, 
in  other  wages.  A  reduction  awarded  of  6  pence  per  ton  on  puddling  and  5  per  cent, 
on  other  forge  and  mill  wages. 

CO-OPERATION. 

From  the  year  1844,  when  twenty-eight  men,  with  a  capital  of  £28, 
started  a  co-operative  grocery  store  in  the  town  of  Eochdale,  co-operation 
has  made  most  rapid  strides  all  over  England,  and  in  the  north  in  par- 
ticular. At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  industrial  societies  act,  in 
June,  1852,  there  were  no  fewer  than  forty  co-operative  societies  in  exist- 
ence, all  of  them  more  or  less  prosperous,  a  jirosperity  that  greatly 
increased  under  the  i^rotection  of  this  act. 

As  the  system  developed  and  new  societies  were  established  all  over 
the  country,  it  became  necessary  for  the  benefit  of  the  system  to  unite 
the  various  forces  and  thus  secure  advantages  which  single  stores  could 
not  obtain.  Accordingly,  in  1863,  fifty  different  societies,  representing 
17,545  members,  formed  the  Wholesale  Society  of  Manchester,  with  a 
capital  of  £999.  This  Wholesale  Society  grew  rapidly  in  members, 
sales,  capital,  and  profits.  Other  large  societies  joined  it,  and  finally 
the  Co-operative  Union  was  organized  at  a  meeting  of  the  delegates 
from  the  different  large  societies  held  in  Newcastle  in  1873,  a  large 
branch  of  the  Manchester  Society  having  been  established  here  the  year 
previous. 

From  that  time  to  this  the  union  has  been  extending  its  field  of 
operations  in  every  direction,  and  is  becoming  stronger  and  greater 
every  year.  Within  two  years  from  its  organization  its  membership 
increased  to  31,030,  and  a  buyer  was  sent  to  Ireland  to  furnish  the 
society  with  pure  Irish  butter,  a  trade  that  has  since  increased  so  rapidly 
that  they  now  have  buyers  in  Kilmallock,  Limerick,  Armagh,  Water- 
ford,  Clonmel,  and  Cork,  and  are  the  largest  purchasers  of  Irish  butter 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1870  a  buyer  was  stationed  in  New  York  to 
purchase  American  produce  for  the  union,  and  that  branch  has  been 
largely  extended. 

The  growth  of  co-operation  since  the  consolidation  may  best  be  shown 
by  the  following  table,  which  is  an  exhibit  of  the  number  of  members 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


787 


holding  shares  in  the  wholesale  society  or  union,  the  capital,  net  sales, 
net  profits,  and  average  dividends  paid  during  the  years  named : 


Tecar. 


Numlier 
of  mem- 
bers. 


Capital.    Net  sales. 


Net 
profit. 


!  Average 
I  dividend 
paid  per  ii. 


1864 

1869 

1874 

1879 

183  (three  quarters) 


18,  337 

74,  737 

108,  985 

305, 161 

421,  482 


£2,  455  I 
32,  062 
200,  044 
442, 114 
674,  458 


£51,  857 
412,  240 

1,  636,  950 

2,  705,  625 

3,  319, 108 


£267 

4,862 

14,  232 

34,  959 

32,  919 


Pence. 


2 

11 


The  wholesale  society  to  which  the  above  table  refers  is  composed  of 
sections,  formed  of  the  different  local  societies  within  certain  bounda- 
ries. The  local  societies  send  delegates  to  the  stated  meetings  of  the 
sections,  which  are  in  turn  represented  by  delegates  in  an  annual  con- 
gress. 

The  northern  section  comprises  the  counties  of  Northumberland, 
Durham,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  part  of  the  North  Riding  of 
York.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  sections  in  the  union,  as  will 
be  seen  by  the  following  table,  which  shows  the  growth  of  the  co-opera- 
tive movement  in  the  north  during  a  period  of  six  years  ending  De- 
cember 31,  1883. 

Summary  of  societies  in  northern  section. 


Tear. 


1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 


Societies. 

Members. 

126 

68,  552 

126 

71,  674 

141 

78,  283 

130 

83,  078 

122 

90, 166 

129 

97,  943 

Trade. 


Profit. 


£2, 168,  361 
2, 112,  652 
2,552,179  I 
2,684,173  I 
3,126,288  ( 
3,  371,  869  I 


£231,  707 
241,644 
286, 176 
314,774 
359,  783 
399, 402 


The  returns  for  this  section  for  the  year  1883  have  just  been  issued, 
and  show  that  there  are  97,943  members.  There  is  a  share  capital  of 
£714,568  and  a  loan  capital  of  £45,805.  The  value  of  land,  buildings, 
and  fixed  stock  amounts  to  £288,752.  The  sum  of  £3,371,369  was  re- 
ceived for  goods  sold,  producing  a  net  profit  of  £399,402,  of  which 
£1,460  were  applied  to  educational  and  £546  to  charitable  purposes. 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  year's  business  by  counties: 


Name  of  society. 


Number 
members. 


Share 
capital. 


Northumberland i  21,696  £156,612 

Durham !  56,250  405,586 

Cumberland i  11,762  :  116,454 

Westmoreland i  2,107  12,430 

York I  6,128  23,468 


Value  of 

land, 

buUd- 

ings,  &c. 


£61, 890 
154,  611 

52,  997 
4,889 

14,  365 


Goods  sold. 


£820,  898 
1,  965,  918 

379,  055 
49,  961 

155,  537 


Net 
profit. 


£99,  444 

247,  774 

36,  506 

2,929 

12,  749 


Of  all  the  societies  in  Northumberland  County  the  one  at  Newcastle 
is  by  far  the  most  important  and  did  the  largest  amount  of  business 
during  the  past  year.  It  has  5,850  members;  a  share  and  loan  capital 
of  £45,603.    The  value  of  its  land,  buildings,  and  fixed  stock  is  £14,476^ 


788  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

During  1883  it  received  for  goods  sold  the  sum  of  £239,872 ;  has  no 
accounts  owing  and  owes  nothing  for  goods.  The  net  profits  for  the 
year  were  £31,077. 

That  the  movement  is  still  growing  here  is  shown  by  the  fact  tbat  a 
large  addition  has  just  been  made  to  the  society's  already  large  build- 
ing, and  even  now  they  are  cramped  for  room.  There  is  a  committee  in 
America  making  arrangements  for  the  further  increase  of  their  pur- 
chasing territory,  and  this  committee  will  either  make  an  arrangement 
with  American  millwrights  to  come  to  Tyneside  to  erect  flouring-mills 
or  will  increase  the  facilities  for  the  rapid  shipment  of  American  flour 
to  this  district. 

From  the  simple  beginning  of  supplying  groceries  only,  the  field  of 
the  co-operators  has  gradually  extended  until  now  the  wholesale  soci- 
ety, which  is  really  the  fountain-head  from  which  all  other  societies 
draw,  can  supply  everything.  In  Manchester  it  has  a  bank,  a  central 
grocery  and  provision  and  furnishing  warehouse,  a  large  drapery, 
woolen  cloth,  and  boot  and  shoe  factory :  it  has  very  large  and  per- 
fectly equii)ped  branches  in  Newcastle  and  London ;  biscuit  and  sweet 
factory  at  Crumpsall ;  boot  and  shoe  works  in  Leicester  and  in  Heck- 
mondwike ;  soap  works  at  Durham  and  purchasing  and  forwarding 
works  at  Liverpool,  Leeds,  Goole,  and  Garston  in  England,  Cork,  Lim- 
erickj  Tipperary,  Kilmallock,  Waterford,Tralee,and  Armagh  in  Ireland, 
and  at  New  York,  Calais,  Koueu,  Copenhagen,  and  Hamburg.  These 
depots  are  in  charge  of  representatives  of  the  society  and  personally 
attend  to  the  buying,  packing,  and  shipping  of  the  articles  sent  here. 

FEMALE  LABOR. 

This  district  being  given  up  almost  entirely  to  those  branches  of 
manufacture  in  which  the  work  is  too  severe  for  women,  has  not  that 
large  proportion  of  female  laborers  noticeable  in  the  districts  further 
south.  Coal  mining,  iron  working,  and  ship  building  are  the  three  great 
industries  of  this  district,  and  in  none  of  them  can  women  be  ju-ofitably 
employed.  In  glass  w^orks  there  is  some  female  labor,  and  tobacco  fac- 
tories, of  which  there  are  but  few,  also  employ  women.  There  are  a  few 
females  employed  in  the  Government  telegraph  office,  but  the  largest 
field,  l)y  far,  is  in  the  dry-goods  shops,  where  they  serve  as  clerks,  and 
in  the  establishments  for  making  ladies' garments.  There  is  no  way  of 
ascertaining  the  number  of  women  and  girls  so  employed. 

Wages  paid  women  are  invariably  lower  than  those  j)aid  to  men  oc- 
cupying similar  positions,  and  are  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  lower  now  than 
in  1878.  Tlie  hours  of  labor  are  substantially  the  same  for  men  and 
women,  both  having  the  Saturday  half  holiday  when  employed  in  fac- 
tories. A  movement  is  now  on  foot  here  to  give  all  clerks  in  shops  one 
afternoon  of  the  week  for  recreation.  The  matter  is  being  very  exten- 
sively agitated  and  will  eventually  succeed. 

The  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  employes  is  good,  and  there 
is  a  steady  decrease  in  the  prejudice  against  women  ^vhoare  compelled 
to  earn  their  living  behind  a  counter  or  in  a  factory,  a  i)rejudice  that 
only  a  few  years  ago  was  exceptionally  strong  in  this  district.  This  has 
been  brought  about  by  the  employes  themselves,  who,  by  their  indus- 
try, intelligence,  and  upright  conduct,  have  shown  themselves  worthy 
of  confidence  and  respect. 

In  many  of  the  larger  establishments,  where  large  numbers  of  women 
are  employed,  there  are  clubs,  social  and  literary,  whose  regular  meet- 
iugN  are  well  attended  and  conducive  of  much  good.     INIost  of  these 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  789 

clubs  have  libraries,  or  make  arrangements  whereby  members  may  en- 
joy the  privileges  of  circulating  libraries,  and  the  opportunities  for  self- 
improvement  thus  afforded  are  very  generally  taken  advantage  of. 
The  proprietors  of  the  establishments  take  great  interest  in  these  socie- 
ties and  often  contribute  very  materially  to  their  support,  both  by  finan- 
cial aid  and  personal  attention. 

The  manner  in  which  the  large  buildings  of  this  city  are  constructed 
renders  fire  an  almost  unheard-of  attair.  They  are  as  nearly  fireproof 
as  possible,  very  little,  if  any,  wood  entering  into  their  construction  ; 
still  all  reasonable  precautions  are  taken,  and  every  family  provided 
for  a  rapid  and  safe  exit  in  case  of  any  sudden  alarm. 

Sanitary  matters  are,  as  a  rule,  well  attended  to,  the  premises  in 
which  women  work  being  kept  clean,  well  lighted,  and  well  ventilated. 
There  are  numerous  benefit  societies  for  the  assistance  and  care  of  sick 
members,  and  the  employers'  liberty  act  provides  for  the  care  of  those 
disabled  through  accident  while  in  the  discharge  of  their  duty. 

The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  as  noted  in  another  portion  of 
this  report,  show  but  little  change  now  from  the  ruling  prices  at  the 
time  of  the  last  report.  Wages  increased  during  the  era  of  extreme 
prosperity,  and  prices  went  up ;  but  when,  in  sympathy  with  the  gen- 
eral depression,  wages  decreased,  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  also  cauie 
down,  until  now  they  show  but  little  change  from  those  of  a  correspond- 
ing period  in  1878. 

With  the  inauguration  of  the  school-board  system,  the  education  of 
female  laborers  has  vastly  improved.  Under  the  existiug  law  employers 
cannot  engage  females  to  work  in  factories,  shops,  «&c.,  if  they  are  un- 
der fourteen  years  of  age,  unless  they  have  been  passed  by  the  school 
board,  and  if  over  that  age  they  mnst  have  attended  school  a  certain 
length  of  time.  If  they  have  not  been  passed  the  employer  is  obliged 
to  send  them  to  school  so  many  days  a  week,  and  rather  than  suffer  the 
inconvenience  of  such  irregular  hours,  they  are  careful  to  engage  only 
those  who  have  passed  the  board.  In  this  way  the  mental  standard  of 
female  workers  has  been  greatly  raised,  and  with  the  continually  grow- 
ing desire  on  their  part  for  an  advance  in  their  position,  as  is  shown  by 
their  eagerness  to  accept  any  means  of  self  improvement,  there  is  every 
prospect  of  this  change  for  the  better  in  the  educational  status  of  women 
workers  being  an  enduring  one  and  of  incalculable  benefit  to  them  and 
to  the  world. 

ROBINSON  LOCKE, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Newcastleon-Tyne,  August  20,  1884. 


NOTTINGHAM. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  SMITH. 

In  compliance  with  the  instructions  in  your  circular  of  the  15th  of 
February  last,  concerning  the  condition  of  labor  throughout  the  world, 
especially  in  Europe,  I  bave  the  honor  to  forward  the  annexed  tables  of 
wages  in  this  district:  (1)  general  trades  ;  (2)  hosiery  manufacture;  (3) 
cotton  doubling;  (4)  leather  manufacture;  (5)  fancy  lace  and  curtain 
manufacture;  (6)  railway  employes;  (7)  mines  and  mining;  (8)  iron 
work  and  foundry ;  (9)  post-office  employes ;  (10)  board  school  employes ; 


790  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

(11)  corporation  employes;  (12)  i^rices  of  provisions,  &c.;  (13)  agricult- 
ural laborers;  (14)  assistants  in  retail  shops  and  stores;  (15)  household 
employes. 

The  tables  will  show  the  wages  of  labor  in  this  district  as  correctly 
as  1  have  been  able  to  obtain  them.  I  have  spent  much  time  in  col- 
lecting the  information  from  which  this  report  has  been  compiled.  I 
cannot  hope  tliat  it  will  be  absolutely  correct,  but  I  feel  sure  that  it  will 
be  found  as  reliable  as  such  a  report  can  be  made. 

PAST  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS. 

I  do  not  see  any  great  change  in  the  cost  of  living  or  wages  of  labor 
now  and  five  years  ago,  when  the  last  circular  was  issued. 

In  1878  trade  in  this  district  was  just  beginning  to  recover  from  a  se- 
vere depression. 

Up  to  1882  there  was  a  constant  imi)rovement  in  the  demand  for  Not- 
tingham goods,  and  that  improvement  was  especially  seen  in  the  de- 
mand for  the  American  market.  That  increased  demand  made  employ- 
ment for  a  larger  number  of  hands,  and  as  the  employers  were  pros- 
jierous  they  were  able  and  willing  to  pay  fair  wages.  But  the  increase 
of  wages  was  not  great,  except  that  those  who  worked  by  the  piece 
had  more  constant  employment  and  therefore  could  earn  a  greater 
amountof  money.  Duringthelast  five  years,  with  the  increase  of  trade, 
there  has  been  a  very  large  increase  of  population  in  Nottingham.  But 
building  operations  have  kept  p&ce  with  the  increase  so  that  rents  have 
not  advanced.  During  the  last  year  there  has  been  a  perceptible  fall- 
ing oif  in  the  staple  trade  of  the  town,  not  only  with  the  United  States, 
but  with  other  countries  and  in  the  home  market.  If  this  depression 
continues,  many  persons  must  be  thrown  our  of  employment  and  much 
suffering  will  probably  be  the  consequence  during  the  next  winter. 
There  is.  however,  a  probability  that  building  operations  have  outrun 
demand  and  that  rents  will  be  likely  to  decline,  which  will  favor  the 
operatives. 

HABITS   OF  THE   WORKING  CLASSES. 

It  is  difiBcult  to  speak  of  the  habits  of  the  working  classes,  as  those 
habits  vary  with  the  individual.  That  there  is  much  improvidence  and 
much  intemperance  is  undoubtedly  true.  Yet  there  are  thousands  who 
are  industrious  and  i)rudent  and  lead  exemplary  lives.  But  my  obser- 
vation leads  me  to  think  that  the  British  workmen,  as  a  class,  drink 
more  intoxicating  liquors  than  is  good  for  them.  In  fact,  intemperance 
prevails  to  a  large  extent,  and  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  it  is  not  confined 
to  men.  The  dark,  damp,  and  gloomy  winters,  together  with  the  ab- 
sence of  comfort  in  their  own  houses,  drive  many  working  people  to  the 
public  houses  where  they  find  good  fires  and  boon  companions,  which, 
together  with  the  mug  of  beer,  helps  them  to  forget  the  hardship  of 
their  lot.  Of  course  such  habits  lead  to  improvidence  and  intemper- 
ance. 

FEELING    BETWEEN  THE   EMPLOY:^   AND   EMPLOYER. 

1  think  a  fairly  good  feeling  has  prevailed  between  the  employer  and 
employe  during  the  last  five  years.  >  »ccasional  strikes  have  occurred, 
but  they  have  generally  been  of  minor  importance.  During  prosperous 
times  strikes  are  not  usual,  because,  as  the  employer  makes  money 
freely  he  is  usually  able  and  willing  to  give  fair  remuneration  to  his 
workmen.     But  a  strike  of  an  unusual  kind  has  lately  occurred  in  this 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  791 

district.  A  large  manufacturer  of  lace  curtains  here  finding  that  labor 
was  cheaper  in  Scotland,  moved  some  of  his  machinery  there  and  was 
contemplating-  moving  more  when  his  employes  threatened  to  leave  in 
a  body  if  the  removal  was  continued.  As  strikes  have  not  been  fre- 
quent nor  formidable  here  within  the  last  few  years,  their  efi'ect  has  not 
been  great  on  the  prosperity  of  the  community.  So  far  as  I  can  learn, 
strikes  have  usually  resulted  in  little  good  to  the  ojierative,  accompanied 
with  heavy  loss  of  wages  while  unemployed,  and  consequently  with  much 
distress  in  their  families. 

ORGANIZATION   OF  LABOR. 

As  to  the  organization  of  labor  and  the  nature  of  the  organizations,  I 
propose  to  report  fully  in  answer  to  your  circular  of  the  18th  May  last. 

FREEDOM  OF  PURCHASE  AND  MANNER  OF  PAYMENT. 

Working  people  here  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  where- 
ever  they  please.  The  employes  in  factories  and  warehouses  are  gen- 
erally paid  weekly  in  gold  and  silver  coin. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

Co-operative  societies  are  not  common  here,  and  those  that  have  been 
started  have  not  been  very  successful.  I  do  not  know  that  there  are  any 
co-operative  productive  societies  in  this  district. 

CONDITION   OF   WORKING  PEOPLE,  ETC. 

From  my  observation  for  six  years  past,  I  do  not  regard  the  condition 
of  the  working  people  in  this  district  as  being  particularly  bad.  Their 
wages  are  sufficient,  ordinarily,  for  the  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and  in  many  cases  much  more.  It  they  have  families  grown  up  the 
younger  members  can  generally  secure  employment.  Household  ser- 
vants are  always  in  demand,  and  good  and  faithful  ones  can  always  com- 
mand good  situations. 

The  climate  is  much  milder  in  winter  than  that  of  the  Northern  States 
of  the  Union.  Coal  is  cheap,  coal-mines  being  within  the  bounds  of  the 
corporation  of  Nottingham.  Clothing  is  cheap,  and  as  the  climate  is 
cool  in  summer,  very  little  change  between  winter  and  summer  clothing 
is  necessary.  Gas  is  sold  by  the  corporation  at  60  cents  per  1.000  feet. 
These  are  advantages  of  no  small  consequence,  and  they  alleviate  the 
condition  of  the  working  classes  very  much.  They  almost  always  ap- 
pear to  be  comfortably  dressed.  The  young  women  employed  in  the 
lace  and  hosiery  factories  manage,  in  some  way,  to  be  always  comfort- 
ably clad,  and  often  show  much  taste  in  dress  on  Sundays  and  holidays. 
Barefooted  or  ragged  chihlren  are  rarely  seen  in  the  streets  of  Notting- 
ham. On  the  whole  I  think  that  with  industry  and  economy  there  is 
little  need  for  suffering  among  the  operative  classes  here. 

SAFETY   OF   EMPLOYES   IN   FACTORIES,  ETC. 

Thelawsof  England  with  regard  to  the  safety  of  employes  in  factories, 
mines,  mills,  and  on  railways,  are  very  careful  of  their  rights,  and  the 
tendency  is  to  make  them  more  so.  I  am  not  now  prepared  to  make  a 
full  report  upon  those  laws. 


792  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS    OF   WORKINGMEN. 

As  to  tbe  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workiugmen,  it  may  be  said 
generally  tbat  they  are  less  than  in  the  United  States.  Here  a  certain 
property  qualification  is  required  to  secure  a  vote  ;  that  is,  a  voter  must 
be  a  payer  of  rates  or  taxes.  But  in  towns  the  qualification  is  liberal 
enough  to  include  a  large  part  of  the  working  classes,  and  the  tendency 
is  to  extend  the  franchise.  For  this  reason  the  operatives  have  consid- 
erable political  influence  now,  and  that  influence  is  likely  to  increase. 
The  tendency  of  legislation  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  extension  of  the 
franchise,  consequently  towards  increasing  the  influence  of  the  working 
classes.  I  am  not  able  to  say  what  is  the  share,  comparatively,  borne  by 
the  working  people  in  local  and  general  taxation. 

CAUSES  THAT  LEAD  TO  EMIGRATION,  ETC. 

So  far  as  I  can  learn  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the 
"working  people  are  the  general  ones  of  dissatisfaction  with  their  condi- 
tion here  and  an  idea  that  that  condition  will  be  better  in  the  United 
States  or  in  some  of  the  colonies.  They  know  that  wages  are  higher  in 
the  States  and  that  land  is  cheaper,  and  they  hope  in  some  way  to  im- 
prove their  condition,  without,  as  a  rule,  having  any  definite  idea  of 
bow  it  is  to  be  done.  Perhaps  I  may  properly  mention  here  tbat  tbe 
Mormons  have  a  mission  here,  which  holds  its  regular  meetings  and 
secures  many  emigrants  to  Utah.  How  far  those  emigrants  are  gov- 
erned by  religious  ideas  or  by  other  motives,  1  am  unable  to  say.  But 
I  believe  this  district  has,  for  some  years  past,  been  rather  a  successful 
field  of  operation  for  the  Mormon  missionaries.  Tbe  emigrants  are 
mostly  from  tbe  operative  classes. 

NUMBER   OF   WOMEN   AND   CHILDREN  EMPLOYED,   ETC. 

After  a  careful  study  of  tbe  matter,  I  have  concluded  that  I  cannot 
state  the  number  of  women  and  children  employed  in  this  district  in 
industrial  pursuits  with  any  such  approximation  to  truth  as  to  be  reliable. 
There  are  in  this  district  tbe  tow  ns  of  Nottingham,  Leicester,  and  Derby, 
containing,  respectively,  200,000, 135,000,  and  85,000  in  population.  Then 
there  are  many  smaller  towns,  such  as  Grantham,  Belper,  Long  Eaton, 
&c.,  in  which  are  factories  of  various  kinds.  In  almost  all  tbe  villages  in 
tbe  district  there  are  large  numbers  of  female  operatives  working  band 
knitting-machines,  or  doing  various  work  upon  lace,  hosiery,  and  other 
articles.  To  undertake  to  estimate  tbe  number  of  females  thus  employed 
over  this  large  and  thickly-peopled  region  of  Central  England  is  entirely 
beyond  my  power.  I  have  therefore  concluded  not  to  make  the  attempt. 
I  can  only  say,  generally,  that  the  number  of  females  so  employed  in 
this  district  is  very  large,  being  many  thousands.  They  are  employed 
in  various  occupations,  but  principally  in  the  lace  and  hosiery  factories 
and  warehouses.  But  there  are  hundreds  employed  at  their  own  bouses 
in  clipping  lace,  seaming  stockings,  putting  bands  upon  drawers,  fin- 
ishing undershirts,  «&c.,  besides  those  who  are  employed  on  band  knit- 
ting-machines at  their  homes,  though  under  the  pay  of  the  large  man- 
ufacturers in  the  towns.  As  this  condition  of  matters  spreads  over  four 
counties  in  this  district,  I  think  you  will  see  how  impossible  it  is  for 
me  to  get  at  any  approximate  estimate  of  the  number  employed  and  the 
nature  of  their  employment.  I  have  given  in  tbe  annexed  table  the 
wages  of  female  employes  so  far  as  I  have  ascertained  them  and  also 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  793 

the  hours  of  labor.     I  am  aware  that  the  figures  do  not  cover  the  whole 
field,  but  they  are  as  full  as  I  have  been  able  to  make  them. 

THE   MORAL   AND   PHYSICAL   CONDITION   OF   THE   EMPLOYilS. 

Of  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  female  employes  above 
referred  to,  it  is  difficult  to  speak.  Personally  I  can  hav^e  very  little 
knowledge  of  them.  I  see  them  at  their  work  and  in  the  streets,  and  I 
hear  what  is  said  about  them.  At  their  work  in  this  town  they  do  not 
appear  to  suft'er  either  from  unwholesome  atmosphere  or  unreasonable 
hours  of  labor.  In  the  street  they  are  generally  well  dressed,  and  their 
appearance  does  not  indicate  physical  weakness.  Young  .women  seem 
to  prefer  factory  work  to  domestic  service,  in  which  they  are  always  in 
demand.  As  they  can  get  good  wages  and  good  food  at  the  houses  of 
those  who  are  willing  to  eini)loy  them,  and  yet  prefer  the  factory  and 
warehouse  work,  I  think  their  lot  cannot  be  a  hard  one  in  their  chosen 
employment.  I  do  not  think  the  moral  condition  of  women  employed 
in  factory  work  here  is  worse  than  it  is  in  every  jjlace  where  there  is  a 
large  number  of  that  sex  employed. 

THE  MEANS  EMPLOYED  AND  BY  WHOM  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF 

THE  EMPLOYEES. 

As  a  rule  I  do  not  think  the  employers  take  much  care  for  the  improve- 
ment of  their  employes.  Generally  they  are  satisfied  if  they  do  their 
work  well  and  appear  at  the  opening  time  in  the  morning.  But  there 
are  exceptions  to  this  general  rule.  There  are  at  least  two  large  lace 
warehouses  which  employ  chaplains  and  have  a  service  of  their  own 
every  morning.  They  also  try  to  exercise  some  control  over  their  moral 
conduct  generally.  There  is  the  general  provision  for  moral  instruc- 
tion in  the  town  which  is  active  and  fairly  efficient. 

THE    MEANS    PROVIDED   IN   CASE   OF   FIRE   OR   OTHER    DANGERS  FOR 

ESCAPE. 

I  am  not  aware  that  there  is  any  special  means  provided  for  escape 
in  such  cases.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  buildings  are  gen- 
erally constructed  with  more  care  than  are  similar  ones  in  the  United 
States.  They  are  always  built  of  brick  or  stone  and  the  stair  cases  are 
generally  of  stone.  Fires  are  much  less  frequent  than  they  are  at  home. 
Of  course  they  do  occur,  but  the  danger  from  them  is  comparatively 
small.  During  nearly  seven  years  that  I  have  resided  in  this  place  I 
have  ever  seen  a  house  burned  down  and  have  rarely  seen  a  fire-engine 
in  the  streets. 

PROVISIONS  MADE  BY  EMPLOYERS  IN  REGARD  TO  SANITARY  MEASURES. 

I  am  not  aware  that  there  are  any  special  provisions  made  by  em- 
ployers here  in  this  regard,  aside  from  the  general  construction  of  fac- 
tories and  warehouses  being  good  and  substantial,  with  ordinarily  good 
sanitary  arrangements.  The  town  has  its  health  officers,  who  are  ex- 
pected to  devote  their  time  to  their  departments,  and  I  believe  they  are 
fairly  efficient.  Then  there  are  factory  inspectors  whose  duty  it  is  to  see 
that  all  laws  for  the  welfare  of  the  operatives  are  observed.  There  are  hos- 
pital accommodations,  and  th^re  is  also  a  law  making  employers  liable 
in  case  of  accidents  under  certain  circumstances. 


794  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

PAST   AND   PRESENT  WAGES. 

"  Has  there  been  any  increase  clurinf^:  the  i)ast  five  years  in  the  wages 
paid  women  and  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  ?  What  are 
the  eiiects  of  employment  of  women  on  wages  of  men  and  on  gen- 
eral social  and  industrial  conditions  "?" 

I  do  not  think  there  has  been  any  material  increase  in  the  wages  of 
women  or  in  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  during  the  last  five 
years.  Active  trade  here  has  kept  both  men  and  women  well  employed 
during  most  of  that  time,  and  they  have  thereby  been  able  to  earn  more 
money.  As  I  have  before  said  that  trade  prosperity  seems  to  have 
reached  its  height,  and  a  time  of  depression  is  prevailing  in  the  district, 
the  employers  are  now  more  able  than  formerlj^  to  name  the  wages  they 
will  pay.  The  wages  of  women  being  lower  than  those  of  men,  their 
employment  has  a  tendency  to  depress  the  wages  of  the  latter.  I  can- 
not say  how  the  employment  of  women  aflects  social  conditions.  Their 
employment  affects  the  industrial  conditions  materially.  Withoutfemale 
labor  the  manufacture  of  lace  and  hosiery  here  would  be  impossible. 
The  cheaper  labor  of  the  continent,  which  now  creates  strong  competi- 
tion, would  probably  drive  all  IsToltingham  lace  and  hosiery  out  of  for- 
eign markets,  and  perhaps  our  of  domestic  markets  to  a  considerable 
extent.  A  large  share  of  the  work  in  lace  factories  and  warehouses  can 
only  be  well  and  profitably  done  by  female  labor,  as  you  will  readily 
understand. 

STATE     OF     EDUCATION — GENERAL     EFFECTS     OF     EMPLOYMENT     IN 

MILLS,   ETC. 

The  younger  female  employes  are  generally  fairly  educated,  as  the 
laws  of  the  country  compel  the  attendance  of  all  children  at  some  school. 
These  laws  are  pretty  strictly  enforced,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the 
rising  generation  is  better  educated  than  any  before  it.  Among  the 
older  employes  there  is  less  education,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  are  able  to 
read  and  write. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  what  effect  the  employment  of  women  in  factories, 
mills,  stores,  &c.,  has  upon  their  physical  condition  and  that  of  their 
children.  Of  course  the  confinement  has  its  physical  disadvantages, 
but  at  the  same  time  its  compensations.  The  air  which  they  breathe 
may  not  be  as  pure  and  wholesome  as  in  the  open  air,  but  they  are  able 
to  earn  more  money  and  to  provide  betU  r  food  and  more  physical  com- 
forts for  themselves  and  their  children.  Large  numbers  of  women  and 
children  could  not  be  employed  in  any  other  way  in  this  country  than 
in  factories,  mills,  &c.  They  cannot  all  go  into  domestic  service,  nor 
can  they  be  employed  on  the  land.  There  is,  therefore,  no  alternative 
but  that  they  accept  such  employment  or  emigrate.  Without  such  em- 
ployment the  greater  part  of  them  would  not  have  the  means  wherewith 
to  leave  the  country. 

JASPEE  SMITH, 

Consular  Agent. 

United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Nottingham,  June  20,  1884. 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


795 


GENERAL   TRADES. 
Weekly  wages  (of  fifty-four  hours  per  week)  paid  the  general  trade  in  Nottingham. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Bricklayers 

Hod-carriers 
Masons 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Tenders 

Plumbers 

Assistants  . . 

Gas-fitters , 

Slaters  

Koofers 

Tenders 

Carpenters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers , 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers  

Bookbinders 

Foremen 

Under  foremen 

Laborers 

Maltster,  leading  man 

"Working  maltster 

Bntcliers,  witli  board 

Cabinet-makers 

Contectioners 

Cigar-makers  

Coopers : 

Working  per  day 

"Working  piece 

Helper 

Drivers  : 

Draymen  and  teamsters - 

Cabmen 

Tram  drivers 

Gardeners 

Horseshoers 

Laborers  and  porters 

Lithographers 

Printers* 

Saddle  and  harness  makers . . 

Tailors 

Tinsmiths 


$7  56 
5  94 
9  18 

5  94 
8  64 

6  48 


5  94 


7  56 
5  94 
7  56 


4  86 
7  30 


3  65 
7  29 

6  10 

4  38 

7  30 
4  86 
4  40 


7  29 
2  43 

9  00 

8  50 
4  86 

4  86 
4  40 


5  10 

6  10 


4  86 
6  56 

5  92 

4  40 

5  50 


$8  64 
7  02 
9  72 
7  02 

10  80 
7  56 


7  02 


8  64 
7  00 

9  18 


7  30 

8  50 


6  56 
12  15 

7  30 

5  34 
9  73 

6  08 
4  86 


8  51 

4  00 

10  20 
13  35 

5  34 

5  82 
4  86 


7  50 
7  30 


7  29 
7  29 
7  30 
7  30 
7  30 


$8  00 
6  25 
9  50 

6  25 
9  50 

7  00 
9  72 
6  50 
9  72 
9  18 

8  00 
6  40 
8  50 


6  25 
8  00 
6  08 

5  00 

10  00 

6  50 
5  00 

8  50 
5  40 

4  50 

9  00 

8  00 

3  00 

9  50 

11  00 

5  20 

5  50 

4  75 

6  25 
6  00 
6  50 
4  86 

6  10 

7  00 
6  25 
6  50 
6  25 


*  Ten  cents  to  16  cents  per  M. 

FACTORIES,  MILLS,  ETC. 
Wages  per  week  in  hosiery  mills. 


Occupations. 


HOSIERY  MANUFACTURE  (fifty  to  fifty-six  hours.) 


Hand-frame  knitters,  men 

Rotary  ])ower  frame,  men 

Circular  i)ower  frame,  men 

Circular  power  frame,  women 

Cotton's  patent : 

Men 

Attendant  boys 

Attendant  girls 

Hand  stitcher  and  seamer,  women. . 
Power  stitcher  and  seamer,  women. 

Power  welters  and  turners  ofi' 

Winders 

Cutters : 

Men 

Women 


Lowest. 


$3  41 
8  63 
8  63 


8  63 
1  95 


2  92 

3  65 
2  68 

6  80 


Highest. 


$4  14 
9  73 
9  73 
4  86 

12  16 
4  14 

2  43 
1  95 

3  65 

4  86 
3  16 


Average. 


$3  75 
9  (10 
9  00 
4  86 

10  00 
3  50 

2  43 

1  95 

3  10 

4  35 

2  90 

6  80 

3  65 


796 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  per  week  in  hosiery  mills — Continued. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average, 


Hosiery  manufacture— Continued. 

Menders,  women 

Folders : 

Men  (piece) 

Women  (piece) 

Girls  (piece) 

Men  (time) 

Lads  (time)  

Women  (time) 

Menders  : 

Women  (piece) 

Women  (time) 

Girls  (time) 

Makers-up : 

By  hand,  women 

By  power,  women 

COTTON  DOUBLING  (flfty-six  honrs.)* 
Doublers : 

Women 

Girls 

Reelers : 

Women 

Girls 

Doffers,  girls 


$2  92 


2  20 
1  70 

1  70 
1  46 
1  00 


$3  40 

7  50 
3  75 

1  80 
7  00 

2  75 

2  80 

3  00 
2  70 

1  50 

2  50 

3  80 


2  60 
2  00 

2  00 
1  75 
1  25 


*  Some  work  by  time,  some  by  piece,  according  to  arrangement  with  different  firms. 
Wages  iiaid  per  week  offiftij-four  hours  in  lace  factories  or  warehouses  in  Nottingham, 


Occupations. 


FANCY  LACE  MANUFACTURE. 


Lace  makers,  men 

Winders,  lads  and  boys 

Mender  s,  girls 

Threaders,  lads  and  boys 

Warpers,  men 

Designers  and  draftsmen,  men.. 
Clippers  and  scaUopers,  women. 


Makers  in  silk : 

Men 

Lads  and  boys 

Makers  in  cotton : 

Men 

Lads  and  boys 

Menders : 

Women 

Girls 

Winders : 

Women 

Girls 

Warpers : 

Men,  time 

Lads  and  boys 

Draftsmen : 

Men 

Lads  and  boys 

Threaders,  lads  and  boys. 
Smiths,  time 


LACE  CURTAINS. 


LACE  DRESSING. 


Men 

Lads  and  boys. 

Women 

Girls 


Lowest. 


$14  50 
2  40 

2  40 
1  45 
6  00 

10  00 

3  40 


17  00 
5  08 


6  30 
4  86 


2  68 
1  45 


2  92 
1  95 


2  43 

10  95 
2  (10 
2  43 

7  78 


Highest. 


$24  00 

2  90 

3  40 
2  40 
7  25 

24  00 

4  90 


19  00 
8  63 

12  60 
6  30 

3  40 

2  68 

3  40 

2  68 

6  30 

3  90 

19  50 

4  86 
2  92 
8  63 


Average. 


m  00 

2  60 

3  00 
2  00 
7  00 

15  00 

4  00 


18  00 

7  00 

8  00 

5  50 

3  00 

2  20 

3  20 

2  20 

6  30 

3  00 

15  00 
3  50 
2  60 
8  00 


$12  16 
3  65 
3  41 
3  20 


The  majority  of  men  receive  set  wages  whether  fully  employed  or  not. 
cording  to  time  made.    Lads  paid  according  to  time  made. 


Women  and  girls  paid  ac- 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

RAILWAY   EMPL0Y:I&S. 


797 


Occupations. 


Hours  em- 
ployed. 


Wages. 


Engine  drivers per  day 

Foremen do . . 

Passenger  guards per  week 

Goods,  guards do 

Pointsmen .-. do 

Watermen do 

Passenger  porters do 

Goods  porters • •. do 

Engine  titters do 

Examiners do 

Oilers do 

Laborers do 


$1  82 
1  10 

6  81 

7  30 
5  92 
5  58 
4  62 
1  86 


5  92 

3  41 

4  38 


MINES   AND  MINING. 
Wages  paid  per  day  of  —  nours  in  connection  ivith  coal  mines  in  Nottingham  district. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

$0  96 

96 

1  14 

85 

1  22 

1  50 

$1  34 

1  34 

Fillers 

1  28 

Bymen  ^day) 

1  22 

Bymen  (contract) .                                   

1  70 

Firemen  (overlookers) 

1  58 

Furnacemen 

85 

Bankmen 

77 

81 

Enginemen 

1  18 

Stokers 



85 

1  09 

77 

73 

94 

Smiths 

1  22 

Strikers 

85 

Laborers  above  surface -                         

82 

FOUNDRIES   AND    IRON   WORKS. 

Wages  per  week,  iron  works  and  foundry. 


Occupations. 

Average. 

Men. 

Lads. 

Molders 

$7  75 
7  25 

6  06 

7  75 

7  00 
5  80 

8  20 
4  75 

$1  90 
2  25 

Fitters 

Turners,  planers,  and  drillers 

2  15 

1  90 

Boiler  rivetters 

2  15 

Boiler  holders  - 

2  15 

Smiths 

Laborers 

798 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


GOVT^RNMENT   EMPLOYES. 
Salaries  paid  post-office  employes. 


Occupations. 


Postmaster 

Chief  clerk 

Superintendent 

Eight  clerks  (each) 

Sixteen  assorting  clerks  and  telegraphers,  first  class 

Forty-two  assorting  clerks  and  telegraphers,  second  class 

1  female  telegrapher,  first  class 

5  female  telegraphers,  second  class 


$2,  627  91 

973  30 

827  30 

632  64 

$9  73-$12  16 

$3  00-$4  00 

6  56 
2  92 


Kemarks. 


Per  year. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
$9.73  per  week,  increasing  to 
maximum  of  $12. 16  per  week. 
From  $3  to  .$4  a  week,  increas- 
ing to  maximum  of  $9.24. 
Increasing  to  $7.78. 
Increasing  to  $4.15. 


It  must  be  taken  into  account  that  all  the  above  (including  telegraphers)  are  Government  employ68, 
and  as  such  their  position  is  permanent,  and  that  they  are  entitled  to  retire  on  a  pension  after  service 
for  a  certain  number  of  years. 

Salaries  paid  in  public  schools. 


Occupations. 


Board  schoolmasters per  year. 

Head  mistress do. .. 

Assistant  masters do . . . 

Assistant  mistresses do. .. 

Board  school  inspector do . . . 

Clerk  of  board do  . . 

Attendance  officers do . . . 

Superintendent  of  attendant  officers do  .. 


Salary. 


$730  00  to  $1,  557  00 


389  00 

876  00 

243  32 

535  31 

170  32 

389  32 

1,  460  00 

1,  703  27 

389  32 

486  65 

730  00 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYES. 
Wages  paid  per  annum  to  corporation  employ^. 


Town  clerk's  department. 

Town  clerk,  clerk  to  the  gas  commit- 
tee, solicitor  and  clerk  to  the  sewer- 
age committee,  registrar  of  the  bor- 
ough court  of  record,  and  steward 
of  the  manor 

Estates  clerk 

Conveyancing  clerk 

bo 

Kegi«trar  of  stock 

Seven  clerks,  ranging  from  £140  to  £26 

Borough  engineer's  dapartment. 

Consulting  engineer,  engineer  to  the 
gas  and  water  and  sewage  farm  com- 
mittoKS 

Borough  surveyor  and  engineer 

Chief  as.si.staut 

Seven  draftsmen,  ranging  from  £200 
to  £05 

Private  improvements,  notices,  &c., 
cleik 

Clerk 

Do 

Building  surveyor  

Two  as.sistants,  .£104  each 

Surveyor  of  highways 

Foreman  of  scavengers  , 

Clerk  of  works  for  private  streets  im- 
provement  

Two  wharf  clerks,  £109  4«.  and  £65. . , 
*  With  house,  coal,  and  gas. 
t  With  house. 


$7,  299  75 

1,  070  63 

973  30 

730  00 

778  64 

3,  221  80 


$973  30 

2,  920  00 

973  30 

4,355  51 

1,216  62 
438  00 
411  00 
1,  216  62 
1,  012  23 
1,  095  00 
tool  57 

{973  30 
847  00 

Borough  engineer's   department— Con- 
tinued. 

Clerk  of  works 

Assistant  clerk  of  works 

Subordinate  employes 

Borough  accountant's  department. 

Borough  accountant 

Chief  clerk 

Six  clerks,  ranging  from  £95  to  £31 . . . 

Police  court  clerk 

Collector    of    private    improvement 

works  accounts 

District  rate  and  rents  : 

Three  clerks,   ranging  from  £130 

to  £41 

Eent  collector 

Eight    rate    collectors,  1  at  £160 

and  7  at  £150 

Private  improvement  works,  7  clerks, 
ranging  from  £250  to  £31 , 

Health  department. 

Medical  officer  of  health 

Chief  inspector  of  nuisances 

Analyst 

Wharf  superintendent 

Meat  inspector - 

Fish  inspeetor , 

3  inspectors  of  nuisance-s,  £104  each... 

:;  £80  for  keep  of  house  also. 

§  And  £50  traveling  expenses. 


$885  70 
569  38 
505  11 


1,  946  60 
1,021  96 
1,  961  19 

442  85 

730  00 


1 

212  00 

973  30 

5,  888  46 

3 

475  00 

s2 

920  00 

1 

460  00 

Fees. 

973  30 

583  98 

506  11 

1 

518  34 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


799 


Wages  paid  to  corporation  eviployes — Continued. 


Health  department — Continned. 


Manager  of  disinfecting  station 

2  oflBce  clerk« 

3  ■wbaif  clerks  

2  atteiidunts  at  lavatories , 

2  lodffing -house  care-takers 

1  inspector  of  common  lodging-honses 


Estates  department. 


Estates  surveyor 

Assistant  surveyors. 


Police  and  fire  brigade. 

Chief  constable,   high  constable,  and 

billet  master  

Superintendent  of  police 

12  inspectors  of  police 

27  sergeants  of  poUce 

170  policemen 

Superintendents  of  fire  brigade 

Surgeon  to  police  force 

Markets  and  fairs. 

Clerk  of  markets,  inspector  of  weights 

and  measures,  &.c 

Assistants 

Toll  collector  and  assistants 

3  toll  collectors  (iE65,  £45  10s.  and  £44 


Salary 

per 

annum. 

$506  11 

530  44 

•1,  369  00 

379  58 

301  72 

126  52 

973  30 

442  85 

Assistants  weights  and  measures . . . 
Office  assistant  and  gas  snperintendant 

Castle  museum. 

Director  and  curator 

2  clerks  , 

Foreman 

Stoker  and  fitter 

11  attendants,  &c.,  ranging  from  £62 
to  £7168 

University  College  free  library  and  nat- 
ural history  museum. 

Professor  of  natural  science 

Professor  of  chemistry    

Professor  of  mathematics 

Professor  of  language  and  literature. . , 
Assistant  secretary  and  secretary  to 

science  classes 

Physical  demonstrator,  &c , 

Chemical  demonstrator 

Mechanical  assistants , 

Chemical  assistants 

Assistant  curator 

Taxidermist 

Engineer  and  assistant 

3  attendants 

Chief  librarian  .  - 

Assistant  librarian 

12  assistants  and   attendants  ranging 
from  £78  to  £15  12« 

Public  parks  and  burial  grounds. 

Care-taker,  arboretum 

Care-taker,  meadows  ground 

C  are-taker,  forest  pavilion 

*  £104,  £99  9s.,  £78. 

t  And  £75  for  house,  &c. 

I  Per  week. 

9  And  house,  coal,  and  gas. 

II  And  £30  traveling  expenses. 

i[  And  £5  4s.  traveling  expenses. 
**With  residence, 
tt  And  proportion  of  class  fees. 
j;  £91  and  £70  4s. 


2, 190  00 

t973  30 

JIO  58 

18  02 

:6  56 

§851  63 

438  00 


1,  216  62 

11584  00 
379  58 

752  85 

11253  05 
354  27 


**1, 460  00 
379  58 
569  38 
506  11 

2,  062  41 


1 

946  60 

1 

946  60 

1 

946  60 

1 

946  60 

632  64 

973  30 

tt480  65 

442  85 

405  00 

379  58 

537  00 

1 

J785  50 

683  31 

1 

095  00 

584  00 

2, 075  00 


152  00 
S126  52  I 
S126  52  I 


Public  parks  and  burial  grounds — Cont'd. 

Sexton  and  keepers  of  Basford  ceme- 
tery   

Miscellaneous. 

Clerk  to  the  peace 

Recorder 

Treasurer 

Coroner 

Clerk  to  the  magistrates 

Undersheriff 

Accountant  auditor 

Lighting  inspector 

Town-hall  keeper 

Keeper  municipal  offices 

Messenger  

Superintendent  of  Burgess  Park,  &c. . . 

Sewage-farm  bailiff 

Late-rent  collector 

Horse  and  fodder  superintendent 

Mayor's  servant,  keeper  of  police  office 

and  exchange  rooms 

Pinder 

Assistant  to  Freman's  committee 

Gas  department. 

Engineer's  department :  1 

Engineer 

2  draftsmen 

Clerk  to  works 

Manager's  office : 

General  manager 

Chief  clerk 

3  clerks 

Accountant's  office : 

Accountants 

Chief  clerk 

18  clerks  ranging  from  £160  to  £15, 

16s 

13  collectors  ranging  from  £150  to 

£32  10s 

Miscellaneous : 

S.  Smith  &  Co.,  bankers 

Inspector 

Subinspector 

3  superintendents  of  works 

11  clerks  at  works  ranging  from 

£125  to  £20 


$455  00 


1,  946  60 

817  57 

1,  703  27 

Pees. 

5,  353  31 

Fees. 

973  30 

§584  00 

§253  03 

§535  31 

316  32 

486  65 

111,216  62 

486  65 

389  32 

§413  65 
158  00 
121  66 


3,  6.'i0  00 

1Iiri,997  60 

584  00 

2,  919  90 
973  30 

***1,362  62 

1,  216  62 
924  63 

4,842  00 

7,141  30 

730  00 

1,021  96 

778  64 

ttt3,601  21 

3,  810  46 


Water  department. 

Engineer's  office : 

Engineer 

Assistant  engineers 

Superintendent 

2  clerks 

Manager's  office : 

Manager 

Chief  clerk 

6  clerks  ranging  from  £120  to  £26.' 

5  collectors  ranging  from  £160  to 
£140  

Storekeeper j 

Chief  assessor 

2  assessors 

Accountant  auditor 

Registrar  of  stock | 

Laborers  on  streets,  &c 

§§  Five  shillings  per  week  extra  during  cricket 
season. 

nil  And  house  and  £30  for  servant. 
1111  £240  and  £170. 
*"£150,  £110,  and  £20. 

t+t£300,  £220,  and  £220. 

IJtSee  miscellaneous. 

§§§  See  town  clerk's  department. 


1,  946  60 

1,460 

00 

§876  00 
285  00 

2,433 

25 

§851 
1,760 

63 
69 

3,674 

20 

486 

65 

778  64 

881 

63 

(VA) 

J5  47 

800  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

PRICES   OF   THE   NECESSARIES   OF   LIFE. 

Prices  of  provi-iions  a)id  other  leading  arlicleH  of  eonsumpiion. 


Articles. 


Price 


Flour,  superfine,  per    14   pounds 

(average) 

Beef: 

Best  roasting  pieces  (per  pound) 

Soup  pieces - |  $0  14  to 

Come<l 

Veal : 

Fore-quarter 

Hind-quarter 

Chops  

Mutton : 

Fore-quarter 

Hind-quarter 

Chops  

Pork: 

Fresh 

Corned 

Bacon  

Hams 


Articles. 


Price. 


Lard j  $0  07  to 

Butter* per  pound. .  32 

Cheese do  . .  12 

Potatoes per  peck. .  20 

Milk per  quart . . 

Eggs* per  dozen . .  24 

Tea per  pound . .  36 

Coffee do ... .  24 

Sugar do 05 

Kice do 04 

Soap  (common) do i  06 

Starch do 07 

Coal per  ton . .      2  12 

Oil  (coal) per  gallon.. 

Gas per  1,000  feet.. 

Shirting 07 

Sheetings i  15 

Prints 08 


09 
50 
24 
25 
08 
48 
96 
40 
09 
07 
08 
10 
4  00 
20 
60 
15 
28 
18 


*  Varies  with  season. 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Farm  laborers. 


Occupations. 


Plowmen 

General  work. . 

Gardener 

Under  gardener 

Milking 

Cattleman 

Blacksmith 

Carpenter 

Boy 


Wages 

Wages 

per  day. 

per  week. 

$0  65 

$3  90 

65 

3  90 

72 

4  38 

57 

a  92 

44 

3  08 

65 

4  55 

1  22 

7  32 

1  10 

6  60 

18 

1  08 

The  above  figures  are  taken  from  the  books  of  a  proprietor  in  Not- 
tinghamshire who  farms  considerable  land  on  his  own  account.  All  the 
laborers  live  in  cottages  near  the  mansion  house,  the  rents  of  which  are 
as  follows :  There  are  fifty-five  cottages ;  one  rents  for  $14.60  per  quar- 
ter, the  others  from  $6.10  to  $2.56  per  quarter,  the  average  price  being 
about  $3.50.  Farm  laborers  rarely  live  on  the  farms  on  which  they 
work  and  generally  receive  wages  and  provide  for  their  own  sustenance. 

STORE   AND    SHOP   WAGES. 
AsHistants  iv  retail  shops  and  stores. 


Occupatious. 


Lowest.    Highest. 


Drapers'  assistants  (with  board)  

Drapers'  assistants,  female  (with  board) . 
Head  salesmen  or  women  as  high  as 


.$100  ' 
100  I 


$400 

250 

1,000 


Average. 


$250 
175 


Ai)prenticea  get  little  or  no  pay  for  first  yeai'  and  in  .some  cases  pay  a  premium. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Household  wages  iii  towns. 


801 


Occnpatious. 

Lowest. 

Highest.   Average. 

$200 
75 

$50 
40 
40 

$125 
100 
,5 

65 

Under  servants 

60 

SHEFFIELD. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WEBSTER. 


In  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  the  labor  circular  of  the  De- 
partment, dated  February  15,  1884,  I  have  the  honor  to  report : 

In  giving  the  rates  of  wages  I  embrace  those  industries  which  belong 
to  this  consular  district.  This  will  excl  ude  "  factories,  mills,  &c.,"  which 
interrogatory  I  conclude  refers  especially  to  textile  fabrics,  of  which 
there  are  no  factories  in  this  district.  There  are  also  no  glass-workers, 
ship  yards,  or  shipbuilding,  and  uo  seamen.  I  omit  also  the  wages  of 
Oovernment  employes,  as  the  consul-general  informs  me  that  these  will 
be  obtained  in  London. 

I  have  made  the  statistics  upon  male  labor  as  full  and  accurate  as 
possible  in  the  time  allowed,  following  out  the  suggestions  of  the  cir- 
cular as  to  averaging.  My  statements  upon  female  labor  must  be  of  a 
more  general  nature,  as  females  are  not  employed  in  this  district  to  any 
great  extent  as  compared  with  the  cotton,  woolen,  and  lace  districts. 

1.   THE   EATES   OF   WAGES   PAID   TO  EVERY   CLASS. 

I  have  made  diligent  inquiry  as  to  the  rates  of  wages  paid  at  the 
present  time,  and  have  compared  them  with  those  of  1878,  and  here- 
with give  the  result. 

GENERAL   TRADES. 

War/es  paid  the  general  trades  in  the  consular  district  of  Sheffield. 


Occupations. 


Time  of  employment. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Per  week  of  49i  honrs . 


do  ... 

Per  week. 
do... 


Building  trades:  Carpenters  and  joiners, 
masons,  bricklayers,  slaters,  plaster- 
ers, painters,  paperers,  plumbers  and 
gas-nttcrs. 

Laborers  :  Hod-carriers  and  tenders 

Blacksraiths 

Strikers 

Brass  founders j  Per  week  of  54  hours 

Brass  finishers do 

Brick-makers  : 

Clay-!£etters 

Grinders  (machine) 

Siftenuen 

Mixemien 

Makers  

Boys  

Wheelers  and  setters 

Burners 

Drawers 

Cigar  makers : 

Women 

Forewomen 

Sorters  and  bundlers 


Per  week  of  50  hours    

do 

do 

do 

do , 

Per  day , 

Per  week  of  50  hours , 

12  hours  aday  and  Sundays. 
Per  week  of  50  hours 


92  A— LAB 51 


Per  week 

do 

*  Per  100. 


$6  00 


4  38 

6  07 
4  38 
8  26 

7  29 

4  05 

5  67 
3  40 

5  83 

6  32 


6  07 
6  56 

5  83 

*16 
1  82 
1  21 


$8  50 


6  07 

8  75 
5  83 

9  24 

7  78 

5  06 

6  56 
4  05 

6  56 

7  29 


6  56 

7  29 
6  56 

*36 
4  86 
3  04 


$8  00 


5  10 

7  90 

5  10 

8  51 
7  41 

4  38 
C  07 
3  65 

6  07 
6  56 

36 
6  32 
6  80 
6  07 

*24 
3  65 
2  19 


802  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  the  general  trades  in  the  consular  district  of  Sheffield — Continued. 


Occupations. 

Time  of  employment. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Per  week  of  54  hours 

Piece-work 

$6  80 

5  10 

6  07 
6  07 

4  38 

$9  70 

14  59 
12  16 
12  16 

5  59 

$8  51 

Coopers : 

Wet                                        

9  73 

Dry*  

do 

8  51 

do 

8  51 

Drivers : 

Per  week  of  60  to  70  hours . . 

5  10 

5  10 

Per  week  (16  hours  per  daj) 

5  83 
5  83 
3  40 
3  40 

9  73 
5  83 
2  43 

6  80 
6  80 
4  13 
4  13 

19  46 
8  75 
3  89 

6  07 

6  07 

do 

3  65 

3  65 

Tailors: 

14  59 

Tailors           

^lachiiiists  (women) 

Wheelwnn:hts: 

Piece-work 

do 

7  29 
2  92 

8  75- 

do 

7  90 

do 

4  46 

Steel  converting : 

7  29 

do 

4  8& 

Steel  melting: 

Per  week  of  60  hours 

do 

8  51 

6  80 
4  38 

7  29 
1  21 

9  73 
7  29 
5  10 
9  48 
3  65 

8  75 

7  05. 

do 

4  86 

do 

8  51 

Cellar-lad            

do 

1  82 

Steel  rolling : 

10  94 

do 

8  75 

Files : 

7  29 
6  07 
6  32 

8  51 

6  07 
1  82 

7  29 
7  29 

10  94 
7  29 
1  82 

6  32 

9  73 

7  29 
9  73 
6  32 

8  51 
6  07 
8  51 
4  38 
6  32 
6  80 

4  86 
6  07 

3  65 
1  09 

4  86 
6  07 

8  51 

6  07 

5  83 

5  83 
1  82 

9  73 

7  29 
12  16 

6  07 
1  46 

10  94 
8  51 
7  29 

13  37 

7  29 
2  43 

10  94 

8  51 
13  37 

9  73 
2  43 
7  78 

13  37 
10  94 

14  59 
7  29 

9  73 
7  29 
9  73 

6  07 

7  29 

7  78 

12  16 
12  16 
9  73 
2  92 

9  73 

8  51 
12  16 

7  29 

7  29 

8  51 
2  55 

12  16 

9  73 
14  59 

8  51 
2  43 

8  51 

.  .     do 

6  80 

...do 

6  56 

do 

9  73. 

Cutters: 

do 

6  32 

do 

1  94 

Saws : 

do 

8  75 

do 

7  53 

do 

11  19 

do 

7  78 

do 

2  19 

do 

7  2» 

Edge  tools  : 

do 

10  21 

do 

8  51 

do 

11  67 

6  80 

Sheep-shears  : 

do 

9  24 

do 

6  32 

do 

9  24 

do 

5  10 

do 

6  80 

do 

7  53 

Pocket  cutlery : 

do 

8  51 

do 

8  99 

do 

6  07 

do 

1  82 

TaLle  cutlery : 

renders 

do                         .   .     .     . 

8  75 

Strikers 

do  .. 

6  32 

Grhiilers 

do  . 

9  73 

Hatters  

do 

6  32 

Table  torks  (steel) : 

ForgiTs 

do 

6  07 

Grinders 

do 

6  19 

Filers  (womon) 

do     ..              ... 

2  06 

Kazors : 

Forffers 

do 

11  19 

Strikers 

do 

8  75 

do 

13  37 

do      

6  80 

Puttiug-up  (womeD) 

Per  week  of  50  hotn'S 

1  82 

'Go  out  packing. 


t  Are  estimated  to  receive  $2.43  to  $2.92  in  gifts,  &c. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  803 

Wages  paid  the  general  trades  in  the  considar  district  of  Sheffield — Continued. 


OccupationH. 


Time  of  employment. 


Scissors  : 

Foige.rs Piece-work . 

Griudera  i do 

Filers  I do 


Lowest. 


Putters-totjPther 

Hok'ra  and  hardeners. 
Burnishers  (women).. 

DressL'rs  ( womou) 

Electro-plate : 

Stampers 


Pierce- workers , 

Braziers 

Buffeis : 

Men 

Women  

Chasers 

Engravers 

Burnisher.i  (women) 
Britannia  metal : 
Spinners. 


-do 
-do 
.do 
.do 


Usually  piece-work,  when 
time  will  average  55  hours 
per  week. 

do 


-do 

-do 
-do 
-do 
.do 
.do 


Piece-work 


Stampers do 

...do 
...do 
...do 
...do 


Casters 

Makers-np 

Burnishers 

Eubl)ers  (frirls) 

Iron,  iron  foundries,  machine-shops,  &c. 

Puddlers .   Per  week  of  50  hours 

Underhand do 

Shinglers do 

Assistant do 

Ball  furnacemen do 

Underhand do 

Charcoal  lumpers do 

Rollers i  Per  week  of  55  hours. 

Assistant do 

Metal  refiners Per  week  of  57  hours 

Plate-rollers j  Per  week  of  55  hours 

Furnacemen do 

Firemen   do 

Scalenielters do 

Foi  jiemen do 

Levermen I do 

Bogiemen  do 

Haranier-drivera do 

Pattern-makers. 

Molders 

Fettlers 

Laborer-s I -do      

Iron-trailers j  Per  week  of  55  hours . 

Per  week  (if  57  hours . 
Per  week  of  54  hours 
do 


Per  week  of  54  hours . 

do 

do 


Tyre-rollers 

Machinists 

Pattern  makers 

Joiners 

Turners 

Enjiiue-fitters  . 
Black.smiths  ... 
Millwrights  ... 

Apprentices  (according  to  age) i do 

Boiler-makers: 

Riveters  and  backers 1 do 


$7  29 
9  73 
6  07 

6  07 
G  32 
1  94 
1  94 

7  29 


7  29 
7  29 

6  80 
2  92 

7  29 

7  29 
2  43 

8  51 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 
2  43 
1  94 

7  78 


12  16 
8  75 


6  07 


9  73 
6  56 


14  59 

13  37 

7  29 


Highest. 


Per  week  of  59  hours . 


Holders-on do 

Flangers do 

Blacksmiths    do 

Apprentices  (according  to  age) do 

Rivet  boys do 

Laborers  or  helpers do 

Enninemen 

Hallway  employ6s  :  * 
Engine-drivers  .... 

Firemen 

Passenger-guards. . 

Goods-guards 

Watchmen 

Pointsmen  I  8  or  12  hours'  per  day,  per 

1      week 

*  The  uniforms  worn  by  railway  men  are  furnished  free  by  theconip:inies  in  addition  to  their  wages. 
Men  in  goods  dej)artmcut  work  6  days  per  week  ;  in  passenger  department  7  days  per  week. 
Engine  diivers  working  18  hours  get  pay  for  2  days  ;  14  hours'  pay  for  IJ  days  ;  16  hours'  pay  for  1^ 
davs. 


Per  day  of  12  hours 

do 

Per  week  

12  liours  per  day,  per  week, 
do 


7  78 

8  26 

6  32 

4  3.S 

3  04 
13  37 

5  83 

7  29 

6  07 

5  83 

8  26 

7  29 

6  32 
1  21 

6  80 

4  8(i 
6  56 
6  07 
1  21 
1  21 
4  38 
6  07 

1  21 

48 

4  86 

5  59 

4  86 

5  59 


$9  73 

10  94 

7  29 

7  29 

7  29 
2  92 
2  92 

8  51 


8  51 
12  16 

7  78 

4  38 
12  16 
12  16 

2  92 

10  94 

9  73 
9  73 
9  73 
2  92 
2  92 

8  02 

5  34 
14  59 

9  73 
12  16 

8  75 
14  59 
14  59 

8  99 
10  94 
19  46 
18  23 
10  94 

8  51 
38  23 

7  90 

6  07 

7  29 

8  '26 

9  24 

6  80 

0  07 
5  10 

14  59 

8  75 
8  26 

7  29 

8  75 
8  75 
8  51 

8  02 
2  92 

7  53 

5  59 
7  29 
7  29 
2  43 

1  4t) 
4  86 
7  29 

1  82 
1  33 

9  73 
7  29 

6  07 

7  29 


Average. 


$7  78 

10  46 

6  32 

6  32 

6  56 
2  67 
2  6 

7  78 


7  78 

8  75 

7  29 
3  40 

8  51 
8  51 
2  55 

8  75 
8  26 
8  26 
7  78 
2  52 

2  19 

7  78 

5  34 
12  89 

8  99 

12  16 
7  29 

14  59 
10  94 

7  29 
10  94 

15  80 
14  59 

8  51 
8  51 

14  59 

7  90 

6  07 

7  29 

7  90 

8  51 

6  44 

5  10 

3  89 

13  62 

7  78 
7  78 

6  32 

7  78 

8  51 
7  53 
7  29 
2  19 

7  29 

5  10 

6  80 
6  56 
1  58 
1  33 

4  50 
6  32 

1  46 
1  09 
6  80 
6  32 

5  34 

6  32 


804  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  the  general  trades  in  the  consular  district  of  Sheffield — Continued. 


Occapations. 


Time  of  employment. 


Lo-vrest. 


Average. 


Kailway  employes — Continued. 

Passenger  porlpra 

Goods-portera 

Engine-fitters 

Carriage  and  wagon  examiners 

Carriage  and  wagon  greasers  (boys) . 

Laborers 

Grocers : 

Managers 

First  connteimen 

Second  countei-men 

Porters 

Youtlis 

Boys 

Dry-goods : 

Buyers  and  managers  (male)* 

Assistants,  coimtermeQt 


12  honrs  per  day,  per  week. 
do '. 

11  hours  per  day,  per  week. 

12  hours  per  day,  per  week, 
do 
do 


Per  annum 

70  to  80  liours  per  week,  per 
annum, 
do 


Per  annum 

do 

do 

do. 
Not  in  liouse,  per  week. 


Per  week . . 
Per  annum 


Women,  salest 

Houseliold  servants  (towns  and  cities) 

Cook,  female 

Kitchenmaid 

Housemaid 

Nursemaid 

Coachman 

<xroom 1 do 

Gardener j do 

Undergardener do    ... 

General  servant,  when  only  one  kept.'  Per  annum 
Agricultural    laborers    and    household 
(country)  servants: 

Laboivrs,  without  board  and  lodging 

Female  servants  

Corporation  employes: 

Police  

Laborers,  street 

Scavengers 

Night-soil  men do 

Lamplighters I do 

Printers  and  printing  offices  :  | 

News     compositors,     night     piece     Per  week  of  53  liours 
hands.  [ 

"  Stal)."  or  the  establishment  hands,  i do 

get  $8.75  for  a  week  of  53  hours, 
•and  tJ  cents  per  hour  after  10  p.  m.,  i 
and  will  average  $10.21.  1 

'Press  and  maohiuemen do 

Headers do 

'Copy-holders,  youths i do 

'Boys do 


Per  week  of  56  hours 
do 


-do 


•Jobbing   hands,    compositors,     and 

machine  or  press  men. 
Lithogiaphers  : 

Artists 

Foremen  

Printers 

Engraver.s,  copperplate,  writing, 
or  ornamental.  J 


.do 


Per  week  of  48  hours 

Per  week  of  54  hours 

do    

Per  week  of  48  hours 


7  53 
9  73 
2  92 
"  97 


9  73 

8  02 
6  80 

9  73 


14  59 
8  75 

7  29 

6  07 
2  92 
1  94 

1,216  62 
243  32 

170  32 

121  66 
48  66 
77  86 
48  66 

7  29 

6  07 

7  29 
5  10 

72  99 


5  34 
68  13 


8  51 

11  19 

i  86 

2  43 


14  59 

11  19 

8  51 

14  59 


$3  89 
4  86 

6  80 
!i  32 

1  58 
4  38 

12  16 

7  78 
6  32 
4  86 

2  43 
1  46 

729  97 
194  66 

145  99 

77  86 

38  93 

58  39 

38  93 

6  32 

9  97 

6  32 

4  38 

63  26 


4  86 
48  66 

7  29 
4  86 
4  86 

4  86 

5  10 

10  70 


8  02 

10  21 

4  38 

1  46 

7  53 

12  16 

8  75 

7  53 

12  16 

*  Do  not  live  on  the  premises. 

f  These  live  and  lodge  on  the  premises  in  addition.  They  also  add  to  tfceir  earnings  by  premiums  ; 
■■X  amall  perceneage  for  selling  oft' old  goods. 

J  Much  of  this  engraving  is  given  out  to  men  wiio  work  for  the  trade,  emidoying  assistants,  and 
earning  more  than  the  wages  given  above. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


805 


2.   COST   OF   LIVINO. 

The  cost  of  living  to  the  hihoring  classes;  the  prices  paid  for  the  necessaries  of  life  ;  the 
prices  of  the  articles,  and  their  nature,  which  are  actually  consumed  by  the  work-people 
and  their  families. 


Articles. 


Flour : 

Superfine per  stone . . 

Biscuit  flo  .. 

Best  baker's do 

Oatmeal per  peck  of  8  pounds . . 

Bread per  loaf  of  2  ])oiinds.. 

Bacon per  pound . . 

Haras do 

Lard do  . . 

Bntter do 

Cheese do 

Rice  do     . . 

Peas,  dried per  quart.. 

Eggs: 

New-laid 14  for. . 

Foreign,    Irish,    French    and 

German 20  for . . 

Tea,  black per  pound.. 

Coffee d..  ... 

Sugar  f  raw  or  lump) do  ... 

Molasses do  . . 

Sirup do. . . 

Soap,  common do  ... 

Starch do  . . 

Coal per  ton  of  20  c wts . . 

Gas per  1,000  feet.. 

Paraffin  (kerosene) per  (juart  . 

Fish per  pound  . 

Beef do 

Mutton do  ... 


Price. 

$0 

40 

86 

34 

32 

0 

$0  09  to 

16 

15 

20 

12 

16 

28 

32 

16 

20 

3 

6 

5 

24 

24 

40 

60 

24 

32 

4 

7 

3 

4 

6 

4 

8 

5 

9 

2  43    S 

65 

52 

6 

4 

12 

0 

22 

15 

24 

Articles. 


Price. 


Potatoes.,  per  stone $0  24to$0  36 

Shirtings : 

Brown pei-  yard . .  6  11 

Bleached 'do...  9  17 

Woolen do J  30  60 

Union, cotton  and  wool  do. .. .  17  30 

Sheetings do |  13  26 

Flannel : 

Medium do  ..  24  48 

Scailet do   .     ;  24  52 

Prints do...  9  13 

Serges  and  reps do I  24  48 

Satin  cloths do  ...i  21  32 

Boots : 

Men's  heavy 1  R2        3  65 

Women's..' 70        182 

Suit  of  clothes : 

Sunday    for  nan  .        6  07      24  35 

Working do (i  07      15  00 

Dress  for  woman : 

Sunday 3  04        8  51 

Working 1  82        2  55 

Four-roomed  tenement,  according 
to  neighborhood,  free  of  rates 
and  taxes,  which  are  paid  by  1 
the  owner,  per  week  .       . . .  i  85        1  21 

Six  or  seven  room  tenements,  rates 
and  taxes  to  pay,  which  would 
be  about  25  per  cent,  of  the 
rental perannuiu..!    C8  13      87  59 


Food  is  cheaper  at  the  present  time  than  for  many  years. 

3.   PAST   AND   PRESENT   WAGE-RATES. 

The  rates  of  wages  at  present,  in  many  brandies  of  trade,  are  from  5 
to  10  per  cent,  lower  than  in  1878,  and  not  only  are  the  rates  of  wages 
lower,  bnt  the  earnings  of  the  laboring  classes  are  still  further  reduced 
by  the  lessened  demand  for  their  work.  But  few  manufacturers  in  this 
district  are  employing  their  men  on  full  time.  Great  depression  pre- 
vails in  nearly  all  trades.  Whitsuntide  has  just  passed,  and  instead  of 
one  or  two  holidays,  as  is  usual  in  good  times,  most  of  the  large  employ- 
ers were  glad  to  give  the  whole  week. 

Again,  machinery  is  coming  into  more  general  use  than  formerly. 
This  is  true  especially  of  the  file  trade.  This  has  its  effect  in  diminish- 
ing the  demand  for  hand-labor.  A  grinding  machine  has  also  been  in- 
vented in  Sheffield  that  bids  fair  to  revolutionize  that  branch  of  labor. 
The  sharp  competition  of  other  countries,  notably  Germany,  is  another 
condition  unfavorable  with  which  the  Sheffield  industries  have  to  con- 
tend. 

4.   HABITS   OF   TnE   WORKING    CLASSES, 

The  workingmen  cannot  be  said  to  be  steady  in  the  sense  of  keeping 
steadily  at  their  work.  Their  employers  do  not  compel  them  to  observe 
80  strictly  certain  hours,  as  is  done  in  our  own  country.  They  are  eas- 
ily turned  aside  from  their  daily  labor  by  their  own  pleasures,  and  they 
spend  their  time  as  recklessly  as  they  do  their  money.  A  game  of  cricket 
or  foot-ball  will  call  thousands  away  from  their  bread-winning,  even  in 
the  busiest  times.     And  less  innocent  pastimes,  such  as  pigeon-shoot- 


806  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

ing,rabit-coursing,  and  handicappiug  prevail  to  a  great  extent  and  cause 
a  vast  loss  of  time  and  money.  The  public  house  is  the  chief  central 
influence  that  keeps  alive  and  active  these  and  other  forms  of  gam- 
bling. 

Betting  npon  horse  races  is  indulged  in  by  crowds  of  men,  encouraged, 
it  may  be  presumed,  by  the  example  of  their  superiors  in  the  social  scale 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  On  racing  days  multitudes  of  men  may  be 
seen  on  the  corners  of  the  streets  anxiously  waiting  for  the  name  of  the 
winning  horse. 

Habits  of  thrift  and  economy  do  not  i^revail  extensively  among  the 
working  population,  and  but  few,  comparatively,  make  much  efibrt  to 
provide  an  independence  for  the  future,  even  where  the  earnings  are 
sufficient  to  enalile  them  to  lay  by  a  little. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  condition  of  the  workingman  ?  It  may  be 
sought,  in  part,  in  the  want  of  early  education  and  good  moral  training 
at  home.  Their  fathers  before  them,  it  may  be,  set  them  no  better  ex- 
ample than  the  present  generation  offers  to  their  children.  The  con- 
ilitions  of  society  are  such,  and  the  lines  between  classes  are  so  sharply 
defined,  that  the  workingman  almost  necessarily  comes  to  feel  that 
there  is  but  little  hope  of  his  stepping  out  and  up.  He  is,  as  it  were, 
bound  to  his  surroundings,  and  must  find  all  his  pleasure  and  associa- 
tions on  that  level.  He  is,  in  many  cases,  too  independent  to  run  the 
risk  of  being  patronized  by  those  above  him,  and  he  therefore  seldom 
comes  under  influences  that  might  tend  to  elevate  him.  The  church  is 
too  well  dressed  a  place  for  him  to  go  up  to,  and  when  the  church  comes 
down  to  him  he  sees,  or  thinks  he  sees,  no  doubt  often  erroneously,  a 
spirit  of  condescension  that  fails  to  win.  If  it  be  that  manj^  have  lost 
this  independence  and  have  degenerated  into  servilit,y,  so  much  the 
worse  for  the  influences  that  have  surrounded  them.  And  yet,  with  all 
drawbacks,  the  workingman  is  free  enough  to  be  much  better  than  he 
is,  more  thrifty,  more  self-respecting,  and  able  to  provide  far  better  for 
his  family  than  he  does.  There  are  among  them  many  honorable  ex- 
amples to  prove  this.  The  Sheffield  workingman  is  too  sensible,  too  kind- 
hearted  not  to  try  to  place  his  family,  if  not  himself,  in  a  better  posi- 
tion, were  there  not  some  great  influence  for  evil  around  and  within 
him,  keeping  him  by  force  on  the  same  dead  level,  or  on  the  downward 
grade.  What  is  that  influence"?  The  all-pervading  power  of  drink.  Could 
that  be  removed,  the  better  manhood  that  is  in  him  would  assert  itself. 
He  would  stand  erect  and  would  become  in  time  truly  independent.  He 
would  soon  bo  in  a  position  to  claim  all  tliat  was  really  his  due.  This 
might  revolutionize  methods  of  trade  and  tlie  relations  of  master  and 
man,  but  it  would  be  for  the  better,  and  we  should  soon  see  a  new  Sheffield. 

There  is  in  this  town  one  licensed  house  for  the  sale  of  beer  or  beer 
and  si)irits  to  less  than  every  200  of  the  population.  The  great  majority 
of  these  are  mainly  supported  by  the  working  people.  After  this  heavy 
tax  u])on  their  weekly  wages  how  can  more  than  a  pittance  remain! 
The  public  house  has  a  stronghold  upon  its  frequenters.  Besides  a  de- 
structive appetite,  it  fosters  a  false  standard  of  honor.  The  man  who 
does  not  spend  his  money  freely  in  <lrink,  treating  and  being  treated, 
is  looked  down  ui)on  bj'  his  class. 

The  fault  of  improvidence  is  not  all  with  the  men.  Many  of  the  wives 
are  addicted  to  (Irink.  Great  tem])tation  is  put  in  their  way  by  the 
licensed  grocery-sliops  where  beer  is  sold  to  be  drank  off"  the  premises. 
At  tliese  shops  beer  is  said  to  be  sold  to  women  and  charged  as  sugar  or 
other  groceries.  Tliis  is  rendered  easy  by  the  very  common  custom  of 
the  wife's  buying  the  family  supplies  instead  of  the  husband.     It  is  said 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  807 

that  oue  workingman,  seeing  the  great  quautity  of  "soap"  that  came 
into  his  family,  with  very  little  cleanliness  to  show  for  it,  inquired  into 
the  matter,  with  the  result  that  he  took  the  business  of  buying  into  his 
own  hands.  He  purchased  at  a  co-operative  store,  and  saved  $1.25  per 
week. 

The  knowledge  that  ample  provision  is  made  in  the  "  union,"  tends 
to  foster  habits  of  improvidence  in  the  i)Oor.  A  palace  of  a  poor-house 
has  recently  been  built  in  Sheffield  at  a  cost  of  more  than  a  million  of 
dollars,  to  accommodate  at  present  1,6G2  paupers;  to  be  enlarged  as  re- 
quired. There  is  another,  with  a  capacity  of  perhaps  one-third  the 
above  number.  Pauperism  seems  to  be  encouraged  by  being  made  very 
comfortable  and  respectable,  or,  at  least,  too  little  to  be  dreaded. 

5.  FEELING  BETWEEN  EMPLOYER  AND  EMPLOYE. 

The  situation  may  not  unfairly  be  said  to  be  a  sort  of  "  armed  neu- 
trality," masters  and  men  being  ever  on  the  alert  to  use  any  opportunity 
to  piomote  their  own  advantage.  It  is  the  old  conflict  between  capital 
and  labor,  leading  to  more  or  less  of  jealousy  and  friction,  but  not  seri- 
ously hindering  the  prosperity  of  the  various  branches  of  trade.  The 
individuality  and  independence  of  the  Sheffield  workingman  is  excep- 
tionally strong  as  compared  with  other  great  towns. 

G.   LABOR   ORGANIZATIONS. 

Organizations  for  their  own  protection  exist  among  the  workmen  iu 
nearly  all  trades.  Their  laws  are  stringent  and  rigorously  enforced, 
especially  in  times  of  good  trade.  Of  late  years  "ratting"  and  other 
acts  of  violence  against  nou- union  men  are  seldom  resorted  to. 

Trades-unions  under  good  leaders  have,  no  doubt,  been  a  blessing  to 
the  workmen  in  protecting  them  against  oppressive  exactions.  They 
are  acknowledged  to  be  a  benefit  to  the  employer  also,  in  making  prices 
more  stable  find  healthy.  In  times  of  great  depression,  when  compe- 
tition is  great,  the  "  little  masters,"  as  the  small  manufacturers  are 
called,  would  reduce  wages  unless  they  were  controlled  by  the  "union." 
Tliis  would  soon  bring  down  the  price  of  manufactures  to  the  injury  of 
the  larger  employers. 

The  power  of  trades-unions  was  formerly  so  great  that  they  actually 
compelled  employers  to  discharge  non-union  men.  The  penalty  for  non- 
compliance was  the  withdrawal  of  all  union  men  from  work,  leaving  the 
employer  helpless.  Moreover,  the  men  thus  withdrawn  were  supported 
by  the  union,  and  their  employers  were  compelled  to  refund  to  the  union 
the  amount  that  had  been  paid  for  their  support  before  they  were  allowed 
to  return  to  their  work.  This  was  submitted  to  by  individual  firms 
rather  than  to  face  the  loss  of  business  and  the  expense  of  fighting  the 
union.  Now,  in  many  cases,  union  and  nonunion  men  work  side  by 
side,  but  the  number  of  union  men  is  so  much  greater  that  they  can 
demand  their  scale  of  wages. 

Counter  organizations  of  capital  exist,  but  little  is  heard  of  them,  and 
their  efficiency  is  confined  to  the  larger  industries  of  coal  mining  and 
iron.  If  they  exist  at  all  they  are  inactive  in  the  distinctive  Sheffield 
trades. 

7.   STRIKES. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  strikes  and  arbitration  as  of  organizations  of 
capital.    They  occur  in  the  great  iron  and  coal  mining  industries,  not 


808  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

often  in  this  district,  where  disputes  are  usually  settled  by  conference 
between  masters  and  meu,  with  the  intervention  of  the  trades-union 
leaders. 

8.    HOW  PURCHASES   ARE   MADE,   ETC. 

They  are  absolutely  free  to  purchase  as  they  choose,  made  so  by  the 
truck  act  passed  bj'  Parliament  some  years  since.  Laborers  are  paid 
weekly,  usually  on  Saturday  at  noon,  in  tbe  coin  of  the  realm. 

9.    CO  OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

In  this  immediate  district  co  operative  societies  have  been  moderately 
prosperous.  They  do  offer  great  advantages  in  tbe  purchase  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  and  they  would  prove  a  great  benefit  to  the  laboring 
population  if  they  could  be  induced  to  avail  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. But  the  masses  of  them  are  so  wanting  in  thrift,  living  from 
hand  to  month,  and  buying  in  the  smallest  quantities,  that  they  seldom 
have  the  ability  to  purchase  in  quantity  at  a  co-operative  store,  or  to 
become  members.  Shares  cost  £1  each.  To  become  a  member  a  per- 
son must  own  five  shares.  Upon  this  amount  he  will  receive  5  per  cent, 
interest  annually,  and,  in  addition,  a  dividend  half  yearly,  according  to 
the  earnings.  In  the  country,  generally,  these  societies  seem  to  have 
been  a  success.  The  sixteenth  annual  co-operative  congress  was  very 
recently  held  at  Derby.  The  annual  report  shows  that  at  the  end  of 
1882  there  was  in  England  and  Wales  1,053  societies.  The  aggregate 
membership  were  573,000;  the  sales  $111,929,500,  and  the  net  profits 
$8,662,370.  The  share  capital  was  $34,065,500,  and  the  loan  capital 
$6,229,120. 

In  Scotland  there  were  282  societies,  with  87,700  members.  In  Ire- 
land there  were  11  societies,  the  whole  number  of  societies  being  1,346. 
It  is  probable  that  the  success  of  cooperative  societies  depends  more 
upon  well-to-do  people,  above  the  working  class  proper,  than  upon  the 
masses  who  most  need  their  benefits. 

10.    CONDITION   OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

There  are  several  grades  of  working  people.  What  is  said  under  this 
head  will  apply  more  particularly  to  that  large  class  who  are  the  bone 
and  muscle  of  the  heavy  industries  of  this  district.  To  an  observer  their 
general  condition  is  not  pleasant  to  contemplate.  If  it  is  not  one  of  suf- 
fering to  very  great  numbers  of  them,  it  is  because  use  has  become 
second  nature,  and  they  have  settled  down  to  a  stolid  indifference  as  to 
their  own  welfare  and  that  of  their  children.  To  this  multitude  of  chil- 
dren the  "board  schools,"  with  their  ample  and  excellent  advantages 
and  coni})ulsory  attendance,  come  as  an  incalculable  blessing.  This  is 
the  one  great  influence  for  good  that  must  be  taken  into  account  in  es- 
timating the  future  of  this  great  class  of  the  population.  Under  an  able 
board  of  management,  with  a  devoted  and  cultured  band  of  teachers^ 
these  schools  are  doing  an  admirable  work  for  the  elevation  of  the  com- 
ing generation. 

The  house  of  the  average  workingmen  is  a  four  roomed  tenement,  at  a 
weekly  rent  of  85  cents  to  $1.21,  according  to  the  neighborhood.  What 
this  dwelling  is  as  a  home  depends  principally  u])on  the  wife.  Some  wo- 
men, even  with  the  most  straitened  means,  will  n)anage  to  keep  the  bouse 
tidy  and  cheerful.  But  it  is  to  be  feared  that  this  cannot  be  said  of  the 
majority.     They  are  as  a  rule,  sadly  ignorant  and  wanting  in  ability  to 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  809 

make  the  most  of  what  they  have.  Like  the  men,  they  are  wasteful  and 
improvident.  They  spend  lavishly  while  they  have  anything  to  spend 
and  then  exist  on  the  smallest  pittance  till  the  next  week's  wage  comes 
in,  having  the  pawnshop  as  last  resort. 

MANNER   AND   COST    OF   LTVINO. 

Below  is  given  the  result  of  careful  inquiry  as  to  the  cost  of  living  per 
week  of  a  inmily  consisting  of  husban<l,  wife,  and  three  children,  the 
man  earning  $G.07  per  week — not  the  best  paid,  nor  by  any  means  the 
worst.  This  is  made  from  the  statements  of  intelligent  men  giving  their 
own  experience : 

Rent,  including  taxes  and  water  supply |0  97 

Fuel  and  light 36 

Groceries — sugar,  tea,  coffee,  &c 60 

Butcher's  meat 97 

Clothing,  and  boots  and  shoes 85 

Potatoes  and  other  vegetables 36 

Bread 97 

Beer 36 

Tobacco 12 

School  pence 12 

Trade  society    24 

Friendly  society 12 

6  04 

It  may  be  stated  that  the  income  of  a  family  is  often  augmented  by 
the  letting  of  lodgings  to  unmarried  men  who  pay  about  60  cents  per 
week  for  a  bed,  two  men  often  occupying  the  same  bed.  It  is  presumed 
that  the  amount  of  meat  given  above  is  chieiiy  consumed  by  the  head 
of  the  family,  especially  where  a  heavy  trade  is  followed.  Great  num- 
bers of  families  do  not  live  as  well  as  the  above,  making  less  money  and 
spending  more  in  beer.  The  women  and  children  live  largely  upon 
bread,  or  bread  and  butter  or  dripping,  washed  down  with  clieap  tea, 
supplemented  by  pennyworth's  of  cheese  or  scraps  of  bacon  from  the 
corner  grocery.  This  by  way  of  dinner,  such  luxuries  not  being  afforded 
at  breakfast  or  tea.  The  children  often  take  their  meals  alfresco^  a  slice 
of  bread  with  dripping  or  treacle. 

At  present  provisions  are  cheaper  than  for  many  years,  but  the  poor 
buy  in  such  small  quantitips  that  they  get  no  benefit  from  the  lower 
prices.  Their  penuj^worth  of  canned  meat,  and  their  pennyworth  of 
cheese  is  no  larger,  and  their  few  pounds  of  coal,  wheeled  home  hj  a 
child  in  a  small  barrow,  is  purchased  at  a  ruinous  rate  compared  with 
the  price  per  ton.  The  destruction  of  the  poor  is  their  poverty  ;  their 
poverty  is  largely  the  result  of  their  improvidence,  and  their  improvi- 
dence is  the  result  of  their  drinking  habits,  even  when  they  are  not 
drunken,  for  the  amount  spent  weekly  in  beer  would  give  the  working- 
man  better  food,  better  clothes,  and  a  better  home. 

It  will  surprise  a  stranger  visiting  a  poor  quarter  to  see  the  amount 
of  business  done  in  the  "beer  out"  trade,  viz,  by  grocers  licensed  to 
sell  beer  "  not  to  be  drank  on  the  premises."  These  houses  abound 
and  are  a  great  source  of  evil  to  the  wives  of  the  workingmen. 

HOUSE  RENTS. 

Rents  vary  according  to  neighborhood,  respectability  having  to  be 
paid  for.  The  cheaper  houses,  of  three  or  four  rooms,  will  pay  from 
85  cents  to  $1.21  per  week.    This  includes  taxes  and  water.     Houses 


810  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

of  a  better  class,  say  of  six  rooms,  will  range  from  $58.39  to  $87.59  per 
ainuim,  with  taxes  aud  water  rate  to  be  paid  by  the  tenant.  This  de- 
scription of  house  will  be  occupied  by  the  better  paid  artisans,  clerks, 
and  small  manufacturers.  A  small  step  up  in  the  social  scale  makes  a 
great  increase  in  expenditure. 

As  to  the  poorer  class  of  workmen's  dwellings — such  as  were  pictured 
in  a  late  number  of  Harper's  Magazine — one  reason  for  their  dilapidated 
condition  is  the  nature  of  the  landlord's  tenancy.  The  land  upon  which 
they  stand  belongs,  as  does  a  large  portion  of  the  town  of  Sheffield,  to 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  land  is  held  upon  short  leases  of  ninety-nine 
years.  Many  of  the  leases  are  expiring  or  will  expire  in  a  few  years. 
By  the  law  all  the  buildings  upon  the  land  become  the  property  of  the 
duke,  aud  he  has  the  power  to  compel  the  holder  to  put  the  property 
into  tenantable  condition  at  the  expiration  of  the  lease.  The  landlord 
has  no  encouragement  to  improve  the  dwellings  that  are  soon  to  pass 
out  of  his  hands  more  than  he  can  possibly  avoid.  Consequently  much 
property  is  left  to  decay.  A  large  part  of  Sheffield,  covered  with  im- 
mense "works,"  is  held  under  such  leases.  By  the  law,  all  these  build- 
ings and  their  machinery,  worth  millions  of  pounds,  will  become  the 
property  of  the  duke  when  the  leases  expire,  unless  they  are  renewed, 
and  it  is  for  the  duke  to  name  the  the  terms  of  renewal.  This  subject 
has  recently  been  warmly  discussed  iu  the  Sheffield  papers,  in  view  of 
the  prospect  of  rents  being  enormously  increased,  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  town  seriously  affected.  An  act  is  now  peuding  iu  Parliament 
to  provide  for  releasing  in  such  cases  on  reasonable  conditions. 

The  fact  must  be  mentioned  that,  in  a  great  population  like  that  of 
Sheffield,  there  are  many  exceptions  to  the  improvident  habits  stated 
above.  Some  trades  are  well  paid,  and  where  good  habits  prevail  the 
men  can  make  themselves  and  families  very  comfortable. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  work-people  here  is  thought  to  be  su- 
perior to  that  of  operatives  in  the  textile  districts,  aud  equal  to  that  of 
the  workers  in  any  large  manufacturing  town  in  the  Kingdom. 

11.   SAFETY  OF  EMPL0Y:6s. 

The  regulations  for  guarding  the  health  and  safety  and  for  protect- 
ing the  rights  of  employes  are  given  in  the  factory  aud  workshop  act 
of  1878,  and  in  the  employers'  liability  act  of  1880,  which  I  have  the 
honor  to  inclose  herewith. 

The  operation  of  the  employers'  liability  act  is  to  an  extent  evaded 
by  the  custom  that  prevails  of  employers  contracting  themselves  out  of 
the  liability  by  an  express  agreement  with  their  workmen  that  they 
shall  take  all  the  risk  of  accident,  the  men  thus  signing  away  their 
right  to  recover  damages.  There  exists  also  an  Employers'  Accident 
Insurance  Company,  which,  upon  })ayment  of  an  annual  premium,  as- 
sures the  employer  against  loss.  The  men  themselves,  in  some  cases, 
contribute  to  pay  this  premium.  The  effort  is  being  made  by  the  trades- 
unions  to  have  the  law  made  compulsory  upon  emjjloyers. 

Most  manufacturing  tirms  subscribe  to  the  public  hospital  and  the 
infirmary,  to  which  they  send  their  men  in  case  of  accident.  The  men 
themselves  also  contribute  to  these  institutions.  I  do  not  learn  of  any 
other  means  used  by  employers  for  the  physical  or  the  moral  well-being 
of  their  workmen. 

12.   POLITICAL   RIGHTS. 

All  workingmen  in  boroughs  who  are  householders  have  the  ballot 
in  both  municipal  and  parliamentary  elections.     All  women  without 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  811 

husbands,  who  are  householders,  have  a  vote  in  municipal  elections 
alone.  The  new  reform  bill  now  pending  in  Parliament  proposes  to  ex- 
tend the  franchise  to  the  counties  on  the  same  terms.  The  passing  of 
the  bill  will  add  add  about  two  millions  to  the  present  five  millions  of 
voters  in  Great  Britain.  The  workingmen  generally  do  not  pay  taxes 
directly.  The  class  of  dwellings  they  occupy  are  "free  of  rates,"  they 
being  paid  by  the  landlord. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  is  to  elevate  the  condition  of  the  working 
people,  to  render  them  more  independent,  and  to  extend  their  influence. 
The  action  of  a  mass  meeting  of  workingmen  in  Paradise  Square,  Shef- 
field, or  in  any  other  large  town,  has  a  decided  effect  upon  Parliament. 
Eloquent  speakers  are  rising  from  the  ranks  of  the  workingmen  and 
are  gaining  influence  in  Parliament  and  in  municipal  bodies. 

13.   CAUSES   OF   EMIGRATION. 

There  are  no  causes  peculiar  to  this  district  that  lead  to  emigration. 
It  is  not  an  agricultural  district,  and  the  conditions  of  the  people  dis- 
courage emigration.  A  large  proportion  of  the  workingmen  are  so  ac- 
customed to  town  life,  and  to  the  round  of  daily  labor  in  a  single  branch 
of  work,  that  but  few  could  adjust  themselves  to  agricultural  life,  away 
from  town.  It  is  true  that  many  do  work  small  garden  plots  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  town,  and  take  pride  and  pleasure  in  raising  flowers 
and  vegetables  for  the  numerous  shows  that  are  held  in  the  summer 
and  autumn.     But  that  is  their  pastime. 

The  few  who  emigrate  from  this  district  who  belong  to  the  working 
class  proper,  go  to  find  emplo^'ment  of  the  kind  to  which  they  have 
been  bred.  Many  of  them  find  their  way  back  again  to  the  old  hive. 
A  good  number  of  ShefiBeld  cutlers,  saw-makers,  and  iron  and  steel 
workers  are  scattered  through  the  mills  of  the  United  States.  But  the 
Sheffield  workman  loves  Sheffield  and  his  comparative  freedom  from 
strict  rules,  and  his  "  Saint  Monday  "  and  as  many  other  saint  days  as 
he  chooses  devoutly  to  keep.  Was  he  ever  so  much  inclined  to  emi- 
grate, his  inability  to  bear  the  cost  of  moving  himself  and  family  to 
another  country  where  he  might  better  his  condition,  would  keep  him 
fixed  in  his  old  haunts. 

A   GLOOMY    OUTLOOK. 

As  already  stated,  female  labor  is  not  emploj'ed  in  this  district  to  any 
extent  other  or  greater  than  in  any  large  town  with  its  surrounding 
country  where  there  are  no  cotton,  woolen,  or  lace  factories. 

Therefore,  and  as  time  is  pressing,  I  beg  to  omit  remark  upon  this 
part  of  the  circular. 

Under  Xo.  10  I  intended  to  say  that  friendly  societies  and  sick  and 
funeral  clubs  are  very  common  among  the  working  classes,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  workmen  belong  to  one  or  more  of  them.  In  this 
way  it  ma^'  be  said  that  they  provide,  to  some  extent,  for  sickness  and 
death.  But  very  many  look  to  the  poor  house  as  their  legitimate  end. 
In  fact,  they  regard  it  as  their  right.  Jocular  remarks  al30ut  going  to 
their  country  mansion,  and  to  the  "  Big  House,"  are  frequent. 

0.  B.  WEBSTER, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

iSlietfiehl,  June  U,  1884. 


812  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

SOUTHAMPTON. 

BE  PORT  BY  OOXSUL  THOMSON. 

In  accordance  with  the  directions  contained  in  the  labor  circular  dated 
15th  February,  1884,  I  beg  to  inclose  the  accompanying  statement  of 
rates  of  wages  paid  tothe  laboring  classes  at  this  port. 

From  the  inquiries  which  I  have  made,  it  would  appear  that  the  cost 
of  living  to  the  laboring  classes  is  generally  equal  to  their  wages,  and 
frequently  in  excess  of  them,  They  being  inclined  always  ta  a  liberal 
diet,  of  which  meat  forms  an  important  part. 

The  wages  earned  by  mechanics  have,  of  late  years,  had  an  upward 
tendency.  In  some  instances,  however,  owing  to  strikes,  overpro- 
duction, and  the  competition  of  other  countries,  the  wages  paid  have  been 
at  a  lower  rate. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  depression  of  trade  which  has  existed 
for  the  past  few  years,  the  highest  rate  of  wages  has  been  generally 
maintained,  although,  from  the  necessities  of  the  case,  there  has  been 
lessened  production,  and  the  workmen  have  been  rarely  fully  employed, 
so  that,  as  a  rule,  their  gross  earnings  do  not  by  auy  means  equal  those 
made  formerly. 

At  this  port  there  are  no  factories  other  than  those  connected  with 
iron  ship-building  and  coach-building.  In  the  former  trade,  although 
at  the  present  time  in  a  state  of  great  depression  from  overproduction, 
the  highest  rate  of  wages  is  paid,  a  condition  of  things  enforced  by  the 
action  of  the  trades  union. 

The  habits  of  the  working  classes,  although  showing  a  marked  im- 
provement of  late  years,  can  scarcely  be  deemed  steady  or  trustworthj'' 
Theirexpendituresas  a  rule  equals  their  income,  and  very  often  exceeds 
it.  This  is  owing  principally  to  the  fact  that  mechanics  as  a  rule  marry 
early  in  life  and  generally  have  enormous  families. 

This  state  of  things  is  peculiarly  the  case  at  this  port,  where  the  hab- 
its of  the  women  are  especially  volatile,  and  their  numerous  children 
tend  to  a  condition  of  chronic  poverty. 

The  feeling  which  i^revails  between  employ^  and  employer  is  fairly 
cordial,  their  great  contentions  of  past  years  having,  by  means  of  labor 
unions,  been  placed  on  a  good  understanding.  Although  strikes  take 
place  occasionally,  disputes  between  workmen  and  their  employers  are 
usually  settled  amicably  by  arbitration.  This  is  generally  concluded  by 
representative  workingmen  and  the  capitalists. 

In  all  cases  working  people  are  free  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life 
wherever  they  choose,  and  their  wages  are  always  paid  in  gold  or  silver. 

As  a  rule  co-operative  societies  have  been  prosi)erous  and  have  ena- 
bled the  work-])eople  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  at  reduced  cost, 
and  tlieir  establishment  has  had  a  good  eftect  on  general  trade. 

Perhaps  the  general  condition  of  the  working  people  may  be  deemed 
fairly  comfortable,  as,  while  in  full  employment,  they  would  appear  to 
be  well  fed  and  clothed.  Thej^  have,  however,  little  chance  of  bettering 
their  condition,  and  would  appear  to  have  no  resources  from  which  to 
lay  up  something  for  old  age  and  sickness  ;  the  latter,  however,  is  gen- 
erally provided  for  by  means  of  the  workmen  sick-clubs. 

Factories  are  under  the  periodical  inspection  of  Government  inspect- 
ors, who  see  that  proper  means  are  taken  to  prevent  accidents,  as  well 
as  that  excessive  hours  of  labor  are  not  enforced. 

All  householders  are  entitled  to  vote  at  elections  for  members  of  Par- 
liament, and  the  tendency  of  legislation  is  to  draw  closer  the  relations  of 
capital  and  labor. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


813 


The  causes  which  lead  to  emigration  are  overpopulation  and  the  great 
depression  in  most  branches  of  industry.  The  emigrants  consist  of  ag- 
ricultural laborers  and  all  classes  of  mechanics. 

FEMALE   LABOR. 

There  are  no  factories  or  industries  at  this  port  in  which  women  are 
employed.  Female  labor  here  is  principally  that  of  drapers'  assistants, 
governesses,  and  school-teachers,  and  is  comjiosed  principally  of  per- 
sons of  fair  education. 

WM.  THOMSON, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

SouthanqJton,  August,  1884. 


GENERAL   TRADES. 

Waiji'S  paid  the  general  trades  per  week  of  fifty-six  and  a  half  hours  in  Southamjjton. 


Occupations. 


Brick-layers 

Hod-carriers 
Masous 

Tenders 

Plasterers 

Ssy^Teuders 

Slater 


BUILDING  TRADES. 


Lowest. 


Higliest. 


Roofers 

Tenders  . . 
Plumbers 

Assistants. 

Carpeutens 

Gas-fitters 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 

Book-binders 

Brewers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners 

Coopers 

Cutlers 

Drivers : 

Draympn  and  teamsters . 

Cab,  carriage,  &c 

Street  railways 

Dyers ." 

Engravers  

Furriers 

Gardeners  

Hatters 

Ilorseshoers 

Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters.  Sec 

Lithographers 

Millwri>;lits 

■Nailmakers  (hand) 

Printers         

Teachers,  public  schools 

Saddle  and  harness  makers  . . 

Sailmakers 

Stevedores 

Tanners 

Tailors    

Teleg laph  operators 

Tinsmiths 

Coach-builders 

Painters 


OTHER  TRADES. 


$5  22 
3  65 
6  44 
6  78 
6  44 
3  65 
6  44 
6  44 
3  do 
6  44 
3  C5 
6  44 
6  44 


4  38 
6  44 
6  44 

5  10 
14  59 

4  86 

6  80 

8  75 

4  86 

6  07 

7  29 

5  34 

4  86 

5  34 

6  07 

9  73 

7  29 
4  38 
7  29 
4  86 

12  16 
4  38 
7  29 
6  07 


4  86 

4  86 

11  22 

5  83 

5  83 

14  59 

7  29 

7  29 

7  29 

4  86 

4  86 

4  86 

$8  51 
5  72 
8  51 
8  01 
8  51 
5  72 
8  51 
8  51 
5  72 
8  51 
5  72 
8  51 
8  51 


7  29 

8  51 
8  51 

7  29 
24  33 

6  80 

8  75 
10  70 

6  07 

7  29 

9  73 

5  83 

5  34 

6  32 

7  29 
14  59 
12  16 

5  83 
14  59 

7  29 
17  02 

5  34 
12  16 

7  29 

6  32 

6  56 
19  92 

7  78 
7  29 

24  33 
9  73 
14  59 
14  59 
7  29 
9  73 
7  43 


Average. 


$7  43 

4  58 


43 

43 

43 

58 

43 

43 

4  58 

7  43 

4  58 

7  43 

7  43 


6  07 

7  43 
7  43 

6  32 
19  46 

5  83 

7  78 
9  73 

5  46 

6  68 

8  51 

5  59 
5  10 

5  83 

6  68 
12  16 

8  51 

5  34 
10  94 

6  07 

14  59 

4  86 

9  73 
6  68 

5  59 

5  83 

15  57 

6  56 
6  56 

19  46 

8  51 

10  94 

10  94 

6  09 

7  29 
6  78 


814 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — ENGLAND. 
RAILWAY   EMPLOY:fcS. 


Waijeii  paid  per  week  to  raUivai  einplmies  {thoHn  entjaqi'd  about  ntations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  linemn,  railroad  laborers,  4"c. )  in  Southampton. 


Occupations. 


Driver  (main) 

Stoker 

Guard 

Driver  (shunter) . 

Stoker    

Engine  cleaner  . . 
Porters 


Lowest.   I  Highest. 


$8  51 
t;  07 
7  29 
4  86 

3  65 

4  38 
4  38 


$12  16 
7  29 
9  73 
7  29 

6  07 

7  29 
6  07 


Average. 


$10  33 
6  68 
8  51 
6  07 

4  86 

5  83 
5  22 


SHIP-YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  day  of  ten  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  hetiveen  iron  and  tcood  ship- 
building— in  Southampton. 


Occupations. 


WOOD. 

Shipwrights 

Joiners 

Laborers 

IKO.\. 

Platers  

Holdersup 

Laborers 


$1  09 


1  46 

1  09 

73 


Highest. 


$1  29 

1  19 

85 


2  19 

1  58 

85 


Average. 


$1  19 

1  13 

79 


1  82 

1  33 

79 


seamen's  wages. 


Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  (officers  and  men) — distinguishing  ieiweeti  ocean  and 

coast — in  Southampton. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Ocean : 

$58  39 
38  93 
34  06 
29  19 
15  80 
9  73 

19  46 

14  59 

9  73 

$77  86 
58  39 
43  79 
38  93 
18  24 
12  16 

24  33 
15  80 
10  94 

$68  13 

48  66 

Third  officer    

38  93 

34  06 

17  02 

10  94 

Coasting : 

21  89 

Able  .seaman  .#. 

15  19 
10  33 

STORE   AND   SHOP  WAGES. 

JFages  paid  in  stores,  ivholesale  and  retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  Soutkampton. 


Occupations. 


Grocery : 

First  counterman yeaTly.. 

Second  counterman do ... . 

Porter.s       per  week . . 

Dry-goud.s  stores : 

Fir.siCDunterinnn yearly.. 

Second  counterman do. . .. 

Porters do 


Average. 


170  32 

104  62 
60  82 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

HOUSEHOLD    WAGES. 
JVaffcs  paid  per  tjear  to  household  scrrontf  h)  Soulhamptoti. 


815 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

Butlers 

$194  66 
121  66 
72  99 
121  66 
72  99 
58  39 
48  66 
97  33 
48  66 

$389  32 
170  32 
121  66 
170  32 
121  66 
87  59 
72  99 
145  99 
72  99 

$291  99 
145  99 

97  33 

Housekuepcrs 

145  99 

97  33 

House  maids  (upper) 

House  maids  (ordinary) 

Cooks '. 

72  99 
60  82 
72  99 

Kitchen  maids 

60  82 

AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)   servants  in   the  district  of 

Southampton. 


Occupations. 

Bniliffs per  year . . 

Husbandmen do 

Dairy  maids do 

Laborers per  week.. 

Plowmen do 

Carters do 

Boys  do 


Lowest.     Highest. 


$291  99 
194  60 
72  99 

2  92 

3  40 
2  92 
1  46 


$389  32 

291  99 

97  33 

3  89 

4  86 
4  38 
2  19 


Average. 


$340  65 

243  32 

85  16 

3  40 

4  13 
3  65 
1  82 


printers'  wages. 

statement  showing  the  leages  paid  per  week  to  printers  in  Southanijiton. 


Compositors. 
Pressmen — 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


$4  86 
4  86 


Highest. 


$7  29 
6  07 


Average. 


$6  07 
5  40 


SUNDERLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR-AGENT  HORAN. 
Wages  paid  the  general  trades  per  iveek  of  fifty-four  to  fifty-nine  hours  in  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

BUILDIKG  TRADES.* 

Brick -layers 

$8  10 
5  54 

Hod-carriers .... 

$4  86 

.$6  07 

■Masons 

8  10 

Tenders 

4  86 

6  07 

5  54 

Plasterers 

8  10 

Tenders 

4  86 

6  07 

5  54 

Slaters  (mostly  piece-work) 

8  02 

Tendei'S  (mostly  boys) 

2  43 

Plum  bers 

8  02 

Assistants  (apprentices  mostly) 

Carpenters 

i  2i 

2  43 

8  10 

Gas-fitters 

8  02 

*  Work  fifty  to  lifty-four  hours  per  week. 


816  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Wages  paid  the  general  trades  per  loeek  of Jifty-f our  to  fifty-nine  hours  in  Sunderland — Cont'd. 


OccupatioDS. 


Lowest.  ;  Highest.  1  Average. 


OTHER  TRADES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmitlis 

Strikers 

Book-binders  

Brick-makers 

Brewers  (work  all  times) 

Butchers 

Brass-founders    

Cabinet-makers 

Confectioners  (ten  and  a  half  hours  diem) . 

Coopers 

Drivers. 


$4  86 


$7  79 


6  32 
5  83 
5  34 


7  29 
7  29 
6  56 


Draymen  and  teamsters . 
Cab,  carriage,  &c 


Dyers  . 

Engravers  

Gardeners 

Hatters 

Horseshoers   

Jewelers  and  watchmakers 

Laborers,  porters,  &c 

Lithographers  

Printers 

Teachers,  public  schools (per  annum) . 

Saddle  and  harness  makers  

Sail-makers 

Tailors  

Telegraph  operators 


6  80  I 

5  83  I 

6  56 
5  10 


4  38 
6  07 
G  07 

6  07 
8  51 

7  29 
7  29 
2  43 

6  07 

7  29 
218  70 

7  29 
6  07 
6  80 
(*) 


7  78 
7  78 
7  29 
6  07 

6  56 
5  10 

7  29 

8  75 

7  29 

9  73 

8  26 

9  73 
4  38 

7  78 

8  52 
973  30 

8  52 

7  78 

8  75 
(*) 


$6  80 
7  78 
4  38 
7  00 


07 
30 
02 
50 
00 
00 

5  59 

6  07 
4  86 
6  50 

8  00 

6  56 

9  00 

7  50 
9  00 


7  00 

8  00 


(*) 


8  00 
7  29 
7  29 


Paid  by  Government. 


FOUNDRIES   AND   MACHINE-SHOPS. 


Wages  2)aid  per  week  of  fifty  four  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  brass  and  iron 

tvorlcs  in  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 


Lowest.    Highest.    Average. 


General  foremen  . 
foundry  foremen 

"Workmen 

Finishers 

Plumbers 

Laborers 

First-class  boys  . 
Second-class  boys 


$14  60 

$24  40 

10  94 

14  59 

8  26 

8  75 

8  51 

8  51 

8  02 

8  75 

89 

1  01 

32 

60 

20 

28 

$21  90 
12  16 


8  51 
8  51 


SHIP-YARDS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-three  hours  in  ship-yards — distinguishing  between  iron  and  wood 
ship-building — in  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$8  52 

8  03 

$5  84 

$7  29 

6  80 

8  03 

5  84 

9  73 

9  23 

Calkers 

8  52 

8  03 

4  37 
8  03 

7  29 
10  20 

5  10 

Platers 

8  03 

7  77 

Holders-up 

6  32 

Heaters  (boys) 

2  67 

8  03 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


817 


The  above  is  the  average  wages  per  week,  though  much  of  this  work 
18  done  by  the  i)leceor  job,  and  fre<}uent  disputes  are  the  results  which 
takes  place  between  the  i)hiters  and  tlieir  assistants.  Strikes  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  iron  yanls,  which  cause  much  mischief,  fre- 
quently to  the  driving  away  of  orders,  though  of  late  there  has  been 
more  regularity.  At  present  there  is  almost  a  total  collapse  in  the  build- 
ing trade,  not  only  of  this  port  bat  generally  throughout  the  country,  the 
low  rates  of  freight  making  the  carrying  trade  in  steamers  altogether 
unproductive.  Many  steamers  are  being  laid  up  for  want  of  remunera- 
tive employment. 

SEAMEN'S  WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  month  to  seamen  {officers  and  men) — distinguishing  hetween  ocean,  coast,  and 
river  navigation,  and  between  sail  and  steam — in  the  port  of  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

OCEAN  STEAMERS. 

$77  86 
34  07 
24  33 
19  46 
26  76 
24  33 
24  33 
17  03 
68  13 
43  80 
29  19 
21  90 
19  47 

19  47 
10  94 

$107  06 
58  40 
34  06 
29  19 
31  62 
34  00 
29  19 

19  46 
77  86 
58  40 
38  93 
24  33 

20  68 

24  33 

$97  20 
43  80 

29  19 

24  33 

29  19 

29  19 

25  25 

18  ''3 

Chief  enjiineers 

72  92 

Second  enuiiiKera 

51  03 

Third  engiueei'8 

34  03 

Doukeymen 

23  00 

Firemen 

20  00 

COASTING  STEAMERS. 

Ma.ster8 

Mates : 

First 

Second 

7  29 

Engineers : 

First 

do 

17  03 

Second 

do 

12  16 
7  29 
6  8U 
6  56 

87  00 
38  93 
31  62 
19  47 

Donkevnien* 

do... 

do  ... 

Firenion*    

Able  seamen* 

do... 

SAILING  SI 

Masters  f  

IIPS. 

per  month.. 

58  39 
29  19 
26  70 
17  03 

Mates  t 

do     .. 

tin 

*  Those  find  themselves  in  provisions. 


t  According  to  size  and  trades. 


SEAMEN   AND   THEIR   WAGES. 

[Extract  from  daily  press.] 

'5. The  following  are  the  wages  quoted  as  being  returned  by  the  super- 
intendent of  thj  mercantile  marine  offices  in  this  district: 


Able  seamen  in  steamers  to- 


1873. 


1880. 


1883. 


Mediterranean . 
East  Indies 


$18  85  to  $20  68 
18  25  to    19  47 


$17  03 
17  03 


$19  47 
19  47 


92  A— LAB 52 


818 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


These  figures  would  seem  to  show  that  there  had  been  in  the  last  de- 
cade an  increase  to  the  rate  of  pay  to  the  able  seamen  of  the  district. 
The  wages  of  sea-going  engineers  and  firemen  have  considerably  in- 
creased during  the  same  period.  As  a  rule,  the  seamen  of  the  country 
have  greatly  improved  in  their  habits  and  are  mueli  more  ])rovident 
than  formerly.  In  1874  there  were  employed  in  the  sailing  ships  of  the 
United  Kingdom  128,000;  there  were  last  year  95,000  only,  but  the 
number  in  the  steamships  rose  from  74,000  in  1874  to  105,000  last  year. 
There  is  now  a  great  de{)ression  in  shi[)ping,  and  it  is  at  present  esti- 
mated that  there  are  at  least  3,500  seamen  idle  in  the  United  Kingdom^ 
and  that  these  are  being  added  to  daily,  owing  to  vessels  being  laid  up^ 
the  low  freights  rendering  it  impossible  to  sail  them  without  loss. 

STORE   AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  tveek  of  vai-ious  hours  in  grocery  stores,  wholesale  or  retail,  to  males  and 

females,  in  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average, 

BHOPS.* 

$7  30 

6  07 
1  09 

7  78 
4  38 

$7  78 
6  50 
1  50 

8  50 
6  07 

STORES,  t 

$8  2& 

4  86 

*  Hours :  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m. ;  Fridays,  8  a.  m.  to  9  p.  m  ;  Saturdays,  8  a.  m.  to  11  p.  m. 
t  Hours :  7  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m. 

HOUSEHOLD   WAGES. 
Wages  paid  per  year  to  household  servants  (towns  and  cities)  in  Sunderland. 


Occnpations. 


Lowest.    Highest. 


Average. 


Housekeepers 

Cooks 

Housemaids  

Chiimbermaids 

Maid-of-iiU-work 

Nurse  maids 

Grooms  or  coachmen. 


$97  33 

97  33 
58  39 
58  39 


48  66 
97  33 


$145  99 
145  99 
77  86 
77  86 
58  39 
58  40 
145  99 


$121  66 
121  66 
68  13 
68  13 


121  66 


Note  — Grooms,  coachmen,  and  pages  have  usually  two  suits  of  clothes  provided  them  each  year  in 
addition  to  their  wages. 

AGRICULTURAL  WAGES. 

The  practice  in  this  part  of  the  country  is  to  have  stated  hirings  of 
farm  servants  and  laborers.  The  May  hirings  for  the  half  year  has  just 
taken  place.     The  following  is  the  result : 

Wages  paid  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  serrants  in  the  county  of  Dur- 
ham. 


Occupations. 


Men 

Boys  

Females 

Day  laborers  (female) 
Gardeners 


Lowest. 


$48  66 

14  60 

29  19 

36 

97 


Highest. 


$72  99 

24  33 

43  hO 

48 

1  U9 


Average. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


819 


CORPORATION  EMPLOYIilS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-six  hours  to  the  corporation  employes  in  the  toivn  of  Sunder- 
land,  county  of  Durham,  England. 


Occapationa. 


Lowest. 


Highest.  I  Average. 


Town  clerk per  annum.. 

Borough  surveyor do 

Borough  accountant do  . .. 

Meilical  otticers  of  health do. 

Clerks do 

Assistant  surveyors  do ... . 

Assistant  accountants do  . .. 

Road  inspector do 

Inspector  of  stamps,  hydrants,  &c do 

Inspectors  of  nuisances do. .. . 

Collectors  of  rates do 

May:istrates'  clerk  (borough) do  .. . 

In8i)ector  of  weights  and  measures do. . . . 

Blacksmit  hs per  week . . 

Joiners do. ... 

Painters do.... 

Masons do 

Laborers do  .. 

Cartnien   do 

Scavengers    do 

Housekeeper do 


Chief  constable per  annum. 

Supeiinteudent per  week. 

Inspectors do. . . 

Subiiispectors do. .. 

Serireaiits  do... 

Constables do. .. 


$253  05 
486  65 
437  98 


6  57 


9  00 
8  03 
5  84 


389  32 
486  65 


8  03 


919  90 
459  95 
946  60 
433  25 

973  30 

875  97 

583  98 

729  97 

729  97 

583  98 

729  97 

163  22 

583  98 

8  52 

8  11 

8  03 

8  03 

5  84 

5  84 

4  86 

8  52 


1, 459  95 

11  06 

11  19 

9  73 

9  00 

7  30 


$2,  919  90 
1,  459  95 

1,  946  60 

2,  433  25 
583  30 
729  00 
486  00 
729  97 
729  97 
486  00 
631  80 

3, 163  22 
583  98 


8  11 

7  30 

8  03 
5  84 
5  84 
4  86 
8  52 


GOVERNMENT  EMPLOYiJ&S. 

Wages  paid  to  employe's  in  Government  departments  and  offices,  exclusive  of  tradesmen  and 

laborers. 

SUNDERLAND  POST-OFFICE. 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Postmaster per  annum 

Deputy  postmaster do 

Chief  clerk do 

Senior  clerks per  week. 

Junior  clerks do. .. 

Letter-carriers do. .. 

Telegraph  clerks do... 

Females do 


Carriers  (boys) 


-do... 


Clerks  and  carriers,  in  addition  to  the  above  pay,  are  eligible  for  good  conduct  money  in  addition^ 
raniring  from  one  shilling  to  threi'  additional,  to  their  weekly  pay. 

Eiuploy6.-<  in  this  department  are  al.so  eligible  for  pensions,  varying  according  to  service.  At  twenty 
years'  service  they  can  retire  upon  one-third  of  the  pay  to  which  they  had  attained;  at  forty  years 
the  retiring  pension  is  two-thirds  their  full  pay,  or  they  may  compound  for  a  lump  sum  instead  of  a 
pension. 

CUSTOMS. 


Occupations. 


Collector  (hours,  10  to  4) 

Clerks  (hours,  10  to  4) 

Surveyor  (hours,  8  to  4)  

Examining  officers  (hours,  8  to  4) 

Out-door  officers  (24  hours  on) 

Boatmen  (24  hours  on)  


Lowest.    Highest.    Average, 


$389  32 


535  32 
267  66 
267  66 


.$2,  919  90 

1,  946  60 

1,  7(13  27 

1,  459  95 

413  65 

413  65 


Customs  officers,  like  all  Government  employes,  are  eligible  for  pensions  according  to  length  of  service. 
The  inferior  officers,  such  as  tide-waiters  and  boatmen,  are  paid  for  attendance  after  customs  hoars 
extra  fees  by  those  requiring  their  services. 


820  labor  in  europe england. 

printers'  wages. 

Statement  showing   the  wages  paid  per  week  of  fiftii-f our  hours  to  printers  (compositorBf 
pressmen,  proof-readers,  ^-c. )  in  Sunderland. 


Occupations. 


Foreman $7  30  $8  OS 

Compositors... 8  52  9  73 

Proot-ieader 7  30  8  03 


SAFETY   OF  EMPLOY]&S. 

The  safety  of  employes  in  factories,  mines,  mills,  and  railroads  is 
looked  after  and  secured  by  a  system  of  Government  inspection,  the 
employers'  liability  act  makes  provision  for  the  men  in  case  of  accident. 
Many  employers  pay  considerable  attention  to  the  well-being,  comfort, 
and  improvement  of  their  work  i>eople.  Lectnre  halls,  temperance  mis- 
sions, &c.,  are  frequent.  Workingmeu,  householders  in  boroughs,  have 
the  same  political  rights  as  property-holders,  and  the  present  bill  before 
Parliament  seeks  to  give  the  same  privilege  to  householders  in  the 
counties.  The  taxes  paid  or  borne  by  the  workman  is  small.  Toward 
imperial  taxes  they  pay  only  on  tobacco  and  drinks,  which  can  be  done 
without.  As  househoklers  they  pay  the  local  taxes.  They  are  eligible 
to  serve  as  members  of  the  corporation,  as  magistrates,  as  members  of 
the  imjjerial  Parliament,  money  qualification  being  abandoned,  as  also 
all  civil  disabilities,  the  passport  to  these  positions  being  common  sense, 
sobriety,  good  conduct,  self-respect.  With  these  there  is  no  limit  short 
of  royalty  for  the  workingman. 

COST   OF   LIVING. 
Cost  of  living  of  the  laboring  classes. 

Cost  of  clothing  per  annu  m $48  66  to  $58  40 

Cost  of  rent  for  3  rooms  jier  annniu 58  39         68  13 

Cost  of  Ijeef  per  pound,  American 12  18 

Cost  of  beef  per  pound,  English 18  20 

Cost  of  flour  per   14  ))ouuds   60 

Cost  of  potatoes  per  14  pounds , 16 

GENERAL  CONDITION  OF   THE  LABORING  CLASSES. 

The  laboring  classes  as  a  rule  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  but  the  many 
temperance  associations  are  making  themselves  felt  in  reclaiming 
drunkards,  and  a  perceptible  improvement  is  taking  place  amongst 
them.  A  great  drawback  to  their  well-being  and  also  to  the  progress 
of  trade  is  their  proneneiss  to  strikes.  The  organizations  of  trades  unions 
is  of  questionable  benefit  to  the  men  themselves,  while  its  effects  ui)OU 
their  employers  is  often  most  ruinous.  The  result  has  been  that  masters 
are  now  combining  in  self-defense,  so  that  strikes  are  longer  and  gen- 
erally more  disastrous  to  both  sides. 

The  inauguration  oi  disi)enxaries  is  a  great  benefit  to  the  working 
classes.  For  a  small  weekly  or  monthly  ])ayment  they  have  medical 
attendance,  advice,  and  medicines  in  case  of  sickness.  There  are  also 
many  charitable  institutions  for  their  b'^nefit.  Emj)]oyers  of  labor  pro- 
vide, in  many  instances,  reading  rooms,  libraries,  and  amusements  for 
their  men. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  821 

The  employers'  liability  act  is  also  a  great  boon  to  the  workingmen, 
in  providing  compensation  in  cases  of  accident. 

The  principal  inducement  to  emigrate  is  the  favorable  reports  circu- 
lated of  the  benefits  awaiting  them;  and  this,  coupled  with  want  of 
work,  is  the  priucipal  factor  which  influence  their  action. 

JAMES  HORAN, 

Consular  Agent. 
United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Sunderland,  June  24,  1884. 


TUNSTALL. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  LANE. 

In  pursuance  of  the  instructions  contained  in  the  labor  circular 
issued  by  the  State  Department  under  date  of  February  15,  1884,  I 
have  the  honor  to  report  as  follows: 

As  is  well  known,  the  chief  industry  of  this  consular  district  is  the 
manufacture  of  earthenware,  china,  and  all  descriptions  and  grades  of 
pottery  except  the  very  lowest  grades,  such  as  common  stone-ware.  In 
the  various  kinds  of  employment  pertamiug  to  this  industry  there  are 
engaged,  approximately,  50,000  people,  or  about  one  fourth  of  the  pop- 
ulation. Hence,  while  the  general  character  of  this  report  naturally 
embraces  the  labor  and  social  features  of  those  engaged  in  other  pur- 
suits, it  has  a  more  specific  application  to  the  manufacture  of  jjottery. 
In  the  matter  of  wages  paid  this  industry  has  had  my  especial  and  care- 
ful research,  and  the  details  of  my  examinations,  the  manner  in  which 
my  inquiries  have  been  received,  the  iiumbers  employed  in  the  different 
branches,  and  other  particulars  have  especial  reference  to  this  industry 
and  its  peculiar  pliases.  The  wages  in  other  occupations  and  trades, 
which  will  doubtless  be  more  thoroughly  and  definitely  treated  in  re- 
ports from  those  localities  where  they  are  relatively  of  greater  impor- 
tance, will  be  found  given  in  the  various  forms  herewitli  returneil  as 
accurately  as  the  sources  of  information  at  my  command  will  allow,  but 
not  embracing  potters'  wages.* 

There  is  no  uniform  schedule  of  potters'  wages  followed  sufficiently 
to  afford  a  guide  in  seeking  a  true  average  of  weekly  earnings.  I  have 
reduced  my  work  on  this  sulyect  to  tabulated  statements  on  and  accom- 
panying Form  II,  the  heading  of  which  1  have  changed  to  meet  the  case, 
and  liave  marked  the  same  with  the  explanatory  tables  and  accompa- 
nying statements  as  inclosure  No.  2. 

Taking  them  in  their  order,  the  interrogatories  contained  in  the  De- 
partment circular,  I  have  to  remark  as  follows : 

Part  I. — Male  Labor. 

(1)  Question.  The  rate  of  wages  paid  to  laborers  of  every  class — me- 
chanical, mining,  factory,  public  works  and  railways,  domestic,  agricul- 
tural, t&c. — Answer.  See  various  forms  accompanying  this  report  as  in- 
closures  No.  1  and  2. 

*  The  forms  referred  to  are  those  furnished  by  the  Department,  numbered  from  1. 
to  15,  so  far  as  applicable  to  this  district,  and  herewith  transmitted  together  as  in- 
closure No.  1. 


822 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


COST  OF  LIVING. 

(2)  Q.  The  cost  of  living  to  the  laboring  class,  viz,  the  prices  paid  for 
the  necessaries  of  life,  clothing,  rent,  &v,.  In  this  connection  not  only 
shonld  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  from  an  American  stand-point 
be  given,  as  per  accompanying  forms,  but  the  prices  of  the  articles  and 
their  nature  which  are  actually  consumed  by  the  work-people  and  their 
families  should  also  be  given. — A.  In  relation  to  the  subject-matter  of 
this  interrogatory  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  from  a  recent  com- 
munication made  by  me  to  the  United  States  consul-general  at  London 
on  this  subject.  I  have  made  careful  inquiries,  and  find  that  the  state- 
ment there  made  on  this  branch  of  the  subject  is  quite  reliable.  The 
retail  prices  of  most  of  the  necessaries  of  life  may  therefore  be  given 
as  follows : 


Articles. 


Bread  (4-pound  loaf ) 

Butter per  pound 

Bntterine de ,  . 

Bacon do. . 

Cheese do.. 

Ham do.. 

Lard do . . 

Sugar : 

White do.. 

Brown do. . 

Flour per  14  pouads 

Tea per  pound 

Coffee do . . 

Freah  heef do. . 

Fresh  beef  (2d  quality) do. . 

Fresh  mutton do . . 

Fresh  pork do 

Potatoes per  bushel 


Price. 


$0  10 

10  24  to 

40 

16 

24 

14 

18 

12 

16 

16 

20 

12 

16 

5 

6 

4 

36 

40 

50 

25 

35 

14 

25 

9 

18 

16 

25 

9 

17 

80 

2  00 

Articles. 


Fresh  fish: 

Salmon per  pound.. 

Sole do.... 

Cod do.... 

Mackerel do 

Oysters : 

Natives perdoz.. 

American do 

Calico: 

White per  yard.. 

Prints do 

Liuen do 

Coal  (delivered) per  ton . . 

Gas per  1,000  feet.. 

Coal  oil per  gallon . . 

Candles  (16  to  pound),  per 
pound  


Price. 


$0  20  to  $0  35 


25 


20 


35 
10 
12 

50 
25 

8 

12 

25 

3  65 

77 
25 

12 


Fruit,  as  a  rule,  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  w^orkingman.  Apples, 
when  the  supply  from  America  is  plentiful,  are  sometimes  sold  as  low 
as  $2  per  bushel,  but  this  is  seldom.  Chickens  cost  from  60  cents  to 
$1  each,  usually  about  75  cents  each. 

Rents. — The  rent  of  houses  occupied  by  the  working  people  varies 
from  50  cents  to  $1.10  per  week,  according  to  size,  location,  and  condi- 
tion of  the  premises.  The  greater  number  of  these  houses  are  of  one 
l^attern,  and  contain  two  rooms  down-stairs,each  11  feet  square,  and  two 
up-stairs  of  the  same  size,  and  there  is  usually  a  back  kitchen  6  by  9 
feet,  and  an  open  court  or  yard,  which  must  be  paved  and  not  less  in 
area  than  156  square  feet.  These  comprise  the  good  class  of  workmen's 
houses.  So  far  as  the  essentials  of  comfort  are  concerned  they  seem  not 
to  be  materially  deficient,  but  owing  to  some  difference  in  tastes  or  the 
modes  or  habits  of  life,  or  through  some  fault  or  misfortune  of  the  occu- 
pants, they  do  not  have  the  cheerful  and  thrifty  aspect  whi(!h  one  sees 
about  the  houses  of  the  corresi)onding  class  of  work-people  in  the  United 
States.  Many  of  them  are  tasteful  and  inviting,  but  too  many  of  them 
are  untidy,  not  to  say  unclean,  in  a])pearance,  and  impress  one  as  being 
the  abodes  of  people  who  are  indifferent  to  their  surroundings,  and  not 
very  ambitions  of  the  morrow.  Tiie  floors  are  almost  entirely  of  quarry 
or  brick  down-stairs,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  without  carpets  ui)stairs. 
These  houses  command  about  75  to  85  cents  per  week.  There  are  ]>oorer 
dwellings  occui)ied  by  a  considerable  portion  of  the  working  people 
which  bring  50  to  60  cents  per  week.  They  are  sometimes  occupied  by 
people  whose  earnings  are  too  small  to  permit  of  any  greater  expendi- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  823 

ture,  even  with  frugal  and  industrious  habits,  and  sometimes  by  those 
who  are  thriftless,  improvident,  or  dissipated  from  choice.  Many  of  this 
latter  class  of  houses  are  dirty  and  dingy,  and,  taken  with  the  scanty 
and  poor  fnrniture,  the  soiled  habiliments  and  unkempt  appearance  of 
the  occupants,  they  are  quite  in  contrast  with  the  houses  of  a  similiar 
grade  of  operatives  one  will  see  in  manufacturing  towns  in  the  United 
States  of  a  corresponding  density  of  population.  They  ai)proach  in  ap- 
pearance much  nearer  the  conditions  of  life  one  sees  in  the  low  quarters 
of  the  great  cities  both  in  Euroi)e  and  America.  The  untidy  appear- 
ance of  these  houses  is  not  always  the  fault  of  the  inmates,  but  is  often 
•due  to  the  forced  neglect  caused  by  the  female  members  working  in  the 
pottery  or  some  other  employment  outside  the  domestic  duties  of  the 
household. 

The  nature  of  the  articles  which  are  actually  consumed  by  a  working- 
man's  family  are  given  more  in  detail  in  the  answer  to  interrogatory 
No.  10. 

PAST   AND  PRESENT   WAGES. 

(3)  Q.  Comparison  between  ihe  present  rates  of  wages  and  those 
which  prevailed  in  1878  (and  since  that  time),  when  the  last  labor  cir- 
cular was  issued  from  the  Department,  and  between  the  conditions 
"which  then  prevailed  and  which  now  prevail  ! — A.  Potters'  wages  are 
about  the  same  as  in  1878.  Colliers'  wages  about  15  per  cent,  higher. 
Iron-workers  are  slightly  lower.  The  wages  in  other  trades  are  about 
the  same  as  in  1878.  The  conditions  of  the  working  people  liave  not 
materially  changed  since  that  time,  although  I  consider  that  their  con- 
dition as  a  class  is  steadily  but  slowly  improving. 

HABITS   OP   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

(4)  Q.  The  habits  of  the  working  classes,  whether  sleady  and  trust- 
worthy, or  otherwise,  saving  or  otherwise,  and  the  causes  which  princi- 
pally affect  their  habits  for  good  or  evil. — A.  The  habits  of  the  Staf- 
fordshire potters  will  compare  favorably  with  those  of  any  large  body  of 
operatives  in  similar  grades  of  employment ;  that  is,  earning  similar 
wages.  They  are  not  inclined  to  be  riotous  or  disorderly,  but  are  gen- 
erally well-behaved,  steady,  and  trustworthy.  While  the  public  houses 
flourish  contemporaneously  with  remunerative  and  steady  employment 
of  the  potters,  much  of  the  gain  thus  accruing  reaches  them  through 
intermediate  hands.  The  potters,  as  a  body,  are  sober,  and  many  of 
them  are  abstemious.  Some  of  them,  of  course,  are  neither.  These  go 
the  way  of  the  profligates  in  all  other  trades — a  surfeit  of  eating  and 
drmking  on  Sunday;  the  appetite  and  the  larder  both  stale  but  still 
supplied  on  Monday ;  the  Sunday  apparel  to  the  pawnbrokers  on 
Tuesday,  where  it  will  remain  until  Saturday,  when  the  routine  of  riot 
and  reuiorse — if  the  latter  ever  comes — will  begin  again.  These  cases 
are  not  numerous  among  the  potters;  still  it  cannot  be  said  that  the 
working  people  in  any  of  the  industries  of  the  district  are  very  saving. 
In  most  cases,  especially  where  there  is  a  family  and  only  one  wage- 
earner,  saving,  in  the  sense  of  accumulation,  cannot  be  expected,  and, 
as  a  rule,  it  does  not  take  place  beyond  a  very  limited  amount,  and,  in 
most  cases,  not  at  all.  Tliis  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  a  cottage, 
such  as  those  occupied  by  the  nmjority  of  workmen,  and  renting  for  80 
■cents  to  .$1  i)er  week,  can  be  built  for  $450  to  $500,  and  yet  only  a  very 
few  of  them  are  owned  by  the  occui)ants.  A  statement  somewhat  to 
this  effect  made  by  a  newspaper  correspondent  has  been  much  disputed, 


824  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

but  I  feel  safe  in  sayinj;  tliat  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  working:  peo- 
ple of  this  district  are  free  holders.  Yet,  with  good  habits  and  a  family 
to  help,  many  of  them  can,  and  do,  by  the  aid  of  clubs  and  similar  small 
insurances,  save  enough  to  tide  over  temporary  misfortunes,  such  as 
sickness,  loss  of  empl.yment,  &c.,  and  for  funeral  expenses  (these  are 
needlessly  high  here)  in  case  of  death. 

To  undertake  to  assign  the  causes  which  affect  the  habits  of  the  work- 
ing people  for  good  or  evil,  and  do  it  intelligently  and  creditably  would, 
I  think,  require  an  essay  more  exhaustive  tliau  I  am  able  to  write.  In 
my  view  the  inevitable  life-long  struggle  which  many  a  workingman 
foresees  to  be  his  allotment  aggravates  the  proneness  of  man  to  evil, 
and,  hoping  nothing  from  the  inexorable  future,  he  seeks  the  wildest 
possible  abandon  in  the  blandishments  of  the  present.  If  the  chances 
■were  better  for  attaining  emancipation  from  drudgery,  for  gratifying  the 
social  ambition  of  those  who  have  it,  better  habits  would  co-operate  with 
better  hopes  and  be  largely  both  the  means  and  the  end  of  the  working- 
man's  social  and  material  improvement.  Moreover,  the  increase  in  the 
chances  of  such  improvement  would  multiply  the  numbers  of  those  who 
would  seek  it.  The  desire  and  the  effort  to  rise  in  the  world  would  be 
experienced  by  many  to  whom  such  an  impulse  is  now  a  stranger.  Low 
wages  are  not  conducive  to  good  habits  and  mere  cheapness  of  living  is 
notafuUcompensationfor  their  deficiencies.  The  "cheap  loaf  "is  made 
much  of  in  this  country,  and  I  fear  its  potency  is  overestimated.  One 
would  sometimes  think  from  what  he  reads  and  hears  here  that  the  chief 
end  of  the  workingman  was  to  buy  cheap  bread.  An  increase  of  10 
per  cent,  in  the  wages  of  a  workingman  earning  30  shillings  a  week 
would  buy  seven  additional  loaves  per  week  if  he  chose  to  spend  the 
surplus  In  that  way,  but  it  is  unlikely  that  many  of  them  would  make 
that  use  of  it ;  some,  perhaps,  a  worse  one,  but  many  would  add  little 
adornments  and  in  various  ways  cultivate  a  little  more  refinement  about 
their  homes,  while  a  goodly  number  would  doubtless  make  their  regular 
deposits  in  the  savings  banks  until  such  times  as  steady  work  and  frugal 
living  would  enable  them  to  purchase  their  homes.  In  this  way  good 
habits  w^ould  be  formed  and  afterwards  adhered  to  for  their  own  sake. 
The  prospect  of  accumulation  is  the  stepping-stone  from  stolid  inditfer- 
ence  to  wholesome  ambition.  These  remarks  must  not  be  understood 
as  contradicting  the  previous  statement  that  the  potters  are  generally 
steady  and  well-behaved,  but  only  to  show  that  if  the  manufacturers 
could  afford  to  increase  wages  the  benefits  would  doubtless  be  turned 
to  good  account. 

There  are  now  about  one  thousand  two  hundred  public  houses  in  the 
district.  I  do  not  believe  an  increase  in  wages  would  replenish  their 
tills  in  the  same  ratio  that  it  would  improve  the  condition  of  the  working 
peo])le.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  ignore  the  facilities  for  obtaining 
drink  and  the  social  charms  of  the  tap  room  among  the  causes  affecting 
for  the  bad  the  habits  of  the  working  classes  of  both  sexes.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  have  not  been  wanting  influences  brought  to  bear, 
through  ])hilanthropic  legislation,  which  have  had  a  healthy  and  refin- 
ing influence  on  the  workingman  and  his  family.  A  full  synopsis  of 
such  legislation  has  been  ])rei)ared  for  this  report  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Tom- 
kinson,  vice  and  deputy  consul,  and  will  be  found  in  the  answer  to  in- 
terrogatory 11. 

FEELING  BETWEEN   EMPLOYER   AND   EMPLOY^. 

(5)  Q.  The  feeling  which  prevails  between  employ^  and  employer,  and 
the  effects  of  this  feeling  on  the  general  and  particular  prosperity  of  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  825 

community. — A.  Isbould describe. generally  thefeelingbetween  the  "mas- 
ters" and  "men"  (the  terms  generally  used  here)  as  friendly,  but  not 
cordial.  On  the  part  of  the  masters  as  kind  and  symiiathetic,  but  re- 
served, and  on  the  partof  the  men  as  respectful,  but  independent.  The 
workman,  no  doubt,  wishes  the  master  good  will,  but  apparently  he  does 
not  desire  any  familiarity  with  him,  nor  expect  to  be  patronized  by  him. 
The  difference  between  this  relationship  in  this  country  and  in  the 
United  States  may  be  more  apparent  than  real,  but  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  the  general  demeanor  and  bearing  of  the  working  people,  very 
striking  to  the  American  upon  his  first  observations  in  this  country. 
That  a  difference  equally  striking  in  the  demeanor  and  bearing  of  the 
employer  impresses  the  English  workman  upon  his  first  experience  in  the 
United  States  is  doubtless  also  true.  I  have  at  hand  an  actual  illus- 
tration of  each  case.  An  American  manufacturer,  who  recently  visited 
Europe  for  the  first  time,  spent  several  days  in  the  potteries  imme- 
diately after  landing  on  this  side.  I  took  occasion  to  ask  him  for  his 
impression  of  the  working  people  of  the  potteries,  after  having  seen  them 
from  day  to  day  at  their  work  and  on  the  stieet.  After  a  moment's  hes- 
itation, his  reply  was,  "Well,  I  don't  know  what  to  think  of  them  ;  they 
have  such  a  suppressed  look."  I  was  a  little  surprised  at  his  reply,  be- 
cause they  are  not  suppressed  in  auy  general  acceptation  of  that  term, 
but  recalling  my  own  first  impressions,  five  years  ago,  and  remembering 
that  my  interlocutor  had  lived  the  most  of  his  life  in  an  American  man- 
ufacturing town,  mingling  with  factory  opratives  from  day  to  day,  I  saw 
forced  to  admit  that  he  could  not  have  chosen  a  better  word  for  a  direct 
reply  to  my  question.  But  as  this  outward  characteristic  does  not  couie 
from  any  actual  opi)ression  or  arbitrary  treatment,  its  cause  must  be 
sought  elsewhere.  As  before  substantially  remarked,  the  great  body 
of  British  workmen  must  remain  through  life  what  they  are  to-day  or 
emigrate.  To  say  that  this  unwelcome  truth  has  grown  into  a  constant 
shadow  of  latent  and  sullen  discontent  would  probably  be  too  strong, 
but  that  it  has  banished  the  cheerfulness  of  real  contentment  I  truly 
believe.  The  view  of  similar  matters  in  the  United  States  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  British  workman  is  well  shown  in  a  letter  now  before 
me,  kindly  handed  to  me  by  a  friend  to  whom  it  was  written,  and  from 
which  I  copy  the  following  extract  The  letter  was  written  by  the  hus- 
band on  behalf  of  himself  andhis  wife.     He  says: 

We  can  say  one  thing,  that  this  is  tiie  country  for  a  workingnian.  No  humbug 
from  masters;  everybody  is  equal  here.  The  biggest  gentlemen  in  the  country  up  to 
the  President  will  bid  you  good  morning,  and  stand  chatting  to  you  as  if  they  had  not 
a  cent.  You  do  not  bow  and  scrape  here  to  your  superiors.  You  walk  right  into 
their  office  or  house  and  they  tell  yon  to  sit  down  and  smoke.     No  taking  off  your  hat. 

Whether  the  writerof  this(who,  I  should  state,  is  now  a  book  keeper) 
has  been  guilty  of  any  exaggeration  in  the  portrayal  of  his  new  sur- 
roundings or  not,  he  has  certainly  excited  much  wonderment  in  the 
minds  of  his  English  friends,  and  we  may  pardon  the  exuberance  of 
spirits  which  doubtless  led  a  seemingly  strong  contrast  to  i)romi)t  such 
a  glowing  tribute  to  our  industrial  system. 

ORGANIZED   CONDITION  OF  LABOR. 

(6)  Q.  The  organized  condition  of  labor,  the  nature  of  organization 
and  its  effect  on  the  advancement  and  welfare  of  the  laborers.  In  this 
connection  it  would  be  well  to  refer  to  counter  organizations  of  capital, 
and  on  the  local  and  general  laws  bearing  on  such  organizations. — A. 
The  potters  are  mostly  organized  for  mutual  benefit  and  protection  into 
a  society  known  as  the  Potters'  Federation.    This  organization  may  be 


826  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

said  to  have  the  effect  of  maintaining  in  some  measure  the  rate  of  wages, 
and  preventing'  employers  from  being  oppressive  in  their  dealings  with 
the  workmen,  should  they  be  so  divsposed.  As  to  counter  organizations 
of  capital,  there  may  be  cited  the  Potters'  Manufacturers  Association 
and  the  Coal  and  Iron  Masters'  Association.  They  deal  with  all  mat- 
ters affecting  their  respective  trades.  They  may  also  be  said  to  be  sec- 
onded and  aided  and,  perhaps,  sometimes  led  by  the  North  Staffbidshire 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  Together  they  look  after,  suggest,  and,  if  it 
suits  them,  try  to  promote  legislation  affecting  the  staple  trades  of  the 
"district,  make  suggestions  and  recommendations  in  the  matter  of  nego- 
tiating commercial  treaties,  collect  information  concerning  foreign  tariffs, 
&c.  These  organizations  are  not  kept  up  for  the  purpose  of  resisting 
the  demands  of  labor,  but  they  afford  facilities  which  are  used  with  effect 
to  that  end  when  necessary. 

STRIKES. 

(7)  Q.  The  prevalency  of  strikes,  and  how  far  arbitration  enters  into  the 
settlement  of  disagreements  between  the  employers  and  employes,  and 
the  manner  and  nature  of  such  arbitration.  The  effect  of  strikes  on 
the  advancement  or  otherwise  of  labor  and  the  general  effect  thereof 
on  the  industrial  interests  affected  thereby. — A.  Strikes  are  not  par- 
ticularly frequent,  but  do  occur  from  tin>e  to  time.  There  was  in  1<S81  a 
long  strike  of  potters,  the  main  body  of  the  operatives  being  out  about 
thirteen  weeks,  and  a  strike  of  colliers  in  1882.  The  potters'  strike  was 
directly  connected  with  the  arbitration  system,  there  having  been  two 
successive  awards  adverse  to  the  men.  one  reducing  wages  12  per  cent, 
and  the  other  refusing  to  restore  the  wages  to  the  former  standard.  Up 
to  the  time  of  the  last  strike  there  was  a  board  of  arbitration  consisting 
of  masters  and  men,  and  when  the  dispute  arose  some  disinterested  party 
was  agreed  upon  to  hear  the  respective  sides  and  adjudge  between 
tliem.  Some  person  outside  the  district  of  high  social  and  commercial 
standing  was  usually  selected  as  arbitrator.  lu  both  the  cases  men- 
tioned the  cause  of  the  men  was  ably  presented  and  maintained  by 
representatives  from  their  own  ranks,  but  the  masters  pleaded  low  sell- 
ing prices  with  such  good  etiect  that  the  awards  were  in  their  favor. 
Whether  the  awards  were  strictly  in  accordance  with  equity,  as  shown 
by  the  evidence,  1  cannot  say,  but  the  year  following  the  second  one  the 
men  gave  notice  for  a  restoration  of  the  old  rate  of  wages.  Tlie  manu- 
facturers generally  gave  counter  notice  of  a  further  reduction,  where- 
upon the  men  struck  and  declined  to  go  again  into  arbitration,  and  the 
system  of  arbitration  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  in  existence  in  this 
district  since  that  time.  The  system,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  never  had 
the  elements  of  popularity  with  the  workingmeu  generally.  They  always 
suspected  the  undue  intluence  of  the  higher  social  rank  of  the  masters, 
and  were,  conseijuently,  somewhat  jealous  :ind  half  afraid  from  the  out- 
set that  justice  wouhl  not  be  done  them.  I  believe  tliis  feeling  to  have 
been  unfounded  in  both  the  cases  tried,  but  to  many  of  the  men  the  re- 
sults brought  conviction  in  place  of  what  had  before  been  only  suspicion. 
I  am  bound  to  say,  however,  that  a  similar  experience  of  adversity  would 
very  likely  have  jjroduced  very  similar  results  on  the  part  o<  the  manu- 
facturers. A  gentleman  of  experience  in  the  industrial  affairs  of  the 
district,  who  has  advised  me  freely  on  the  subject-matter  of  this  report, 
says  that  the  arbitration  system  could  not  survive  the  defeat  of  either 
l)arty  in  two  successive  arbitrations.  On  the  whole,  arbitration  between 
€U)ployers  and  employes  in  this  district  must  be  considered  to  have 
had  only  a  doubtful  success.     As  to  the  effect  of  strikes,  any  view  must 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  827 

"be  largely  theoretical.  The  immediate  efl'ect  has  always  been  bad,  but 
I  believe  in  the  end  they  have  tended  to  advance  the  condition  of  the 
laborer,  and  this  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  they  have  advanced  the 
industrial  interests  of  the  district.  The  colliers'  strike  mentioned  was 
a  long  one,  lasting  nearly  the  entire  summer  season  of  1882.  It  was 
only  a  jiart  of  a  general  movement  that  has  prevailed  for  a  year  or  two 
throughout  the  Kingdom.  In  this  district  in  some  instances  the  masters 
yielded  and  in  some  they  did  not.  The  general  effect  cannot  well  be  es- 
timated froro  th«  standpoint  of  this  district  alone. 

FREEDOM  OF  FOOD  PURCHASES. 

(8)  Q.  Are  the  working  people  free  to  purchase  the  necessities  of  life 
wherever  they  choose,  or  do  the  employers  impose  any  conditions  in 
this  regard?  How  often  and  in  what  kind  of  currency  is  the  laborer 
paid  ? — A.  So  far  as  I  am  aware  they  are  perfectly  free  to  purchase 
where  and  what  they  please.  I  know  of  no  case  where  the  sale  of 
articles  of  daily  family  consumption,  such  as  dry-goods  and  grocer- 
ies, are  sold  in  connection  with  any  manufactory,  nor  any  case  in  which 
any  manufacturer  is  interested  in  such  trade.  There  is  no  interference 
with  the  work-people  as  to  how  they  shall  spend  their  wages.  They  are 
paid  weekly  in  gold  and  silver  coin. 

CO-OPERATIVE   SOCIETIES. 

(9)  Q.  Co  operative  societies:  Give  full  information  concerning  their 
formation  and  practical  working,  whether  they  are  prosperous  or  other- 
wise ;  to  what  extent  they  have  fulfilled  the  promises  held  out  at  their 
formation  of  enabling  the  work-peoi)le  to  purchase  the  necessaries  of 
life  at  less  cost  than  through  the  regular  and  usual  business  channels ; 
whether  the  establishment  of  co-operative  societies  has  had  any  appre- 
ciable etfect  on  general  ti-ade,  &c. — A.  In  all  the  co-operative  societies 
started  in  this  district  only  one  or  two  have  been  successful ;  both  are 
co-operative  grocery  and  i)rovision  stores,  one  at  Silverdale  and  one  at 
Crewe;  the  former  for  the  benefit  of  coal  and  iron  workers  and  the  other 
chiefly  for  the  benefit  of  emploves  of  the  London  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
way Company.  Several  others  have  been  inaugurated,  but  they  have  all 
failed,  which  means  that  they  have  not  fulfilled  their  promises.  A 
scheme  was  well  on  its  way  to  establish  a  co-oi)erative  manufactory  of 
earthenware,  but  it  has  thus  far  failed  to  secure  enough  support  to  get 
it  on  its  feet,  and  it  is  ominously  quiescent  at  the  present  time.  These 
movements  have  not  been  sufficiently  strong  to  have  any  appreciable 
effect  on  the  general  trade  of  the  district,  but  an  intelligent  informant 
tells  me  that  their  failure  has  had  the  effect  in  some  instances  of  recon- 
ciling the  men  to  the  methods  of  the  masters  and  teaching  them  that 
capital,  as  well  as  labor  has  its  troubles  and  misfortunes,  aud,  in  the 
language  of  the  serviceable  old  platitude,  that  "all  is  not  gold  that  glit- 
ters." 

GENERAL   CONDITION    OF   THE   WORKING   CLASSES. 

(10)  Q.  The  general  condition  of  the  working  people  ;  how  they  live; 
their  homes  ;  their  food  ;  their  clothes  ;  their  chances  for  bettering  their 
condition  ;  their  ability  to  lay  up  something  for  old  age  or  sickness  ; 
their  moral  and  physical  condition  and  the  influences  for  good  or  evil 
by  which  they  are  surrounded.  In  this  connection  consuls  are  requested 
to  select  representative  workmen  and  their  families  and  secure  the  in- 


828 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


formation  direct,  somewiiat  after  the  manner  of  the  following^  questions 
and  answers  (reducing  the  money  to  dollars  and  cents),  taken  from 
the  Department  publication  showing-  the  state  of  labor  in  Europe  in 
1^78. — A.  I  may  say  here  that  while  this  consulate  does  not  contain  the 
publication  of  1878,  above  quoted  from,  nor  any  papers  relating  thereto, 
I  had  already  adopted  the  same  method  of  securing  information  on  this 
subject  in  the  preparation  of  a  report  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the 
consul-general  and  transmitted  to  him  under  date  of  November  24, 1883. 
The  statement  of  income  and  exi>enditure  of  a  workingman  given  in  that 
report — although  since  published  by  the  State  Department— is  of  a  date 
80  recent  as  to  be  quite  available  for  the  present  i)urpose,  and  I  accord- 
ingly insert  it  with  two  others,  all  fairly  representative  cases.  Com- 
mencing with  the  lowest  grade,  I  give  the  statement  of  a  wharfman. 
This  is  a  man  who  loads  and  unloads  canal  boats,  railway  trucks,  &c. 

I  am  a  wharfman,  am  married  and  have  four  children,  one  thirteen,  one  seven,  one 
three,  and  one  one  and  a  half  years  of  ajje.  Neither  my  wife  nor  children  earn  any 
■wages.     I  obtain  19  shillings — $4.62 — per  week  and  spend  it  as  follows : 

Statement  1. 


How  expended. 


Kent 

Kates  and  taxes 

Coal 

Bread 

Beef  and  bacon. 

Butter 

Tea  

Sugar 


Amount. 


$0  62 
32 
37 
73 
85 
24 
12 
24 


How  expended. 


Soap  and  candles 

Potatoes 

Meal  and  milk 

Club  

Education  rate  ..   

Clothes  

Total  expenditure 


Amount. 


$0  24 
24 
24 
18 
06 
37 


4  62 


The  next  is  the  case  of  a  colliery  carjienter,  who  earns  just  $1  per  day 
■when  he  has  work.  His  family  consists  of  a  wife  and  three  children  of 
four,  five,  and  seven  years  of  age.  In  this  case  again  the  man  is  the 
only  wage-earner  in  the  family.  His  income,  allowing  full  time,  $0  per 
■week,  is  disposed  of  as  follows : 

Statement  2. 


How  expended. 


Kent 

Club 

Taxes   (poor-rate,  local,  and  education 

rate) 

Coiil    

Bread,  V  cents  per  loaf 

Bacon,  16cen'8  per  pound 

Cheese,  IC  cents  per  pound  

Butter,  32  cents  per  pound 

Potatoes,  hal f  peck 

Fresh  meat,  15  cents  per  pound 

Tea,  49  cents  per  pound 


Amount. 


$0  72 
16 

09 
48 
1  00 
32 
32 
32 
16 
71 
36 


How  expended. 


Sugar,  7  to  8  cents  per  pound 

Soup,  6  cents  per  pound 

Flour,  4  cents  per  pound 

Milk  (about  a  quart)   

Candles,  12  cents  per  pound,  16  to  the 

pound  

Tobacco,  2  ounces 

Ueer 

Clothes 

Total  expenditure 


Amount. 


$0  28 
12 
12 
06 

06 
12 
12 
48 


Commenting  on  this  statement,  the  person  who  took  it  down  from 
the  lips  of  the  man,  says: 

Of  course  some  of  the  items  would  have  to  be  altered  a  little  now  and  then,  l)ut  it 
is  as  near  as  I  can  get  it.  Even  in  this  there  is  not  much  luxury  for  the)  man,  and 
non(^  for  the  other  members  of  thefatnily.  The  allowance  for  clothes  is  the  scantiest. 
I  suj>pose  if  he  wanted  a  kettle  or  a  tca})ot  he  would  have  to  go  without  meat  or  get 
in  a  little  overtime.  A  doctor's  l)ill  for  the  wife  or  children  would  be  a  calamity.  How 
the  poor  laborer  gets  on  with  17  shillingH  a  week  I  cannot  see. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


829 


As  these  are  the  comraeuts  of  an  Englishman,  a  life-long  resident  in 
the  district,  and  himself  an  employer  of  labor,  I  feel  that  they  are  a 
more  fitting  an  significant  supplement  to  the  workman's  cash  account 
than  anything  I  might  say  on  the  same  subject.  I  may,  however,  again 
call  attention  to  some  features  of  these  statements  which,  for  the  i)ur- 
pose  of  reference,  1  have  numbered  Statements  I^os.  1, 2,  and  3,  the  last 
one  being  as  follows : 

Statement  3. 

I  am  a  flat-presser,  and  am  twenty-five  years  of  age.  Married  a  widow,  and  we 
have  five  children  ;  two  girls  aged  fifteen  and  thirteen,  and  three  boys  aged  eleven, 
seven,  and  one  ababy.  The  second  girl  isoiit  as  a  domestic  servant.  I  can  earn  about 
$7.30  per  week  when  on  full  time.  The  eldest  daughter  gets  5  shillings  (fl. 22)  per 
week  in  a  warehouse,  and  the  boy  2  shillings  and  3  pence  (55  cents)  half  time.  I  get, 
therefore,  £1  ITs.  '.id.  ($9.07)  when  in  full  work,  and  spend  it  as  near  as  I  can  tell,  as 
follows.     I  oftener  get  less  than  more  per  week  than  the  above: 


How  expended. 

Amoant. 

$1  08 
1  22 
50 
61  i 
24 
30 
30 
24 

How  expended. 

Amount. 

Butchers  (fresli)  meat,  say  6  pounds,  at 

Milk 

$0  37 
49 

20 

Rfut 

91 

18 

Clothing 

1  40 

Club  for  self,  wife,  and  children 

Total  expenditure 

37 

Potatoes,  1  peck 

Caudles,  soap,  and  blacking 

8  47 

This  leaves  a  balance  of  about  60  cents  for  amusements  or  the  sav- 
ings bank,  according  to  the  habits,  tastes,  and  purposes  of  the  workman 
autl  his  wife. 

DRINKING  HABITS   OF   THE   STAFFORDSHIRE  WORK-PEOPLE. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  cases  selected  all  represent  temperate 
men  and  women,  two  of  the  families  spending  nothing  at  all  for  drink. 
Of  course  in  many  cases  the  00  cents  weekly  surplus,  when  good  health 
and  full  time  enable  the  family  to  have  it,  and  some  portion  of  the 
$4.02,  the  average  dependence  of  the  wharfman  and  his  family,  should 
be  transferred  to  the  beer  account.  And  we  must  remember  that  it 
is  not  alone  by  the  intemperate  habits  of  the  chief  wage  earner,  the 
head  of  the  family,  that  we  find  the  balance  on  the  side  of  comfort 
and  accumulation  swept  away.  The  drinking  habits  of  women  make 
a  feature  too  conspicuous  in  the  domestic  life  of  the  working  people 
to  be  overlooked  in  anything  like  a  careful  survey  of  their  condition. 
This  vice,  while  it  finds  its  most  prolific  career  in  the  homes  enjoying 
the  lowest  incomes,  ascends  through  all  the  social  grades  of  lite  and 
almost  aspires,  as  a  vice,  to  a  phase  of  respectability  by  which  it  draws 
contagion — if  1  should  not  say  insi)iration — from  a  higher  social  circle.  It 
is  im[»ortant  to  avoid  presenting  extreme  and  exceptional  exami)les  as 
general  types,  and  while  the  number  of  women  who  habitually  spend  in 
drink  all  the  family  earnings  they  can  get  hold  of,  and  turn  their  little 
houses  into  very  dens  of  wretchedness  is  large  enough  to  deform  the 
humanity  of  their  class,  they  cannot  be  considered  re[)reseutatives  of  the 
female  element  in  the  domestic  life  of  the  working  people,     I  cannot  re- 


830  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

frain,  however,  from  giviug  the  subject  a  little  prominence  on  account  of 
tbe  great  contrast  in  the  customs  of  the  two  countries,  England  and  the 
United  States,  touching  the  rehitions  of  women  to  the  consumption  of, 
and  the  traffic  in,  intoxicating  drinks,  having  particular  reference  to  the 
social  grade  of  the  working  classes.  The  line  of  contrast,  however,  could 
not  be  drawn  here  if  the  labor  circular  itself  did  not  thus  limit  the  scope 
of  inquiry.  And  it  may  not  be  altogether  irrelevant  to  this  feature  of 
interrogatory  10  to  say  that  the  trade  in  intoxicating  drinks  is  just 
as  resi)ectable  as  the  trade  in  anything  else  which  is  merely  bought 
and  sold  and  not  manufactured  by  the  seller.  A  wine  and  spirit  mer- 
chant is  as  high  socially  as  a  dry-goods  or  hardware  or  grocery  merchant, 
and  from  the  fact  that  his  business  is  generally  very  profitable,  enabling 
him  to  live  in  the  country  or  to  retire  from  business  oftener  than  others, 
he  sometimes  seems  to  me,  i^erhaps  erroneously,  to  hold  some  advan- 
tage over  other  trades  people.  Some  analysis  of  the  forms  of  the  drink 
traffic  is  not  irrelevant  in  considering  the  "  general  condition  of  the  work- 
ing peoi)le,  their  lives  and  homes."  The  establishment  of  the  "  wine  and 
spirit  merchant"  is  of  various  grades.  Those  of  the  higher  rank  do  a 
large  wholesale  business,  but  a  liberal  display  of  gilded  glass  also  makes 
known  the  inferior  branches  of  the  business,  such  as  the  "bottle  depart- 
ment," where  small  quantities  are  dispensed,  and  where  women  are 
chiefly  supplied  either  with  the  theoretical  bottle — always  in  view  in 
the  window — or  with  the  glass  tumbler  when  its  capacity  is  deemed 
sufficient  for  the  more  moderate  but  more  urgent  requirements  of  the 
customer.  This  department  often  finds  favor  in  female  patronage  on 
account  of  its  outranking  the  "vaults  "  in  the  respectability  of  some  of 
its  visitors.  The  "vaults,"  with  its  floor  thickly  sawdusted,  is  usually 
a  busy  place  in  a  popular  establishment,  and  is  the  favorite  resort  of 
many  thriftless  and  dissolute  of  both  sexes.  It  is  here,  that  after  the 
old-time  fashion  of  Pike  County,  as  set  forth  in  "  The  Mystery  of  Gilgal,'^ 

The  neighbors  round  the  counter  draw. 
And  calmly  drink  and  jaw. 

Another  sort  of  establishment  dev^oted  to  this  trade  is  the  ordinary 
public  house,  sometimes  called  a  hotel,  but  the  insinuations  in  that 
direction  are  very  delusive  fiom  an  American  standpoint.  To  ask  for 
supper  and  a  bed  room  would  astonish  the  landlord  and  betray  your 
foreign  origin.  1  do  not  now  mean  the  country  inns  of  provincial  Eng- 
land, which  are  replete  with  old  fashioned  comforts  and  charmingly  at- 
tractive in  the  quaintness  and  neatness  of  their  accommodations.  But 
the  more  metro[)olitan  "public  houses"  of  the  large  towns  have  stolen 
their  livery,  to  serve  at  least,  a  less  worthy  j)urpose.  And  so  the  "Dog 
and  Partridge,"  the  "Bell  and  Bear,"  "Welsh  Harp,"  and  heads  of 
kings  and  (pieens  innumerable  abound  in  the  populous  districts,  while 
to  not  one  in  fifty  of  them  would  the  sojourner  look  for  food  or  lodging. 
In  such  houses  the  "bar  parlour,"  if  the  house  is  complete  in  the  style 
and  number  of  its  appointments,  is  the  ^'■bcst  room,''^  aiul  the  well-to-do 
patrons  generally  choose  it  for  their  moderate  and  leisure  drinking, 
always,  as  with  all  classes,  attended  with  the  pipe  and  such  social  chat  as 
the  loquacity  of  the  com})any  will  atford.  If  an  American  is  present  he 
will  be  asked  about  the  prospects  of  the  tariff  being  reduced,  and,  per- 
haps, advised  of  the  great  benefits  which  would  accrue  to  his  own 
country  in  such  an  event.  Descending  in  social  order  through  the  other 
appointments  set  apart  for  the  comfort  of  the  ])ublic,  we  shall  find  the 
"smoke-room"  and  then  the  "taproom."    The  last  is  allotted  to  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  831 

least  pretentious  in  social  rank — the  roughest  of  the  customers.  The 
tap-room  is  often  noisy,  the  other  rooms  rarely  so. 

In  some  of  the  largest  public  houses  a  large  room  for  serving  dinners 
to  parties  and  providing  amateur  musical  entertainments,  generally 
called  the  "  assembly-room,"  is  provided.  Such  entertainments  are  often 
given  Meekly,  on  Saturday  nights,  to  the  patrons  of  the  house,  the  per- 
formers volunteering  their  services.  To  all  these  rooms  women  have 
the  same  access  as  men,  and  those  of  both  sexes  who  seek,  as  many 
do,  their  chief  recreation  in  the  public  house,  tax  the  cai)acity  of  these 
places  to  the  utmost  on  every  Saturday  and  Sunday  night.  Singing  is 
not  usually  allowed  on  the  hitter  night,  but  instrumental  music  is  per- 
mitted. Workmen  and  their  wives  and  daughters,  young  men  and 
their  sweethearts,  visit  the  public  houses,  and  the  two  sexes  may  be 
seen  filling,  in  alternate  spaces,  the  wooden  benches  which  extend 
around  the  smoke-room  or  enjoying  their  glasses  together  with  the 
mingled  harmony  and  revelry  of  the  music  hall.  Women  patronize  the 
bars  or  "vaults"  in  the  most  public  places  with  the  same  freedom,  if 
not  the  same  frequency,  as  men,  and  in  all  the  grades  of  social  life 
below  the  middle  class  they  seem  to  drink  with  as  little  restraint  as  the 
men,  and  with  the  same  immunity  from  loss  of  respectability  and  social 
standing  in  their  station  which  attends  the  fortunate  competitor  by 
whose  efforts  their  supply  is  rendered  cheap.     Perhaps  this  is  right. 

To  sum  up  the  drink  question  as  affecting  the  condition  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  we  must  admit  the  evil  to  be  a  great  one;  yet,  with  the 
numerous  temptations  and  the  absence  in  many  quarters  of  any  pleasant 
surroundings,  the  wonder  is  that  it  is  not  greater,  and  the  very  impor- 
tant fact  is  that  it  is  steadily  diminishing.  Excessive  drinking  is  con- 
fined largely  to  the  common  or  unskilled  laborers,  and  in  this  class,  I 
am  told.  It  has  diminished  very  much  in  the  last  twenty  years.  This 
improvement  has  doubtless  been  due  to  improved  conditions  generally 
which  have  marked  the  natural  i)rogress  of  the  i)eople  in  most  countries, 
and  to  restrictive  legislation  and  police  regulations  thoroughly  and  im- 
partially enforced  in  this  country  against  the  traffic  in  intoxicating 
drinks. 

COST   OP  LIVING  TO   ENGLISH  VS«   AMERICAN   WORK-PEOPLE. 

Returning  now  to  the  foregoing  statements  of  earnings  and  expendi- 
ture, we  find  that  only  one  of  the  workmen  can  save  anything  and  that 
he  is  enabled  to  save  CO  cents  per  week  only  when  he,  his  son,  and 
daughter  work  on  full  time.  If  the  support  of  the  family  was  depend- 
ent on  him  alone  there  would  be  a  weekly  deficiency  of  $1.10  in  the 
household  appropriations,  or  they  would  have  to  be  cut  down  by  that 
amount.  I  must  confess  that  if  I  were  asked  to  do  this  without  restrict- 
ing the  family  comfort  I  should  not  know  where  to  begin.  The  allow- 
ance for  bread  seeais  liberal,  being  9  pounds,  or  2^  loaves  each  for  the 
six  in  the  family,  including  the  baby,  but  we  should  hardly  be  able  to 
substitute  any  more  economic  food  at  English  prices.  Perhaps  the  state- 
ments I  have  obtained  will  help  us  to  draw  some  conclusions  on  the 
comparative  cost  of  a  workman's  living  in  this  country  and  the  United 
States  not  altogether  chimerical  or  erroneous,  as  too  many  wisely- 
worded  articles  on  the  subject  undoubtedly  are. 

Taking  statement  No.  1,  now  under  consideration,  we  find  that  ar- 
ticles of  food  comprise  about  CO  per  cent,  of  the  family  expenditure. 
Comparing  the  expenditure  for  the  articles  of  food  consumed  weekly 


832 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


according  to  the  prices  paid  iu  this  country  and  the  United  States  we 
have  the  following  statement : 


Articles. 


-6  ponnda  fresh  meat 

Brojid,  13  loavi-a,  4  pounds  ench... 

Butter,  ]i  pDUDcis 

Bacou  and  cheese* 

Tea,  J  pound 

Sugar,  5  pounds* 

Potatoes,  I  ppc-k    

Milk,  about  6  quarts 

Total  cost  of  food  per  week 


Cost  in 
England. 


$1  08 
1  20 
49 
60 
24 
30 
30 
37 


4  58 


Cost  in 
United 
States. 


$0  72 
90 
44 
67 
20 
50 
12 
30 


3  85 


Balance  in  favor  of — 


England. 


United 
States. 


$0  36 

30 

Oi 

$0  07 

20 

M 

18 

::'.'.::::;; 

07 

*  See  note  1  at  the  end  of  this  report. 

The  English  prices  in  the  foregoing  table  are  taken  from  the  English 
workman's  statement.  The  American  prices  are  taken  from  the  retail 
market  report  of  the  Waterbury  American,  a  paper  printed  in  a  rei^re- 
sentative  manufacturing  town  of  New  Enjiland.  It  is  as  favorable  a 
place  for  a  comparison  advantageous  to  England  as  any  that  could  be 
selected,  as  many  of  the  articles  are  doul)tless  cheai)er  in  localities 
farther  west.  But  this  comparison  shows  tbis  moderate  weekly  food 
supply,  assuming  that  the  American  workman  would  be  satistied  with 
it,  to  cost  less  in  Waterbury  by  19  per  cent,  than  it  tloes  in  the  IStafltbrd- 
ehire  ])otteries.  We  have  here  then  one  fact  too  clear  to  be  disputed, 
viz,  that  on  CO  per  cent,  of  the  English  workman's  expenditure  he  could 
save  19  per  cent,  if  he  lived  in  the  United  States.  1  have  not  the  data 
for  pursuing  the  comparison  through  the  other  40  per  cent,  of  the  Brit- 
ish workman's  expenses,  but  granting  that  the  difference  would  be  on 
his  side,  I  do  not  believe  it  would  exceed  the  rate  of  19  per  cent,  already 
against  him  in  the  food  8U|)ply.  If  we  concede  this  advantage  the 
weekly  expense  account  will  stand  as  follows  : 


Expenditure. 


For  food 

Other  expenses 

Total  expenditure 


English    I  American 
workman,  workman. 


$4  58 
3  »9 


$3  85 
4  63 


Difference  in  favor  of— 


English 
workman. 


8  48 


American 
workman. 


$  73 


0  73 


Net  balance  in  favor  of  England,  1  cent.  I  believe  these  figures  are 
liberal  imough  towards  the  Engli.sh  side  of  the  case,  and  that  the  act- 
ual cost  of  the  articles  wiiich  make  up  the  weekly  expenditure  of  the 
English  workman  is  about  equal  iu  the  aggregate  in  the  two  countriesj 
but  even  if  UO  per  cent,  more  were  to  be  added  to  the  figures  represent- 
ing the  cost  in  the  United  States,  the  balance  in  favor  of  the  American 
in  the  wages  earned  would  not  be  greatly  impaired.  Although  the 
purpose  of  this  report  is  to  present  facts  only,  it  may  not  be  impertinent  to 
inquire,  in  view  of  these  figures,  what  becomes  of  the  constantly  repeated 
assertions  that  the  cost  of  living  to  the  workingman  in  the  United  States 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  833 

is  double  what  it  is  in  England  ^  The  truth  is  that  the  only  item  in  which 
there  is  any  considerable  advantage  in  the  workingman's  cost  of  liv- 
ing in  this  country  is  in  the  matter  of  rent.  In  ])lain  clothing  for  men, 
women,  and  children  there  is  scarcely  any  advantage,  if,  indeed,  there 
is  any  at  all.  I  cannot  go  into  details  in  this  particular  in  this  report, 
but  it  seems  to  me  that  the  fact  that  this  class  of  goods  is  not  exported 
from  this  country  to  the  United  States  to  any  but  the  most  insignificant 
extent,  is  sufQcient  evidence  of  its  comparative  cheapness  in  the  United 
States.  If  it  is  said  that  the  duty  is  prohibitive,  1  must  reply  that  there 
is  no  other  class  of  merchandise  on  which  so  low  a  rate  has  the  same 
eifect,  and  in  that  case  that  the  full  amount  of  the  duty  cannot  be  added 
to  the  price  in  the  United  States,  unless  upon  the  Hibernian  assumption 
that  the  wearer  goes  naked,  of  which,  however,  I  think  some  people 
in  this  country  could  be  convinced  in  the  way  of  a  free- trade  argument. 
If  I  can  credit  the  announcements  in  the  advertising'  columns  of  the 
Chicago  papers,  which  reach  me  regularly,  as  good  a  suit  of  clothes  can 
be  purchased  in  that  city  for  $10  as  can  be  obtained  in  this  country  for 
the  same  money. 

A  similar  analysis  of  the  other  statements  would  show  similar  results, 
and  need  not  therefore  be  made  here.  The  colliery  carpenter  spends  a 
little  more  than  one-half  of  his  weekly  income  for  ibod  and  drink,  and 
the  wharfman  about  58  per  cent,  or  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  tlat- 
presser.  And  it  will  be  found  a  fair  estimate  to  take  from  50  to  60  per 
cent,  of  the  worknnin's  full  time  earnings  for  the  supi)ly  of  the  larder. 
I  have  not  alluded  to  the  greater  variety  of  eatables  which  the  Ameri- 
can workman  can  often  have  without  extravagance,  such  as  chickens, 
eggs,  game,  various  fruits,  &c. 

Spring  chickens  are  now  worth  here  75  cents  each,  eggs  25  cents  per 
dozen,  and  are  seldom  below  that  price,  while  they  often  reach  as  high 
as  50  cents  per  dozen. 

I  need  not  dwell  longer  on  these  statements.  I  will,  however,  give 
the  wliarfman's  bill  of  fare,  as  kindly  furnished  by  him : 

Breakfast.-  Children,  skim  milk  and  bread.  Wife  and  self,  bacon  and  bread  with 
tea. 

Dinner. — Potatoes  with  a  bit  of  meat. 
Tea. — Bread  and  butter. 
Supper. — Bread  and  cheese. 

His  own  comment  in  supplementing  these  details  was,  "  The  living  is 
poor,  and  we  could  do  with  better  food  and  clothes." 

The  general  conclusion  would  seem  to  be  that  a  man  with  a  family 
consisting  of  wife  and  three  or  four  children  must  have  an  income  ex- 
ceeding considerably  $6  per  week  to  save  anything,  even  by  the 
strictest  economy.  As  in  my  communication  to  the  consul-general,  be- 
fore referred  to,  under  date  of  ISovember  2f,  1883,  I  was  then  reliably 
informed  that  the  men  employed  in  the  potting  industry  did  not  average 
above  this  amount  net.  We  must  therefore  conclude  that  as  a  general  rule 
they  cannot  accumulate  to  any  considerable  extent,  and,  as  before  stated, 
doubtless  many  who  could  do  not.  In  this  connection  I  may  as  well 
take  up  the  different  statements  of  wages,  herewith  transmitted  as  in- 
closure  No.  2,  for  the  purpose  of  analysis  and  seeing  how  the  results 
compare  with  the  figures  embraced  in  the  rei^ort  to  the  consul-general 
before  mentioned. 

AVERAGE   WAGES   OF   TUI^STALL   POTTERS. 

The  average  of  weekly  wages  of  potters,  as  summarized  in  this  report, 
has  been  reached  by  averaging  statements  obtained  by  me  from  sixteen 
92  A— LAB 53 


834 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


manufacturers  of  the  wages  paid  by  tbem  respectively,  uniting  this 
average  with  a  statement  funiisbed  uie  by  tbe  secretary  of  the  Potters 
Manufacturers'  Association,  and  a  third  general  statement  compiled  from 
figures  obtained  directly  from  workuien.  The  average  of  these  three 
schedules,  as  now  compai  ed  with  the  figures  heretofore  submitted  to  the 
consul-general,  is  as  follows: 


'  Stateinent 

Occupations.             |   herewith 

1  submitted. 

1 

Statement 

suhmitted 

Juue  24, 

1883. 

j  Statement 

Occnpatious.                herewith 

submitted 

Statement 

submitted 

Juue  24, 

1883. 

*6  20 

7  19 

8  77 
8  40 

7  48 

(*) 

$7  54 
9  49 
9  98 
7  99 
9  71 
7  79 
6  58 
6  82 

$7  38 
9  24 

7  86 

8  04 

9  86 
11  19 
10  41 

$8  52- 

Flat-presser - 

Disli-niakera 

Cup-makers 

9  98 

8  03 

7  87 

Hollow-ware  presser  (jig- 

Q   19 

11  6& 

(*) 

6  84 
6  65 

Throwers 

(*) 

0  venmen 

*  Not  separately  classed  in  former  statement. 

The  statement  with  which  the  present  average  of  wages  is  above 
compared  is  the  snniinarized  statement  of  Mr.  E,  Powell,  chairman  of 
the  Potters  Manufacturers'  Association,  printed  in  the  Stafibrdshire 
Sentinel  during  the  potters'  strike  for  an  increase  of  wages  during  the 
autumn  of  1881,  and  which  strike  resulted,  with  slight  exceptions,  in 
the  resumption  of  work  at  the  old  prices.  In  my  former  rej^ort  the 
figures  M  ere  altered  slightly  by  me  in  a  few  particulars  wherein  later 
information  seemed  to  warrant  the  change.  But  as  the  rate  of  wages 
has  not  been  revised  since  the  dispute  before  mentioned,  and  as  no  gen- 
eral alteration  is  believed  to  have  taken  place,  it  will  be  inttresting 
and  useful  to  compare  the  original  statement  of  the  manufacturers'  as- 
sociation, as  made  through  their  chairman,  in  support  of  their  resist- 
ance to  the  demands  of  the  men,  with  the  statement  obtained  by  me 
from  sixteen  manufacturers, and  also  with  the  statements  now  obtained 
from  workingmen  and  the  statement  now  furnished  by  the  secretary'  of 
the  manufacturers'  association.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this 
original  statement  was  prei)ared  to  convince  the  workmen  that  they 
were  earning  a  good  average  of  wages,  and  the  total  average  of  weekly 
earnings  in  thirteen  branches  of  labor  in  the  pottery  manufacture  was 
made  to  appear  (by  an  erroneous  system  of  calculations,  it  is  true)  at 
the  rate  of  £1  15.s'.  10^?.  per  man.  The  statement  gave  what  purported 
to  be  the  weekly  net  earnings  in  the  thirteen  branches  at  fifteen  difi'er- 
ent  manufactories,  and  the  average  of  the  whole,  the  latter  being  the 
statement  now  used  for  comparison,  and  its  publication  was  accompa- 
nied by  a  letter  from  Mr.  Powell,  the  chairman,  of  which  the  following 
extract  formed  the  closing  words: 

The  fifteen  niannfactiircrs  represent  all  markets  of  tbo  pottinf^  trade,  and  in  the 
case  of  each  Ke})arate  hrancdi  the  lignr«'.s  show  the  average  of  the  wages  earned  at 
each  of  the  fifteen  niannfactoricvs.  1  think,  ther»;fore,  that  it  was  not  at  all  mislead- 
ing for  the  thirteen  braiiches  to  bo  averaged  as  appeared  in  Mr.  Ackrill's  letter*  giv- 
ing £1  158.  Wd.  per  man  as  the  average  of  the  men  in  all  branches  of  the  said  man- 
ufactories. 

It  is  certain,  liowever,  that  wages  have  not  fallen  since  that  time.  I 
think  the  manufacturers  would  sustain  me  in  this  statement.     I  do  not 


*  Mr.  Ackrill  (since  deceased)  was  then  secretary  of  the  manufacturers'  association 
and  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  present  secretary,  Mr.  Llewellyn,  who  has  fur- 
nished one  of  the  statements  I  now  inclose  for  comparison. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


835 


know  who  the  fifteen  manufacturers  were  who  compiled  the  several 
statements  from  which  the  averages  here  quoted  were  obtained,  but  as 
it  was  strictly  a  matter  of  equity  in  dispute  it  ought  to  be  presumed 
that  they  not  only  "  represented  all  markets,"  as  stated  by  Mr.  Powell, 
but  that  they  were  fairly  representative  themselves  in  the  matter  of 
wages  paid;  that  the  information  was  given  with  perfect  fairness  and 
impartiality,  and  with  less  reluctance  and  fewer  refusals,  than,  I  regret 
to  say,  have  met  some  of  my  eti'orts  in  the  same  dire(;tion.  It  is  i^erhaps 
true  that  the  chairman  of  the  association,  who  is  himself  a  manufact- 
urer, took  one  of  the  fifteen  schedules  from  his  own  books,  but  I  regret 
to  say  that  the  same  valuable  auxiliary  is  denied  to  the  State  Depart- 
ment on  the  present  occasion.     But  of  this  later. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  prei)aration  of  these  comparative  tables,  1 
must  explain  that  a  statement  of  the  average  earnings  of  all  the  i)ot- 
ters,  taken  in  a  lump,  being  quite  as  desirable  as  the  average  in  each 
particniar  branch,  1  have  appended  such  total  or  general  av^erage  in 
each  case,  as  well  as  in  my  general  statement,  on  Form  jS^o.  1,  and 
accompanying  tables  (inclosure  Ko.  2),  In  preparing  this  average  I 
have  followed  the  system  suggested  in  the  Department  circular  (para- 
graph No.  2  of  suggestions  to  consuls),  and  I  may  say  that  this  is  the 
rule  already  adopted  by  me  in  my  i^revious  communications  to  the  con- 
sul-general on  this  subject.  From  figures  thfu  ascertained  and  since 
verified,  the  ratio  of  men  in  the  diHerent  branches  of  work  in  tlie  pot- 
teries, excluding  common  laborers,  is  approximately  as  follows: 


Occupations. 


Flat-pressers 

Dish-makers 

Cup-makeT's 

Sauccr-iiiakers 

Haud-basin  makers 

Hollow-ware  pressers 

Hollowware  presaer  (jiggerers) 
Priuters 


Occupations. 


Ovenmen 

Sasrsfar-makers . 
Moid-makers. . . 

Turners. 

Handlers 

i  Firemen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


Average. 


Per  cent. 


1  may  say  also  that  the  figures  furnished  me  by  the  sixteen  man- 
ufacturers, which  I  have  tabulated,  on  this  occasion  were  furnished  in 
response  to  written  requests  from  me,  with  the  knowledge  of  each  man- 
ufacturer of  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  to  be  used,  but  without 
any  knowledge  on  my  part  of  the  rate  of  wages  paid  by  any  of  them. 
They  embrace  some  of  the  largest  works,  and  some  of  only  moderate 
capacity,  and  represent  all  localities  in  the  potteries,  and  I  believe 
for  such  an  average  and  comparison  as  I  deemed  it  desirable  to  make 
they  are  as  truly  representative  as  any  similar  number  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  procure.  Points  of  disagreement  between  this  and  the  state- 
ment of  the  chairman  of  the  manufacturers'  association  were  unavoid- 
able, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  a  comparison  between  any  two  of  the 
statements  under  consideration.  Such  diflerences  may  not  readily  be 
explained,  but  they  will  at  least  be  suggestive  and  interesting  as  we 
look  at  them  from  the  different  standpoints  from  which  and  the  differ- 
ent purposes  for  which  and  the  different  circumstances  under  which 
they  were  respectively  made.  To  understand  these  different  stand- 
points, ])urposes,  and  circumstances,  I  believe  I  have  already  said  enough 
for  the  interested  reader,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  that  I  ought  to 
say  that  the  statement  kindly  prepared  for  me  by  the  secretary  of  the 
manufacturers'  association  is  valuable  on  account  of  the  care  bestowed 


836 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE — ENGLAND. 


111)011  it,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  (inclosure  Ko.  2,  Form  iSTo.  2),  as 
well  as  the  fact  that  its  averages  embrace  the  whole  year  1883,  that  it 
gives  the  wages  of  attendants,  and  the  farther  fact  that  my  personal 
knowledge  of  the  secretary  as  a  solicitor  of  high  character  and  stand- 
ing enables  me  to  say  that  every  figure  is  given  with  the  greatest  im- 
pi'.rtiality  and  without  the  slightest  prejudice  for  or  against  anybody's 
case.  And  further,  that  owing  to  a  somewhat  different  system  employed 
by  the  secretary,  his  classification  omits  cup-makers,  saucer-makers,  and 
band-basin  makers.  Let  us  then  compare  the  average  weekly  net  earn- 
ings in  the  different  branches  and  in  the  aggregate,  according  to  the 
statement  published  three  years  ago  by  the  chairman  of  the  association 
with  each  of  the  three  statements  now  obtained  by  me.  The  following 
table  exhibits  this  comparison  in  detail  and  in  the  aggregate  : 

Table,  showing  tlic  amount  of  weeJchj  net  earnings  in  each  branch  of  work,  on  the  basis  of  one 
hundi-tdmen,  according  to  the  respective  statements  now  under  comparison,  tvith  the  average 
of  the  total  net  earnings  per  man  per  week  in  each  case. 


Occupations. 

.a 

B 

StatemeDts  by 
chairman    manu- 
facturers' as- 
sociation   1881 
(tiftcen      works 
represented). 

Statements  by 
sixteen    mana- 

facturens  se- 
lected at  random 
and  averaged. 

Statements  by 

secretaiy  of 

manufacturers' 

association. 

Statements  by 
workmen 
(average). 

Rate 

of 
wages. 

Weekly 
earnings. 

Bate 

of 
wages. 

Weekly 
earnings. 

Bate 

of 

wages. 

Weekly 
earnings. 

Kate 
of 

wages. 

Weekly 
earnings. 

5 

4 
3 

4 

1 

25 

2 
20 
20 
3 
3 
4 
2 
1 
1 
2 

$7  75 
9  64 

9  98 

7  97 
9  71 

8  17 

11  68 
6  59 
6  80 
8  50 

10  28 
8  05 
8  44 

11  19 

10  41 
6  28 

$38  75 
38  68 

29  94 

31  88 
9  41 

204  25 

23  36 
131  80 
136  00 

25  50 

30  84 

32  20 
16  88 

11  19 
10  41 

12  56 

$7  64 

8  78 

9  48 
7  64 
9  49 
7  57 

9  90 
7  39 

6  64 

7  43 

10  20 
7  38 

1      8  05 

11  81 
11  31 

6  43 

$38  35 
34  12 

28  44 
30  56 

9  49 
189  25 

19  80 

147  80 

132  80 

22  29 

30  60 

29  52 
16  10 
11  81 

11  31 

12  86 

$6  57 

9  48 

8  93 
7  65 

9  32 

7  32 

10  20 
6  57 

6  66 

8  04 

9  48 
8  04 

7  32 
10  20 

10  20 
6  57 

$32  85 

37  92 

26  79 

30  60 

9  32 

188  00 

20  40 
131  40 
133  20 
24  12 
28  44 
32  16 
14  64 
10  20 
10  20 
13  14 

$7  32 
8  04 
7  32 

7  32 

8  76 

7  32 

9  49 
6  66 

6  66 
G  66 

8  04 

7  32 

8  40 
11  55 

9  72 
6  28 

$36  60 

32  16 

21  96 

Saucer-makers    

HaiKlbasin  makers... 
Hollow-ware  pressers. 
Hiillow-waie    presser 

(jigfreiers)  

Prinli-ra 

22  28 
"8  76 
183  00 

18  98 
133  20 
133  20 

Jjaiiir-r-iiiakers 

19  98 
24  12 

Tumors   

29  28 
16  80 

11  55 

9  72 

Warehousemen* 

12  56 

Total 

100 

783  95 

765  10 

738  38 

701  59 

Average  earninga  p«r 

7  84 

7  65 

7  38 

7  02 

*  The  three  last-named  branches  of  work  were  not  included  in  the  statement  of  1881  made  by  the  chair  - 
man  of  the  manufarturers' aHsocitition,  iind  to  pre\entthe  comparison  of  the  total  avcrajre  withth.it 
of  the  other  stati'Uients  Irom  being  tlieiebv  niuiuly  atlected  I  have  sup)>lied  the  omission  by  inserting 
the  averages  of  the  three  suhsequent  statements,  and  whore  other  omi.ssi^ ins  have  occurred  In  thv  ditl'er- 
ent  utatenientH  I  have  saiijdied  tberii  in  Ihc  same  manner,  i.  «.,  by  avcragiuir  tlio  figures  in  the  other 
statements.  A  reference  to  Fiaiu  No.  3  willi  inclosure  No.  2,  will  show  wheie  such  omissions  have 
■occurred  as  they  have  not  in  that  table  been  tilled.    . 

I  believe  the  foregoing  table  with  the  other  statements  will  be  found 
as  reliable  as  any  coiripilation  of  figures  on  the  subject  of  potters  wages 
as  can  be  made.  That  the  subject  is  somewhat  complicated  and  diffi- 
cult, even  if  one  had  free  access  to  all  the  sources  of  information,  I 
think  will  be  readily  granted.  I  can  only  say  I  hav^e  done  the  best  I 
could  with  it,  and  the  figures,  gathered  from  sources  somewhat  diver- 
gent in  interest,  ma.v,  I  trust,  if  we  concede  something  to  the  infirmities 
of  human  nature,  merit  the  conlidence  enjoined  by  the  circular,  viz, 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  837 

"Fall  credit  should   be  ^iven  to  every  person,  firm,  or  iustitntion  who 
or  which  aids  in  or  facilitates  the  preparation  of  these  reports." 

I  think  I  oniiht  to  direct  attention  to  some  features  disclosed  by  the 
tables.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  statement  prepared  from  the  sched- 
ules of  fifteen  manufacturers  and  published  by  the  chairman  of  the  man- 
ufacturers' association  by  way  of  a  defense  to  the  demands  of  a  strike, 
shows  the  hi,c:hest  averag^e  of  weekly  earnings,  being  $7.84  per  man. 
The  average,  however,  in  that  statement,  as  published  by  the  association 
and,  I  believe,  never  since  corrected  by  it,  was  $8.74 per  man  per  week; 
the  obvious  error  of  counting  as  many  mold-makers  as  hol!ow-ware 
pressers,  »&c.,  in  the  calculation  having  ai»parent-ly  escaped  discovery.  It 
will  be  furthernoticed  that  the  sixteen  manufacturers  who  have  favored 
nie  with  the  schedules  with  the  knowledge,  as  before  stated,  that  the  in- 
formation was  solicited  for  the  use  of  the  State  Department,  have  pro- 
vided me  with  the  next  highest  average,  being  $7.6.5  per  man  per  week. 
It  is  here  that  the  first  unwelcome  recital  of  experience  in  carrying  out  the 
instructions  of  the  Department  seems  to  have  its  place.  Knowing  from 
a  residence  of  five  years  that  there  was  a  feeling  of  great  reluctance  on 
the  part  of  manufacturers,  somewhat  prevalent  in  the  district,  towards 
furnishing  information  of  a  statistical  or  definite  character  to  any  one, 
and  feeling  that  many  unjust  suspicions  would  beex(;ited  by  any  indirec- 
tion in  such  an  inquiry,  1  deemed  it  decidedly  the  proper  plan  to  go  about 
the  work  in  the  frankest  and  simplest  manner.  I  ac(M)rdingly  addressed 
a  note  to  about  sixty  mnnufactnrers,  selecting  such  as  I  thought  fairly 
representative  in  respect  of  the  kind  of  work  done  and  covering  all  the 
towns  and  localities  in  the  ])otteries.  I  sent  the  letter  to  each  manufact- 
urer by  the  consular  clerk  as  messenger  with  careful  directions  as  to  meet- 
ing in  the  freest  and  fullest  manner  such  inquiries  as  his  visit  might  prompt 
in  any  case,  and  enjoining  him  to  be  very  gracious  and  circumspect  ia 
communicating  with  all  persons  concerning  the  subject-matter  of  the 
favors  asked.  These  instructions  I  have  reason  to  know  were  faithfully 
carried  out.     The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  note  I  sent  in  each  case : 

United  States  Coxsulate, 

District  of  TunstaU,  June  2,  1884. 
To : 

To  aid  the  State  Department  of  the  United  States  Government  in  the  collection  of 
reliable  statistics,  the  United  States  consular  officers  throughout  the  world  are  directed 
to  procure  and  compile  the  most  complete  an  i  accurate  infornuxtiou  attainable  con- 
cerning the  wages  paid  for  labor  of  all  kinds  within  the  countries  and  localities  where 
they  are  respectively  resident.  I  desire  such  statements  as  I  may  prepare  to  be  as 
full  and  correct  as  possible,  and  as  the  means  to  this  end  I  must  depend  mainly  on 
the  kind  indulgence  and  assistance  of  employers  of  labor  in  this  district.  If  I  may 
safely  anticii)ate  these  favors  on  your  part  I  shall  be  extremely  grateful  if  you  will 
kindly  impart  to  the  bearer  of  this  note  such  information  as  he  is  empowered  to> 
solicit  in  my  behalf  concerning  the  wages  of  people  in  your  employ  or  under  your 
management,  and  which  you  may  deem  not  in  conflict  with  your  own  interests  nor  an 
excessive  tax  upon  your  time  and  kindness. 
I  beg  to  remain,  j'ours  faithfully, 

E.  E.  LANE, 
United  States  Consul. 

In  response  to  this  letter  seventeen  statements  in  all  have  been  re- 
ceived. Twenty-two  were  promised,  but  not  given.  In  nine  cases  the 
projirietors  were  absent,  and  those  in  charge  were  unwilling  to  give  the 
information  in  their  absence.  The  few  cases  of  direct  refusal  deserve 
definite  mention,  as  it  is  imi)ortant  that  the  reasons  for  them  should  not 
be  misapprehended,  and  although  I  think  I  should  give  names  in  these 
cases,  I  would  suggest  the  withholding  of  their  publication  unless  some 
important  reason  should  seem  to  demand  it.  Messrs.  W.  &  E.  Corn 
refused  the  information  on  the  ground  that  it  might  be  used  against 


838  LA.BOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

tliera  in  case  of  a  subsequent  arbitration.  I  have  no  right  to  say  that 
the  inference  from  this  logic  is  a  low  scale  of  wages,  but  I  do  not  see 
clearly  how  a  high  scale  could  be  used  against  them. 

ENaLISH   MANUFACTURERS   REFUSE    TO    GIVE    INFORMATION. 

Powell,  Bishop  &  Stonier  are  large  manufacturers  at  Hanley.  The 
senior  member  was  very  emphatic  in  declining  to  give  any  information, 
basing  his  refusal  "on  principle."  A  principle  so  potent  that  he  would 
not  confer  such  a  favor  upon  the  United  States,  to  use  his  own  words, 
"even  if  the  President,  of  the  United  States  himself  were  to  ask  him 
for  it."  This  principle,  wliatever  it  is,  is  not  well  deiined  to  my  under- 
standing, but  I  fear  I  must  seek  for  it  in  the  "  lex  talionisJ^  It  is 
charged  that  the  fair  traders  propose  to  shape  the  legislation  of  for- 
eign countries  to  the  wishes  of  England  by  enacting  obnoxious  laws  of 
their  own.  But  it  is  no  part  of  my  duty  to  undertake  to  resolve  the 
l^resent  mixture  of  doctrines  on  either  side  of  English  i)olitical  contro- 
versy. It  is  true  and  quite  interesting  that  "retaliation,"  but  not  "pro- 
tection," is  advocated  by  a  good  many,  and  their  position  seems  so  unique 
as  to  deserve  a  digressing  comment.  While  not  denying  the  untarnished 
virtue  of  free  trade,  they  proclaim  that  it  is  bankru])t  of  blessings.  When 
accused  by  the  truly  faithful  with  seeking  a  return  to  protection,  they 
solemnly  avow  themselves  scandalized,  and  straightway  propose  to  re- 
vive some  decaying  industrj^  by  levying  a  small  duty  on  the  imported 
article.  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  ghost  of  Cobden  still  walks  abroad 
in  the  land,  and  the  fair  traders  do  not  venture  far  in  the  dark.  They 
never  assail  the  saint's  memory  for  the  error  of  his  teachings,  but  for 
the  failure  of  his  prophecies.  I  should  not  be  sur[>rised  if  one  of  these 
days,  when  the  franchise  is  considerably  extended,  some  valiant  knight 
of  th»-  field  or  factory  should  regild  liis  shield  with  a  brighter  motto  and 
despise  the  darkness  and  defy  the  ghost. 

The  chairn)an  of  the  Manufacturers'  Association,  however,  does  not 
carry  the  principle  of  retaliation  into  politics,  but  draws  the  line  squarely 
between  himself  and  the  United  States  Government.  He  not  only 
denies,  on  principle,  the  innocent  figures  asked  for,  but  that  this  prin- 
ciple should  not  be  obscured  he  volunteers  the  oi)inion  that  "if  all  the 
manufacturers  refused  to  give  any  information  it  would  help  to  show 
the  real  feeling  which  exists  between  them  and  the  Government  of  the 
United  States."  That  this  very  effective  discipline  is  urged  for  the 
Government  only,  and  not  for  the  people  of  the  United  States,  is  mat- 
ter for  congratulation,  as  the  latter  are  by  far  the  larger  customers  for 
crockery,  and  it  is  my  pleasure  to  inform  them  through  the  State  De- 
partment that  a  refusal  to  tell  the  rate  of  wages  does  not  foreshadow 
the  slightest  reluctance  to  sell  goods  to  any  American  who  is  prepared 
to  offer  even  an  extremely  small  margin  of  profit.  It  will  be  seen  there 
is  considerable  reluctance  to  i'urnish  information  concerning  wages. 
The  gentleman  referred  to  has  taken  occuision  since  the  occurrence  men- 
tioned to  inform  me  personally  tliat  there  was  not  the  slightest  feeling  of 
a  i)eisonal  character  entering  into  liis  reiusal.  Tiiis  I  should  have  pre- 
sumed if  he  had  not  taken  tlie  trouble  to  reassure  nu^,  as  our  i)ersonal  re- 
lations have  always  been  most  friendly  and  cordial.  I  go  out  of  my  way 
to  mention  this,  becjause  I  have  no  doubt  the  same  is  true  of  the  other 
cases,  whether  of  refusal  or  failures  to  furnish  inCormation.  The  gentle- 
man's gri(^van(;e,  of  course,  is  the  tariff".  In  the  conversation  alluded  to 
he  kindly  stated  in  substance  his  jjosition  to  be  that,  when  the  United 
States  put  a  high  duty  on  his  goods,  thereby  injuring  his  trade  and 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  839 

business,  it  was  not  his  place  to  give  tbera  information  to  be  further 
used  to  liis  detriment.  J.  could  only  reply  by  a  general  disclaimer  of 
any  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  injure  his  business  and 
reminding  him  that  neither  the  State  Department  nor  myself  could 
assume,  or  be  supposed  to  know,  that  a  true  statement  of  the  wages  of 
his  employes  would  be  detrimental  to  him  or  his  business;  but  recog- 
nizing that  a  possibility  of  such  an  effect  might  in  some  cases  be  feared, 
I  had  embodied  a  clause  in  the  closing  words  of  the  request,  intended 
to  save  all  embarrassment  of  particulars,  or  otherwise,  to  such  as  wished 
to  I'efuse  for  that  reason. 

But  this  matter  of  reluctance  to  give  information  is  receiving  con- 
sideration in  a  report  on  the  subject  of  prices  and  discounts  now  in 
course  of  preparation,  and  the  completion  of  which  ill  liealth  has  alone 
prevented.  This  is  not  the  proper  place  to  pursue  it.  This  reluctance 
to  give  information  is  a  feeling  qnite  prevalent  amongst  English  manu- 
facturers, owing  in  some  degree  doubtless  to  the  practice  of  those  sys- 
tematic business  habits  which  in  a  general  way  may  be  said  to  have 
more  exclusiveuess  about  them  than  with  a  corresponding  class  in  the 
United  States.  Asking  details  of  business  of  any  one,  not  for  business 
purposes  and  not  in  a  business  way,  produces  just  one  of  those  frictions 
with  English  ideas  of  business  propriety  which  meets  some  prejudice 
and  protest  even  if  they  are  not  always  franklj'  avowed.  Such  inquiries 
are  therefore  uaturall.y  liable  to  misconstruction  and  suspicion  of  evil 
intent  or  results,  and  especially  when  the  information  is  sought  by  an 
official  of  a  foreign  Government.  The  matter  is  important  here  only  as 
having  a  possible  bearing  on  the  wage  statements,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion one  can  scarcely  doubt  that  if  the  sixty  I  asked  all  furnished  me 
with  their  lists  of  wages  the  average  would  have  been  lowered.  We 
cannot  avoid  thinking  that  the  statements  furnished  would  embrace 
most  of  the  higher  earnings,  while  those  withheld  would  contain  a 
greater  ratio  of  low  wages.  At  any  rate,  in  addition  to  what  I  have 
already  said,  I  cannot  suggest  any  other  theory  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  prevailing  unwillingness  to  supply  statements  of  wages. 

The  average  of  the  wages  in  the  potting  industry,  according  to  the 
statement  of  the  secretary  of  the  manufacturers'  association,  is  the 
next  highest  and  will  be  found  closely  approximating  to  the  figures  in 
the  general  average,  as  given  in  the  previous  table  (inclosure  No.  2, 
Forms  Nos.  1  and  4),  and  those  figures,  showing  the  total  average  per 
man  per  week  to  be  $7.40  is  no  doubt  as  near  a  correct  average  as  it  is 
possible  to  get  of  the  weekly  net  earnings  of  all  the  workmen  in  all 
branches  of  the  manufacture  of  pottery  in  this  district  when  on  full 
time. 

FULL   vs.   REAL   TIME. 

The  figures  under  the  head  of  "  workmen's"  statement  were  obtained 
for  me  by  a  gentleman  who  has  himself  been  long  an  employer  of  work- 
men, thoroughly  impartial  and  reliable  in  his  work,  and  to  whom  I  am 
under  many  obligations  for  assistance  in  this  and  previous  similar  under- 
takings. It  will  be  seen  that  the  workmen  consulted  make  the  average 
of  potters'  wages  only  $7.02  per  week,  full  time,  which  is  38  cents  less 
than  the  average  wages  I  have  adopted  as  the  true  one.  If  there  is  any 
errors  in  my  figures  they  will  be  on  the  side  of  the  manufacturers,  or 
wiiy  not  say  the  "  free  traders"  generally.  All  these  figures  represent 
full-time  wages.     Full  time,  according  to  the  statement  of  the  manu- 


840 


LABOR  ]N  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


facturers  association,  beyond  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  go,  is,  per  week, 
for — 


Occupations. 


Throwers 

Turners 

Hniiillers 

Mold-makers 

Hollow-ware  preasers 

Hollow-ware  presser  ( jiggerers) . 
Flat-pressers 


Full 
time. 


Sours. 

48 
51 
51 
48 
48 
48 
54 


Dish-makers.  - . 

Firemen 

Ovenmen 

Printers 

Sagjiarmakers. 
Warehousemen 


Hours. 
48 
60 
54 
51 
54 
57 


There  are  a  great  many  who  are  not  making  full  time  nor  anything  like 
it.  It  is  impossible  to  get  any  average  on  this  point,  but  if  we  bear  in 
mind  the  present  depressed  condition  of  the  trade  both  in  the  home  and 
foreign  markets,  and  supplement  it  with  statements  made  to  me  by  some 
of  the  best  informed  of  the  workmen's  representatives,  and  confirmed 
in  a  great  degree  by  observations  as  careful  as  my  opportunities  will 
permit,  and  loss  of  time  that  comes  through  both  the  faults  aud  uiisfor- 
tunes  of  the  laboring  classes,  the  numerous  holidays,  &c.,  we  must  take 
at  least  20  per  cent,  from  the  above  liberal  average,  leaving  the  sum  of 
$5.92,  which  we  may  safely  say  is  the  nearest  attainable  average  weekly 
earnings  of  the  Staffordshire  x)Otters  from  week  to  week,  from  month  to 
month,  and  from  year  to  year.  Having  now,  I  think,  sufficiently  tabu- 
lated and  defined  the  potters'  wages  on  the  basis  of  full  time,  and  stated 
what  that  is,  I  will  bring  this  branch  of  the  subject  to  a  close  with  the 
following  statement  of  the  api)roximate  actual  average  of  their  weekly 
earnings  as  compared  with  the  same  for  full  time: 


Branch  of  work. 


Flat-pressers 

Dish-makers    

Cup-makers 

Saucer-makers 

Hand-basin  makers 

Hollow- ware  pressors . 

Hollow-ware  presser  (jiggerers). 

Printers 

Ovenmen 

Saggar-makers 

MolUmakers 

Tuiiiers 

Handlers 

Firemen - 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


Ratio  of 
number 

em- 
ployed. 


Total 


Net  average  per  man  per  week. 


Full-time 

weekly 

earnings. 


$35  75 
35  08 
25  20 

29  92 
9  12 

185  00 
19  72 
136  80 
133  00 
22  14 
27  72 

30  32 
15  86 

11  19 
10  41 

12  56 


739  79 


7  40 


Less  20 
per  cent. 


$7  15 
7  02 
5  04 
5  82 

1  82 
37  00 

3  95 
27  86 
26  60 

4  43 

5  55 

6  06 
3  17 

2  24 
2  08 
2  51 


147  80 


Net 
earnings. 


$28  60 
28  08 
20  16 
24  10 

7  30 
148  00 

15  77 
109  44 
106  40 
17  71 
22  18 
24  26 
12  6» 

8  95 
8  33 

10  05 


592  00 


HOW   TUNSTALL   POTTERS   LIVE. 

According  to  the  above  statement  the  average  weekly  net  earnings  of 
the  workmen  in  tlie  potteries  fall  short  of  the  point  where  saving  is  pos- 
sible, and  only  the  plainest  of  living  can  be  indulged  in.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  all  these  figures  tend  to  av^erages,  and  in  no  other 
way  can  useful  statements  on  this  subject  be  tabulated.  These  averages, 
80  near  accuracy  as  to  be  quite  reliable  for  comparisons,  at  least  with  no 
unjust  advantage  to  those  with  which  thej'  may  be  compared,  give,  as  it 
were,  a  clear  bird's-eye  view  of  the  matter  of  potters'  wages  in  this  coun- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


841 


try,  in  which  neither  exceptional  i)oints  nor  unusual  conditions,  high  or 
low,  good  or  bad,  appear  in  prominence  on  the  landscape,  but  which 
reveals  with  truthful  outlines  and  faithful  color  the  general  conditions 
and  opi^ortunities  of  the  working  people  of  this  distiict.  Of  course 
some  will  make  full  time  while  others  will  not ;  some  will  have  large 
families,  while  others  will  not ;  some  will  be  frugal,  while  others  will 
not;  some  families  will  contain  two  or  three  wage-earners,  while  others 
will  contain  but  one ;  so  that  probably  in  each  branch  there  maybe 
some  who  will  save  a  little.  In  some  of  the  branches  the  figures  tell 
with  unanswerable  logic  that  the  proportion  w  ho  accumulate  must  be 
very  small. 

The  following  table  shows  at  a  glance  in  what  branch  the  best  chances 
are  found  for  living  comfortably  or  gettiug  ahead. 

The  family  is  supposed  to  represent  husband  and  wife  and  three  chil- 
dren, the  husband  the  only  wage-earner,  and  the  minimum  weekly  in- 
come essential  to  the  plain  comfort  of  the  family  to  be  £i  5s.,  or  $0.08. 


Branch  of  labor. 

Ko. 

Weekly  net 
earnings 
per  man. 

Surplus  at 

.$6.08  per 

Week  per 

man. 

Ucficioncy 

ppr  m.-in  at 

$6.08  per 

week. 

5 

i' 

ih' 

20 

20 

3 

'4' 

$5  72 
7  01 
6  72 

6  02 

7  30 
5  92 
7  89 
5  47 
5  32 

5  90 

7  40 

6  06 
6  35 

8  95 
8  33 
5  02 

$0  36 

4 
3 

$0  93 
64 

06 

1 

1  22 

16 

2 

1  81 

61 

76 

i  32 

18 

3 

02 

2 

1 
1 

27 
2  87 
2  25 

Firerat'D    ..            

9 

1  06 

Total 

17 

83 

The  per  cent,  of  men  employed  in  those  branches  where  the  average 
of  weekly  earnings  is  above  the  saving  point  (-10.08)  is  seen  to  be  17, 
leaving  83  per  cent,  employed  in  those  departments  where  the  average 
weekly  earnings  are  less  than  that  amount.  On  the  basis  of  these  aver- 
ages, if  the  skilled  workmen  in  a  pottery  containing  one  hundred  men 
were  to  pool  their  earnings  for  mutual  or  co-oijerative  use,  the  outcome 
would  be  as  follows  : 


Braneli  of  work. 

No.  of 
men. 

Weekly 
earnings 
per  man. 

Total  earn- 
ings. 

Sur- 
plus. 

Defi- 
ciency. 

5 
4 
3 
4 
1 
25 
2 
20 
20 
3 
3 
4 
2 
1 
1 
2 

$5  72 
7  01 
6  72 

6  02 

7  30 
5  92 
7  89 
5  47 
5  32 

5  90 

7  40 

6  06 
6  35 

8  95 
8  33 
5  02 

$28  60 
28  04 
20  16 
24  08 

7  30 
148  00 

15  78 
109  40 
106  40 
17  70 
22  20 
24  24 
12  70 

8  95 
8  33 

10  04 

"$3"72' 

1  92 

'"i'22" 
"3  62 

'"'3"96' 

54' 

2  87 
2  25 

$1  80 

Saucer-makers 

24 

Hand-basiu  makers 

4  00 

Hollow-ware  pressor  (jiggerers) 

12  26 

15  2a 

Saggar-makers 

54 

Mold-makers 

Turners  

08 

Handlers 

Firemen 

Warehousemen 

2  12 

Total 

100 

591  92 

20  10 

36  18 

Weekly  net  deficiency,  $16.08;  yearly  net  deficiency,  $836.10. 


842  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

So  tbat  if  we  deduct  for  time  lost,  from  all  causes,  as  much  as  20  per 
<ieut.,  or  oue-fifth,  we  find  that  the  earuiugs  of  tlie  one  hundred  men 
would  uot  be  sufficient  by  |830  per  annum  to  sui)port  themselves  and 
families  according  to  the  unpreteutious  standard  we  have  adopted  of 
$G.08  per  week.  These  were  the  earnings  of  the  colliery  carpenter  with 
his  wife  and  three  children,  and  these  were  his  expenses,  and  I  invite 
renewed  attention  to  his  statement  to  determine  if  it  betokens  any  ex- 
travagance. 

But  the  important  conclusion  from  these  tables  and  analysis  is,  that 
it  is  a  comparative  small  number  of  the  working  potters  who  accumu- 
late any  considerable  means,  and  that  those  who  can  do  so  are  confined 
largely  to  those  branches  of  work  employing  but  a  small  number  of 
hands.  Another  conclusion  is  that  there  must  be  many  whose  little 
margins  are  so  quickly  exhausted  by  any  misfortune  or  calamity  that 
many  a  home  of  hardship  is  wistfully  masked  by  the  lace  curtains  at 
the  cottage  windows,  without  which  any  home  here  would  be  "  poor 
indeed." 

M3'  figures  have  not  attempted  to  deal  with  the  artistic  branch  of  the 
potting  industry.  It  would  be  impossible  to  generalize  with  any  brevity 
on  this  subject.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated  and,  no  doubt,  the  best 
artists  who  favor  manufacturers  with  their  professional  work,  I  am  told, 
receive  an  annual  salary  of  about  $6,000,  and  are  not  deprived  of  doing 
artistic  work  for  themselves  in  the  mean  time.  From  this  maximum  the 
expense  of  the  ceramic  art  and  culture  goes  gradually  down  through 
designers,  painters,  and  engravers. 

I  have  also  left  out  the  laborers  who  usually  work  about  the  potteries. 
Their  wages  are  made  to  average,  by  the  figures  sui)plied  to  me,  at 
about  70  cents  per  day,  which  will  compare  favorably  with  other  labor- 
ers. How  they  live  when,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  they  have  large 
families  of  small  children  may  be  somewhat  understood  from  what  has 
already  been  said.  I  could  make  no  further  account  of  mine  of  any 
value  without  the  ready  pencil  or  the  aid  of  the  photographer. 

Before  finally  dismissing  this  branch  of  ray  report  I  Mish  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  difi'erent  statements  furnished  me  by  the  sixteen  manu- 
facturers, as  they  are  shown  in  detail  in  inclosure  No.  2,  Form  No.  3. 
The  total  average  of  the  sixteen  statements  shows  weekly  earnings  of 
^7.()5  per  man,  or  35  cents  more  than  the  average  of  the  three  state- 
ments adopted  by  me  as  the  nearest  approach  to  accuracy,  and  which 
very  closely  agrees  with  the  figures  of  the  secretary  of  the  manufact- 
urers' association.  I  need  only  point  to  the  tabulated  statement  to 
show  the  great  discrepanc}"  in  the  rate  of  wages  i)aid  in  difi'erent  manu- 
factories and  in  difi'erent  branches  of  work.  The  lowest  wages  per  week 
per  man  are  found  to  be  $6.02,  as  shown  in  column  No.  4,  while  the 
highest  wage  is  $9.98  per  wi-ek  per  man,  as  shown  in  column  No.  10. 
The  lowest  and  highest  wages  to  be  found  in  these  sixteen  statements 
in  the  respective  branches  of  work  are  as  follows,  with  the  manufacturer 
designated  by  the  number  of  his  cobunn.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
these  figures  represent  the  lowest  and  highest  average  of  wages  paid  by 
the  manufacturers  designated  in  the  respective  branches  of  work : 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


843 


Branch  of  work. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Maiuifacturer    by 
number  of  column. 

$6  08 

6  56 

7  29 

5  83 
7  29 

6  08 

7  78 
5  30 

5  47 

6  32 

7  78 

4  33 
3  62 
9  73 

8  51 

5  83 

$13  62 

12  16 

14  59 
9  24 

15  81 

8  99 
14  11 

9  73 

8  27 

9  12 
14  59 

9  73 

13  38 

14  59 

16  29 
7  29 

7 

2 

3  and  7 

8 

14 
3 
3 
2 

16 

13 
3 
2 
2 
1  and  4 
1  and  4 

16 

10 

15 

14 

15 

10 

10 

Hollow-ware  pres8er(  jiggerers) 

15 
10 

5 

Say.L;ai -uiakois  

12 
lb 

12 

10 

15  and  16 

10 

7 

Although  the  sixteen  inauufacturers  whose  statements  have  been  used 
by  me  in  this  report  have  given  me  the  same  cheerfully  and  apparently 
without  any  reluctance  or  prejudice,  I  have  not  deemed  it  essential  or 
advisable  to  give  their  names  in  company  with  their  statements.  Great 
discrepancies  will  be  found  not  only  between  the  low  prices  paid  by  one 
firm  for  a  certain  kind  of  work  and  the  high  prices  paid  for  the  same 
work  by  another  firm,  but  also  between  the  low  prices  paid  for  a  certain 
branch  of  work  and  the  high  prices  paid  for  another  branch  of  work  by 
the  same  firm.  This  little  table  is  a  useful  text  for  studying  the  system 
of  wages,  diverse  qualities  of  the  workmen,  &c.,  and,  above  all,  for  in- 
dicating the  complex  character  of  the  whole  subject.  The  figures  show 
which  firms  pay  the  highest  and  Mdiich  pay  the  lowest  wages,  and  for 
what  sort  of  work  the  best  or  cheapest  labor  of  its  kind  is  employed, 
and  by  what  firms.  The  absence  of  figures  designating  any  manufact- 
urer indicates  a  medium  scale  of  wages  in  all  the  branches. 

Although,  as  before  stated,  I  have  assumed  that  the  manufacturers 
who  have  kindly  furnished  me  this  information,  do  not  desire  publicity 
of  their  names  and  business,  there  is  one  firm  of  the  sixteen  whose  high 
scale  of  wages  serves  so  materially  to  augment  the  general  average  that 
I  consider  myself  fortunate  in  making  available  their  kind  and  valua- 
ble permission  to  use  their  name  in  connection  with  this  report.  By 
looking  at  the  preceding  table  it  will  be  seen  that  column  No.  10  takes 
the  credit  for  the  highest  wages  paid  in  six  branches  of  the  potting  in- 
dustry, these  six  branches  representing  a  ratio  of  more  than  one-half 
in  the  total  number  of  workmen  according  to  the  division  of  work  al- 
ready adopted.  That,  is  to  say  in  respect  of  certain  kinds  of  labor  fol- 
lowed by  more  than  one-half  the  potters,  this  firm  pays  higher  wages 
than  any  other  of  the  sixteen  who  have  furnished  statements.  I  refer 
to  the  firm  of  Mintons  (limited),  and  while  it  is  far  from  my  purpose  to 
disparage  any  statement,  this  is  an  extraordinary  and  highly  creditable 
showing.  This  is  the  firm  whose  average  of  full-time  weekly  wages  is 
$l>.ys,  as  shown  in  column  Xo.  10  of  the  consolidated  statement  (iuclos 
ure  No.  2  Form  No.  3,  column  10).  The  world-wide  celebrity  of  the  firm 
in  question  for  the  excellence  of  their  productions  is  well  known,  but 
they  deserve  equal  praise  for  their  careful  and  liberal  treatment  of  their 
work-people,  who,  as  the  figures  prove,  receive  an  average  of  $3.66  more 
jjer  man  per  week  than  those  in  the  employ  of  No.  4,  and  $2.33  per  man 
per  week  more  than  the  average  paid  by  the  sixteen,  estimating  full  time 
in  each  case.  At  the  time  of  the  arbitration  in  1870,  in  which  a  reduc- 
tion of  about  12  per  cent,  was  awarded  against  the  men,  the  firm  of  Min- 
tons did  not  avail  themselves  of  the  award,  but  continued  to  pay  the 


844  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

same  wages  as  before.  Hence,  when  two  years  later,  a  strike  was  made 
for  a  restoration  of  the  old  rates  their  emi)loyes  did  not  join  in  it.  Tl)e 
high  rate  of  wages  ])aid  by  them,  the  superior  capabilities  of  their  work- 
men, as  wellas  thehigli  quality  of  their  work  give  them  a  justly  high  rejju- 
tatiou  throughout  the  world.  Among  work-people  of  this  class  and  who 
can  command  such  wages,  of  course  there  will  be  many  who  can  save  a 
fair  share  of  their  earnings.  In  this  establishment  there  are  altogether 
about  two  thousand  people  em[)loyed.  It  enjoys  pre-eminence  in  the 
high  qualities  of  its  work  and  maintains  it  by  the  high  quality  of  its 
management,  not  the  least  important  feature  of  which  is  paying  the  best 
jjrices  for  the  best  work,  from  the  highest  artistic  talent  to  the  drudg- 
ery of  the  packing-room.  These  wages  are  exceptionally  high,  but  I 
have  no  doubt  they  are  willingly  paid  and  fairly  earned,  and  I  cheerfully 
give  the  benefit  of  them  to  the  other  fifteen  manufacturers  in  making  up 
a  good  average  for  the  whole,  and  notwithstanding  my  belief  that  the 
average  is  considerably  higher  than  that  of  any  other  pottery  in  the  dis- 
trict. 

I  have  gone  thus  fully  into  the  wages  question  as  concerns  the  potting 
industry  in  considering  "the  general  condition  of  the  working  people," 
because  in  this  instance  it  seemed  to  me  easier  and  quite  as  intelligible 
to  treat  the  matter  of  income  and  the  manner  of  living  as  one  rather 
than  two  subjects.  Tlie  wages  and  the  living  of  the  50,000  people  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  in  this  district  form  the  only  feat- 
ure of  this  report  which  can  have  any  peculiar  interest  over  the  work 
of  other  consuls,  and  I  have,  therefore,  given  the  question  of  potters' 
wages  the  best  of  my  labor  and  attention.  The  various  tables  can  be 
relied  upon  for  what  they  purport  to  show,  and  of  course  from  what- 
ever standpoint  they  are  viewed  they  show  a  much  lower  rate  of  wages 
here  than  is  paid  for  similar  work  in  the  United  States;  but  this  feature 
of  the  subject  may  be  safely  left  to  the  statistician  who  may  be  charged 
with  further  treatment  of  these  figures. 

LAWS   FOR   THE   PROTECTION   OF   THE   WORKING  CLASSES. 

(11)  Q.  What  are  the  means  furnished  for  the  safety  of  employes  in 
factories,  mines,  mills,  on  railroads,  &c.,  ynd  what  are  the  provisions 
made  for  the  work-people  in  case  of  aceident  ?  What  are  the  general 
considerations  given  by  the  employers  to  the  moral  and  physical  well- 
being  of  the  employ(5s?  What  are  the  general  relations  which  prevail 
between  em])loyer  and  employed? — A.  Legislation  within  a  compara- 
tively recent  period  has  been  wisely  directed  to  the  safety  and  protec- 
tion of  the  working  people.  This  has  been  the  one  compensation  freely, 
and  I  sometimes  think  shrewdly,  given  to  the  great  army  of  British 
workmen  for  the  trying  com])etition  against  which  it  has  been  forced  to 
contend  in  its  own  as  well  as  in  other  countries.  The  English  emi)loyer 
can  point  to  friendly  laws  and  charitable  associations  to  i)rove  the  kind- 
ness of  Parliament  and  i)eoi)le  to  the  workingman,  although  they  may 
permit  the  foreigner  to  i)ut  down  or  keep  dow^n  his  wages  by  the  most 
rinequal  competitions.  This  competition  has  latterly  been  growing  so 
sharp  and  keen  in  England  itself  that  it  has  been  impossible  for  wages 
to  increase  in  ]i)roportion  to  the  worki)eople's  growth  in  domestic  tastes, 
public  si)irit,  and  social  aspirations.  The  compensating  conditions  of 
cheapness  generally,  intended  to  meet  the  workman's  necessities  if  they 
did  not  encourage  his  hopes,  though  i)ushe(l  lorward  in  all  the  i)anoply 
of  supremacy  to  wiiich  the  economic  logic  of  this  country  entitle  them, 
have  somehow  failed  to  brighten  the  workman's  future  or  check  his 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND.  845 

emig^ration.  Indeed,  in  this  last  particular,  free  trade  is  no  wcarried  to 
the  point  of  an  export  bonnty.  That  is  to  say,  that  in  the  matter  of 
oettin*^  the  rapidly-increasiug-  pauper  popuhition  out  of  the  country 
they  will  sup!)lenient  the  justice  of  free  trade  with  the  generosity  of 
private  (or  even  public)  enterprise.  It  is  ''state  aid  and  state  inter- 
ference"*— two  things  much  deprecated  here  on  principle.  But  then, 
j)erhaps,  this  is  not  exactly  the  point  of  vievr  from  which  Cobden  looked 
at  the  question.  But  whatever  the  malady  "  cheai)ness,"  in  the  absiract, 
is  the  safeguard,  the  remedy,  aiid  the  antidote.  It  dispels  all  forebod- 
ings of  a  dying  industry  with  a  blessedness  rivaling  the  discoveries  of 
Jenner  and  Pasteur  in  mitigation  of  the  scourge  of  smallpox  and  the 
horrors  of  hydro))hobia. 

If  a  few  thousand  sugar  retiners  say  we  have  no  work  and  we  want 
protection,  the  answer  in  ettect  is:  No,  perhaps  you  have  no  work,  but 
you  have  cheap  sugar,  and  that  is  better.  The  English  workman  still 
scratches  his  head  and  assents  to  this.  Still,  inasmuch  as  it  appears 
that  notwithstanding  the  clieapness  of  sugar  and  bread,  &c.,  he  and  his 
family  have  nothing  to  eat,  he  reluctantly,  perhaps,  accepts  the  state 
and  manj"  wealthy  and  charitable  people's  aid,  who  are  ready  to  help 
him  and  his  belongings  to  Canada  or  the  United  States.!  A  thought,  a 
little  digressive,  perhaps,  may  be  pardoned  here.  If  Canada  and  the 
United  States  had  not  taken  so  largely  in  the  last  thirty  years  of  British 
industrial  poor,  the  wages  and  condition  of  the  English  workman  now 
would  be  much  lower  and  i)oorer  than  they  are,  and  the  doctrinaires  of 
England  Mould  have  a  still  harder  task  in  convincing  the  work-people 
that  cheapness  is  a  specific  cure  for  destitution.  Much  money  is  annu- 
ally paid  out  in  England  for  the  relief  of  people  in  idleness  and  distress, 
because  her  economic  system  of  tarifls  for  revenue  only  will  not  permit 
it  to  be  paid  for  their  protection  in  the  means  of  industry  and  comfort, 
if,  indeed,  they  would  have  to  pay  it,  whi(;h  is  at  least  only  partially 
true.  But  -^cheajmess^^  measured  not  by  the  ability  to  purchase,  but  by 
the  arbitrary  rule  of  pounds,  shilling,  and  pence  is,  and  must  be,  the 
ruling  principle  of  the  economic  teachers  of  this  country.  But  with 
cheapness  not  always  a  satisfying  providence,  and  emigration  not  al- 
ways desired,  other  means  must  be  found  to  minimize  the  measure  of  dis- 
content. These  schemes  very  properly  and  humanely  take  the  form  of 
legislation  and  charitable  associations  for  the  protection  and  elevation  of 
the  working  classes.  The  leaders  of  opinion  having  been  irrevocably 
consecrate<l  to  the  gospel  of  "cheapness,"  find  their  conversions  largely 
increased  by  a  liberal  supplement  of  the  gospel  of  charity,  and  next  to 
employment  with  good  wages,  I  know  of  nothing  better  for  the  work- 
ingman  than  friendly  laws  and  charitable  deeds. 

These  laws  he  has,  and  numerous  societies  and  associations  may  be 
found  for  conducting  different  charities  among  the  poor  and  deserving 
people.  Charity  is  largely  required  in  such  districts  as  this,  and  is 
la  rgely  bestowed.  Ladies  interest  themselves  largely  in  these  missions 
through  their  respective  churches |  or  other  religious  organizations,  and 
their  noble  work,  though  inadequate  to  the  relief  needed — as  such  work 
always  is — is  very  useful,  and  serves  largely  to  keep  the  lower  classes  iu 
good  and  loyal  temper. 

*  See  work  of  this  title  by  George  Baden-Powell. 

t  There  is  no  scheme  of  a  philanthropic  nature  that  wonkl  command  so  much  sup- 
port now  iu  England  as  a  scheme  for  depleting  the  population  by  emigration. 

t  The  word  "church"  is  used  hi  the  English  sense,  and  means  the  established  church 
■only. 


846  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

Couceruiufj  the  legislation  in  force  for  the  protection  of  tbe  working 
peo])le,  it  i.s  embraced  in  tliree  separate  acts:  Tbe  "factory  act,"  passed 
in  lSG-4;  tbe  "nunes  re<>nhition  act,"  passed  1872;  and  tbe  ''employers' 
liability  act,"  passed  1880.  Tbe  scoi)e  of  eacb  of  tbese  tbree  acts  is 
I)retty  well  defined  by  its  title ;  but,  considering  tbat  a  statement  of 
tbeir  leading  princi])les  and  some  details  of  tbeir  character  a,nd  appli- 
cation might  be  useful  to  tbe  Department,  I  have  bad  i)repared,  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  a  synoi)sis  of  tbese  laws,  which  is  herewith  transmitted 
as  a  part  of  tbe  answer  to  this  interrogatory.  I  must  declare  my  in- 
debtedness to  Mr.  F.  W.  Tomkiuson,  the  vice  and  deputy  consul,  for 
tbe  very  valuable  assistance  he  has  rendered  nie  in  this  behalf.  Mr. 
Tondvinsou  is  the  senior  member  of  the  firm  of  Tomkiuson  &  Furnival, 
solicitors,  and  tbe  work  of  carefully  and  correctly  epitomizing  tbese  tbree 
acts  has  engaged  tbe  personal  attention  and  labor  of  both  members  of 
tbe  firm  and  tlie  clerical  staff  of  tbeir  office  for  a  considerable  time. 

Tbese  laws  have  been  enacted,  and  are  faithfully  and  impartially  en- 
forced for  tbe  benefit  of  the  workiagmen.  Whether  they  have  not,  to 
some  extent,  charmed  the  vision  of  the  masses  from  the  true  evil 
and  rendeied  them  indifferent  in  seeking  the  true  remedy,  I  will  not 
try  to  say  but  I  do  not  consider  it  wise  (unless  it  is  necessary)  to  keep 
placarded  before  the  working  classes  the  waiting  welcome  of  the  good 
Samaritan  or  the  luxurious  lodgings  of  tbe  work  bouse.  Perhaps,  when 
one  industry  after  another  has  followed  tbe  fate  of  sugar  and  silk,  that 
is  to  say,  when  cheapness  "all  along  the  line"  has  so  blessed  England 
with  tbe  cheap  products  of  other  lauds  that  she  buys  everywhere  and 
manufactures  nothing,  perhaps  then  the  quality  of  charity  will  find  its 
tension  in  both  Westminster  and  the  provinces,  and  if,  contemporan- 
eously, the  limit  of  land  which  nature  has  given  tbe  world  should  be- 
gin to  impress  the  people  of  other  countries  that  immigration  could  not 
be  longer  encouraged  without  prejudice  to  their  respective  luitional 
characters,  free  trade  itsilf,  so  far  as  England  has  it,  might  find  its 
Airtue  fairly  tested.  But,  as  said  before,  the  laws  are  benevolent  to  tbe 
working  ])eople  and  fairly  administered.  The  magistrates,  whether  of 
legal  education  or  not,  are  always  men  of  high  character  and  probity 
and  almost  always  of  good  attainments,  and  in  my  observations  hern 
for  five  years  I  have  never  noticed  a  case  where  I  could  think  from  tbe 
circumstances  as  given  in  evidence  that  there  was  tbe  slightest  leaning 
to  the  side  of  the  higher  against  tbe  lower  litigant. 

Inviting,  then,  careful  attention  to  tbe  provisions  of  English  law  bear- 
ing ui)on  the  subject  of  this  interrogatory,  which  are  fully  and  concisely 
stated  in  the  epitomes  herewith  transmitted,  1  will  only  add  that  occa- 
sions for  their  a])plication  are  of  frequent  occurrence  and  always  meet 
with  a  possible  liberality  towards  the  men.  Tbe  printed  inclosure  being 
a  brief  report  of  a  prosecution  under  the  factory  act,  taken  at  random 
from  tbe  local  paper  of  the  d;iy  on  which  I  happened  to  be  writing  on 
this  branch  of  my  report,  will  indicate  the  nature  of  a  good  many  of 
these  cases  and  the  treatment  which  they  receive  at  the  hands  of  the 
magistrates. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  nmnufacturers  now  deem  these  factory 
acts  and  the  other  similar  legislation  a  great  han(licap])ing  of  their 
business  in  the  interest  of  foreign  rivals,  aiul  this  belief  is  well  founded. 
Not  long  since  a  ])romiiu^nt  manufactuier  and  a  radical  free  trader  was 
comi)laining,  in  my  i)r('sence,  that  tbe  Gernuin  ])otters  were  uow  taking 
clay  from  England,  transporting  it  to  Germany,  manufacturing  it  iuto^ 
various  sorts  of  ware,  and  selling  tbe  finished  i)roduct  in  England  be- 
low^  tbe  cost  of  manufacture  in  tliis  country.     This,  the  English  manu- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  847 

facturcr  attributed  to  the  long  hours  of  hibor,  the  greater  employment 
of  women  and  children,  &c.;  in  other  words,  to  the  absence  of  factory- 
acts  in  Germany,  or  the  existence  of  them  in  England.  He  did  not  say 
which.  He  was  disposed,  however,  to  put  the  blame  of  this  unequal 
state  of  things  upon  the  Germans,  who  either  had  no  laws  or  mnch  less 
restrictive  ones  upon  the  subject,  instead  of  upon  England,  who,  by 
laws  restrictive  of  production  instead  of  importation,  had  handicapi)ed 
herself  out  of  the  race  on  her  own  ground.  But,  v/hatever  the  ])ublic 
attitude  of  manufacturers  on  the  subject,  I  think  I  have  abundant  evi- 
dence for  saying  that  the  factory  acts  and  the  employers'  liability  act 
are  more  burdensome  to  the  manufiicturer  than  they  were  in  the  antici- 
pation of  the  original  promoters  before  their  ado|)tion;  but  there  is  no 
disposition  to  modify  them.  I  should  say  that  the  general  considera- 
tions given  by  the  em[)loycrs  to  tlie  moral  and  pliysical  well  being  of 
the  employes  is  thorough  and  attentive;  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
employer  is  sympathetic  towards  *his  work  people,  and  generous  and 
kind  to  them  when  in  need  and  deserving  of  extra  assistance. 

POLITICAL   RIGHTS   OF   WORKINGMEN. 

(12)  Q.  What  are  the  political  rights  enjoyed  by  workingmen,  and 
what  are  their  intiuences  through  such  rights  on  legislation?  What  is 
the  share,  comparatively,  borne  by  the  working  peoi)le  in  local  and  gen- 
eral taxation  ?  What  is  the  tendency  of  legislation  in  regard  to  labor 
and  the  working  people  ? — A.  The  political  rights  of  the  working  peoi)le 
being  the  same  thioughout  the  parliamentary^  boroughs  of  England, 
this  question  will  doubtless  be  more  fully  answered  from  some  of  the 
more  densely  populated  towns.  The  qualifications  of  electors  in  par- 
liamentary boroughs  are  as  follows :  All  male  householders  above  twent}"- 
one  years  of  age,  excei)t  such  as  are  in  receipt  of  parochial  relief;  also 
any  person  who  occupies  as  a  lodger  apartments  of  the  value,  unfur- 
nished, of  $48.66  per  annum.  Under  these  conditions  there  are  now  reg- 
istered in  the  borough  of  Stoke  upon-Trent,  which  may  be  taken  as  the 
constituency  of  the  potteries,  about  20,000  electors  in  a  population  of 
about  100,000, 

The  passage  eventually  of  the  franchise  bill  recently  rejected  in  the 
House  of  Lords — assuming  such  an  event  probable — will  add  about 
2,000,000  voters  to  the  present  electorate  of  the  United  Kingdom.  But 
this  addition  to  the  electoral  strength  of  the  country  affects  the  county 
constituencies  only.  The  boroughs  are  not  affected  by  the  proposed 
extension  of  the  franchise.  For  example,  the  two  members  now  repre- 
senting the  borough  of  Stoke-upon-Trent  will  receive  no  more  votes 
under  the  proposed  new  act  than  they  receive  now,  but  the  two  mem- 
bers representing  this  division  of  the  county' — iSTorth  Staffordshire — will 
find  their  aggregate  vote  increased  by  about  7,500,  or  about  the  ratio 
of  one  to  every  eighteen  of  the  population.  The  present  legal  qualifica- 
tion for  a  county  voter  is  that  he  be  of  lawful  age  and  a  free  holder  of 
property  worth  $!).7;3  i)er  annum,  orari  occupier  of  property  worth  $58.40 
per  annum.  A  man  may  live  in  a  borough  and  possess  the  qualifications 
for  both  the  borough  and  county  franchise.  For  example,  he  may  have 
the  household  qualification  for  a  voter  for  the  borough  members,  and  he 
may  own  besides,  as  freehold,  a  property  unoccupied  by  himself,  from 
which  he  receives  an  annual  rental  of  $9.73,  on  which  qualification  he 
can  vote  for  the  county  members.  The  proposed  new  law  assimilates 
the  county  and  borough  franchise. 

It  is  needless  to  point  out  that  this  approaching  extension  of  the 
franchise  will  be  to  increase  the  number  of  work-people  who  are  to 


848  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

have  a  voice  in  the  affairs  of  tbe  country.  In  all  matters  exce])t  the 
franchise  they  have,  so  far  as  1  can  learn,  tlie  same  political  rio-Iits  as 
those  enjoyed  by  all  the  rest  of  Her  ]\hijesty's  snl)jocts.  The  intlaence 
of  the  working  peo])le  through  their  political  rights  is  a  matter  for 
much  conjecture  and  theorizing,  both  as  to  its  quantity  and  quality.  I 
know  of  no  way  to  measure  it  with  anything  like  practical  certainty. 
Of  the  ultimate  good  etfect  of  the  extension  of  equal  political  rights  to 
the  workingmen  no  true  American  can  have  any  doubt,  but  nmny  of 
these  good  effects  will  necessarily  be  gradual  in  develo])ing,  and  some 
bad  effects  will  frequently  crop  out  in  the  mean  time,  to  the  great  scan- 
dal of  the  British  constitution  and  the  greater  provocation  of  laborious 
croakings  over  the  degeneracy  of  English  greatness — which  seems  to 
be  something  different  from  other  greatness — and  many  a  lamentation 
from  the  steadfast  and  faithful  over  the  signs  of  the  Americanizing  of 
English  institutions.  English  ideas  of  American  political  life  are  gath- 
ered largely  from  such  books  as  "  Democracy,"  or  others  more  stupid 
as  well  as  libelous,  if  they  can  be  found.  And,  though  1  say  it  sor- 
rowfully, there  is  nothing  which  will  so  quickly  arrest  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  English  liberal  as  the  association  of  his  progressive  teachings 
with  the  alleged  political  methods  of  his  transatlantic  cousins.  I  ap- 
prehend a  limited  degree  of  intelligence  in  the  immediate  exercise  of 
the  franchise  to  those  to  whom  it  will  soon  probably  be  extended.  An 
English  radical — which  practically'  means  an  English  republican — said 
to  me  recently  that  if  universal  suffrage — or  what  is  called  manhood 
suffrage  here — were  granted  to  the  English  jieople  now,  it  would  be 
twenty  years  before  those  newly  enfranchised  would  be  fit  to  use  their 
newly  bestowed  power  with  intelligence  or  advantage  to  tliemselves  or 
to  the  country.  Yet  I  must  do  him  the  credit  to  add  that  he  was  none 
the  less  in  favor  of  the  enfianchisement  for  that.  He  clearly  recog- 
nized the  truth  that  education  lo  fit  one  for  the  proper  dischaige  of  re- 
sponsibility can  only  be  thoroughly  imi)arted  by  conferring  the  responsi- 
bility itself.  If  it  is  at  first  abused  or  neglected,  it  will  be  only  what 
has  been  the  usual  fate  of  every  new  privilege  since  the  responsibilities 
began,  and  I  venture  the  opinion  that  the  ratio  of  unworthy  recijjients 
will  not  be  greater  than  that  which  spoils  the  record  in  many  higher 
schools  of  life. 

But  the  agricultural  laborer,  although  his  status  in  many  cases  will 
be  raised  by  the  franchise,  is  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  English  work- 
men. His  wages  for  such  work  as  is  designated  here  under  the  re- 
spective heads  of  ])lowman,  shepherd,  and  cowman  is  something  less 
than  $4.50  per  week,  without  board  or  lodging,  except  breakfast  and 
sui)per  on  Sundays.  If  the  men  live  in  the  house  they  receive  from 
about  $77  to  $1)7  i)er  annum  and  their  board.  In  the  harvest  time  the 
<lay  laborers  are  i;llowed  their  dinner  and  supi)er  diiily  in  addition  to 
their  wages,  together  with  beer.  There  are  some  women  emi)loyed  oc- 
casionally at  harvest  time,  when  they  get  about  25  to  30  cents  jier  day. 
The  wages  of  tlu'  agricultural  laborer  in  this  vicinity  is  much  inlluenced 
by  the  rate  i)aid  in  the  potteries  and  collieries,  for  if  the  wages  rise  m 
them,  tlie  farmers  are  obliged  to  advance  their  men  in  order  to  retain 
their  services.  The  custom  which  I  am  told  exists  in  the  north  and 
south  of  giving  so  much  wheat,  iiotatoes,  «&c.,  in  lieu  of  nuniey  has 
died  out  here.  But  the  agricultural  laborer  is,  by  tradition  and  in  truth, 
a  loutish  fellow,  whom  it  will  take  nnich  patience  and  [x'rseverance  to 
work  over  into  a  very  useful  sul)ject,  acti\e  and  iniluential  in  the  po- 
litical affairs  of  the  realm.  In  the  political  agitation  now  going  on,  in 
which  he  forms  the  chief  figure,  he  has  the  least  to  say.     Indeed,  I  have 


LABOR    IN    P:UR0PE ENGLAND.  849 

not  heard  from  liim  on  the  subject  of  the  franchise  bill  through  any  di- 
rectly authorized  representative  or  any  farm  laborers'  organization. 
The  whole  system  of  agriculture  iu  this  couutry,  i)ractical,  econonncal, 
social,  industrial,  political,  and  in  every  conceivable  way,  is  so  unlike 
the  system  in  the  United  States,  and  so  much  inferior  practically  thereto, 
that  com])arisons  of  details  cannot  be  gone  into,  but  i^erhaps  the  dif- 
ference iu  wages,  and  the  difference  socially  between  the  men  who  per- 
form manual  labor  on  the  farm  in  the  two  countries  may  not  be  an 
unprofitable  subject  to  contem])late.  I  say  without  the  least  fear  of 
exaggeration  or  dispute  that  the  ordinarj'  English  farm  laborer  has 
not  the  intelligence  to  conduct  a  fairly  good  western  farm  in  the  United 
States  in  any  of  its  branches.  He  could  not  properly  plant  and  culti- 
vate a  field  of  Indian  corn  or  wheat ;  he  could  not  properly  use  the 
machinery  used  on  such  a  farm,  and  it  would  take  five  3'ears — as  long 
as  it  would  to  naturalize  him — to  graduate  him  in  the  ordinary  degrees 
of  American  farming. 

It  was,  not  long  ago,  quite  a  popular  scheme  to  send  out  surplus 
young  men  from  the  homes  of  professional  men,  trades-people,  manu- 
facturers, &c.,  to  "learn  farming"  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
paying  a  small  tuition  to  the  philanthropic  husbandman  on  the  other 
side  who  gave  the  shelter  of  his  roof  and  the  bounty  of  his  board  to 
the  young  English  student  of  agriculture,  but  who  never  dreamed  that 
anybody,  notwithstanding  his  tight-fitting  clothes  and  white  hands, 
could  ever  expect  to  learn  farming  as  it  should  be  learned  without 
practice.  But  a  greater  surprise  would  await  the  young  man  who,  in- 
stead of  pursuing  in  a  classical  way  the  high  profession  of  agriculture, 
finds  himself  a  "farm  laborer."  Remembering  what  farm  laborers 
were  at  home,  he  is  quickly  disgusted  and  discouraged,  and  sends  for 
money  to  go  back  with  before  he  has  learned  the  difference  between  a 
farm  laborer  in  England  and  iu  the  United  States,  or  before  he  has 
learned  that  many  a  plowman  and  many  a  cowman  and  many  a  shep- 
herd (although  we  donH  have  those  ridiculous  pastoral  names)  is  a  young 
man  as  athletic,  as  intelligent,  as  generous,  as  manly,  as  chivalrous,  as 
well  educated,  and  often  as  cosmopolitan  as  himself.  He  may  be  a 
little  more  awkward  in  the  drawing-room,  but  a  little  practice  will  pol- 
ish him  surprisingly,  and  I  must  be  pardoned  for  saying  here  that  the 
young  Western  farmer  is  about  the  best  type  of  manhood  that  the 
United  States  is  now  producing  in  large  numbers. 

The  share  borne  by  working  j)eople  in  local  and  general  taxation  de- 
pends upon  the  rental  value  of  the  property  occupied  by  them.  That 
is,  the  share  of  taxation,  general  or  local,  is  based  on  the  assessed  annual 
rental  of  the  property  occupied. 

The  tendency  of  legislation  in  regard  to  labor  and  the  working  people 
is  in  the  interests  of  labor  and  in  favor  of  the  working  people.  As  has 
been  sulficiently  set  out  in  previous  parts  of  this  report,  the  conditions 
of  the  working  people  are  tending  upwards.  This  influence  or  effect  I 
regard  as  largely  due  to  the  great  influence  of  the  industrial  system 
and  practical  progress  of  the  working  people  of  the  United  States ;  but 
I  cannot  stop  to  discuss  this  question. 

CAUSES   OF  EMIGRATION. 

(13)  Q.  What  are  the  causes  which   lead  to  the  emigration  of  the 

working  people  and  which  influence  their  selection  of  their  new  homes  ? 

What  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the  emigrants,  &c.  ? — A.  The 

causes  which  lead  to  the  emigration  of  the  working  people  are,  generally 

92  A — LAB 54 


850  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

speaking,  that  they  can  make  more  money  or  obtain  a  better  social 
position  in  the  country  to  which  they  emigrate.  These  beliefs  and  im- 
pulses of  course  arise  from  difl'erent  causes,  all  of  which  would  take 
many  pages  to  define.  Generally  speaking,  those  who  emigrate  from 
this  district  go  to  the  United  States.  Most  of  them  have  friends  there 
already  who  encourage  them  to  come,  and  the  causes  which  largely  in- 
fluence the  selection  of  emigrants  in  choosing  their  adopted  country 
are  doubtless  the  statements  and  wishes  of  friends  already  there.  In 
this  respect  the  United  States  holds  a  decided  advantage,  as  well  as  a 
necided  advantage  on  their  real  merits,  and  they  will  doubtless  continue 
to  receive  in  the  future,  as  they  have  in  the  past,  the  larger  share  of 
British  emigrants. 

The  principal  occupation  of  emigrants  from  this  district  to  the 
United  States  must  be  defined  under  the  head  of  potters,  while  other 
emigrants,  both  mechanical  and  agricultural,  have  recently  in  consider- 
able numbers  emigrated  from  here  to  the  United  States.  The  pottery 
industry  is  the  one  of  chief  interest  and  most  largely  represented  and 
which  has  therefore  received  my  fullest  attention. 

Part  II. — Female  Labor  in  the  Potteries. 

(1)  Q.  State  the  number  of  women  aud  children,  or  the  closest  possible 
approximation  thereto,  employed  in  your  district  in  industrial  pursuits, 
not  including  ordinary  household  duties  or  domestic  servants,  classify- 
ing the  same  somewhat  as  follows  :  (A)  Manufacturing  and  mechanical; 
(B)  commercial,  including  transportation ;  (C)  professional  and  per- 
sonal, including  Government  oflicers  and  clerks,  teachers,  artists,  chem- 
ists, hotel  and  boarding-house  keepers,  journalists,  inventors,  bankers, 
brokers,  lecturers,  public  speakers,  &c.;  (D)  agricultural;  (E)  mining; 
(F)  all  other  pursuits. — A.  In  manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits 
there  are  employed  nearly  30,000  females.  Classification  B,  commercial, 
including  transportation,  is  not  very  clear  to  me,  but  if  it  includes,  as  I 
assume,  all  females  engaged  in  trade  of  every  kind,  both  as  employers 
and  employes,  and  all  in  any  way  connected  with  transportation  from 
such  as  attendants  at  railway  stations  and  women  on  canal-boats  the 
number  may  be  put  down  roughly  at  five  thousand.  Under  Class  C,  I 
should  place  the  number  at  four  hundred.  In  class  D,  agriculture,  it  is 
impossible  to  make,  without  a  canvass,  any  reliable  statement,  but  this 
is  not  much  of  an  agricultural  district  and  the  number  of  females  en- 
gaged in  that  business  is  very  small  if  we  leave  out  the  women  and  girls 
belonging  to  the  farmers'  families,  who  in  some  cases  perform  domestic 
service  in  the  family  and  also  omit  ordinary  domestic  servants.  It  is 
very  seldom  in  this  part  of  the  country  that  women  are  seen  working  in 
the  field. 

In  mining  I  think  women  are  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
South  Staffordshire,  in  the  Birmingham  consular  district;  but  very  few 
are  employed  in  that  work  in  this  district. 

It  is  apparently  impossible  that  there  should  be  many  left  for  employ- 
ment in  other  pursuits  and  in  such  employments  as  will  not  come  under 
either  of  the  above  heads,  and,  excepting  domestic  servants,  there  are 
certainly  not  many  in  a  population  of  about  200,000. 

Of  course  the  chief  employment  in  this  district  is  in  class  A,  being 
Ijursuits  of  a  manufacturing  or  mechanical  character,  and  chiefly  man- 
ufacturing only.  The  manufacture  of  pottery  gives  employment  to  a 
great  many  women  aud  girls.  Probably  more  than  one-half  of  all  the 
work-people  emj)loyed  in  the  potteries  are  females,  and  their  number 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


851 


will,  I  think,  reach  the  respectable  nuister  of  25,000.  They  form  a  very 
important  element  in  the  standard  industry  of  this  district,  and  make 
up  the  only  branch  of  female  labor  requiring  especial  mention  in  this 
report.  It  is  impossible  for  me  now  to  give  the  subject  the  careful  and 
analytic  treatment  which  I  have  given  to  the  subject  of  potters'  wages 
and  conditions  of  life.  A  large  number  of  the  females  who  work  in  the 
potteries  are  young  women,  usually  of  a  vigorous  and  healthful  type, 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  thirty.  They  are  noticeable  daily  dur- 
ing the  dinner  hour  in  any  of  the  pottery  towns  often  with  bare  heads 
and  arms,  and  more  or  less  powdered  with  the  dust  of  the  works,  walk- 
ing leisurely  in  groups  or  pairs  to  or  from  their  luncheon,  their  mirthful 
manners  and  aggressive  eyes  indicating  the  cheerfulness  of  good  health 
and  the  candor  of  undisturbed  confidence  in  themselves. 

The  women,  including  girls,  employed  in  the  potteries,  the  number 
of  which  I  have  already  estimated,  are  engaged  in  various  departments 
of  the  work,  and  their  net  earnings  range  from  GO  cents  to  $4.87  per 
week,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  and  the  proficiency  they  have  ac- 
quired in  it.  The  following  are  some  of  the  leading  branches  of  work, 
except  painting,  in  which  females  are  largely  employed  in  the  potteries, 
with  a  general  statement  of  the  wa^es  earned : 


Occapations. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Full 

weekly 

time.' 

1            Occupations. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Full 

weekly 

time. 

Throwers'  attendants 

Turners'  attendants 

$2  92 
2  68 
4  38 
1  95 
1  95 

Hours. 
48 
51 
51 
48 
54 

'  Transferers  (girls) 

!  Transferers  (women)... 

Enamelers 

Burnishers 

Warehouse  women 

$0  97to$l  82 
2  92 
2  92 

1  95 

2  43 

Hour  a. 
51 
51 
48 
42 

Jiggerers'  attendants 

Flat-pressers'  attendants. 

In  the  painting,  or  what  should  be  called  the  ordinary  painting,  de- 
partment women  are  chiefly  employed.  They  aref  ound  to  be  quite  as 
proficient  in  the  cheaper  forms  of  decoration  as  men,  if  they  have  the 
benefit  of  proper  teaching  and  practice.  A  system  of  apprenticeship 
is  almost  universally  adopted  in  the  technical  education  of  paintresses 
in  the  potteries,  and  the  net  earnings  under  that  system  will  range 
from  CO  cents  per  week,  at  which  they  maybe  said  to  begin,  to  about 
$5  per  week,  the  maximum  wages  to  which  the  best  of  them  may  ob- 
tain when  the  period  of  apprenticeship  is  ended,  that  period  being  ordi- 
narily seven  years.  A  period  of  practice,  however,  usually  of  a  year 
or  more,  precedes  the  commencement  of  the  actual  apprenticeship, 
the  candidate  often  spending  one-half  the  time  at  school  and  the  other 
half  in  the  rudimentary  branches  of  painting,  and  receiving  for  her 
work,  usually,  25  cents  per  week.  The  manufacturer  with  whom  she 
then  seeks  apprenticeship  is  able  to  attest  her  adaptability  to  the  work 
he  wishes  done,  and  being  satisfied,  she  is  bound  by  indenture  to 
seven  years'  service,  generally  on  the  following  terms:  The  work  is 
to  be  done  entirely  by  the  piece  at  stipulated  prices,  and  the  weekly 
earnings  are  divided  equally  between  the  master  and  the  apprentice ; 
that  is,  the  apprentice  gets  one-half  the  regular  price  for  the  work,  and 
is  called  a  "  half-price  apprentice."  She  should  receive  net,  under  this 
system,  as  much  as  60  cents  per  week,  and  sometimes  does  get  as  much 
as  $1.25  per  week.  Much  depends  upon  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done; 
50  or  75  cents  may  be  earned  in  one  d^y  and  the  rest  of  the  time  con- 
sumed in  earning  as  much  more.  Mtich  of  the  work  is  "filling  in" 
on  ware,  which  has  already  received  a  printed  decoration,  and  this  can 


852  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

be  generally  (lone  easily' and  rapidly.  The  period  of  "half-price  ap- 
prenticeship" is  two  years,  after  which  they  become  "  four-penny"  ap- 
prentices; that  is  to  say,  the  master  takes  only  one-third  of  the  earn- 
ings, or  4(1.  in  the  shilling,  the  apprentice  retaining,  or,  perhaps,  more 
properly  receiving,  th«'  »)ther  Sd.,  or  two  thirds,  and  this  rule  of  division, 
or  compensation,  as  you  like,  continues  through  the  remaining  live  years 
of  api)renticeship.  During  these  five  years  the  net  receipt  of  the  ap- 
prentice will  range  from  75  cents  to  $2.20  per  week,  the  earnings,  of 
course,  increasing  as  the  i)eriod  of  service  approaches  its  termination. 
"When  the  full  seven  years  liave  been  exhausted  in  learning  the  business, 
or  the  art — for  the  practice  and  education  partake  considerably  of  the 
latter  quality — the  journey  women  paintress  will  find  herself  entitled  to 
the  regular  wages  for  all  her  work,  which,  if  she  has  graduated  without 
honors,  will,  perhaps,  not  exceed  $1.45  per  week,  but  if  she  has  shown 
skill,  taste,  and  proficiency  in  her  work,  and  is  active,  trustworthy,  and 
industrious,  she  will  be  able  toe  arn  an  income  closely  approaching  $5 
per  week  in  a  kind  of  work  admirably  suited  to  the  female  character  and 
well  adapted  to  their  mental  and  physical  organizations.  I  hope  some- 
time to  see  schools  for  teaching  this  branch  of  industrial  art  thoroughly 
established,  at  1hei)ublic  expense,  in  the  United  States. 

This  matter  of  api)renticeship,  so  largely  adopted  in  this  branch  of 
the  potting  manufacture,  is  of  sufiflcient  interest  to  permit  a  few  words 
of  particular  reference.  ]t  is  largely  in  use  with  male  as  well  as  female 
beginners  in  the  pottery  trade.  Yet  I  speak  of  it  here  because  I  know 
that  in  the  great  haste  with  which  I  am  trying  to  complete  this  report 
I  shall  find  no  more  opportune  time  and  i>lace  for  its  consideration. 
These  contracts  of  ai)prentice8hip  are  made  for  a  term  of  years,  the 
apprentice  receiving  i>art  pay  for  his  or  her  work  in  the  manner  already 
defined,  and  the  manufacturer  in  turn  undertaking  to  afford  the  nec- 
essary instruction  in  the  branch  of  art  selected.  If  the  master  finds 
it  desirable,  however,  for  any  cause,  to  close  his  works,  it  seems  he  can- 
not be  compelled  to  find  woik  for  the  apprentice  elsewhere,  nor  to  pay 
him  auj  wages  in  default  •,  but,  although  the  apprentice  in  the  mean 
time  is  at  liberty  to  employ  himself  in  any  other  manner  and  for  any 
other  iierson,  he  must  still  be  ready  to  return  to  the  service  of  his  orig- 
inal master  when  required,  which  rule,  of  course,  precludes  him  from 
undertaking  a  similar  apprenticeship  with  any  one  else  or  engaging  in 
any  other  permanent  employment.  This  was  the  rule  formerly  in  op- 
eration under  a  form  of  apprenticeship  contract  in  general  use  until 
the  validity  of  this  one-sided  agreement  was  brought  in  question 
some  time  ago  by  the  defendant  in  the  case  of  Meakin  vs.  Morris,  in 
which  the  plaintiff,  a  master,  sought  to  compel  an  a])prentice  to  return 
to  work  under  one  of  these  indentures,  the  defendant — apprentice — 
having  left  the  service  of  his  master  in  consequence  of  a  lock-out  in  the 
department  in  which  he  was  engaged,  arising  from  a  dispute  in  which 
he — the  apprentice — was  not  concerned.  The  case  is  of  importance  in 
this  country,  and  I  doubt  not  in  the  United  States.  I  therefore  inclose 
the  report  of  it  as  printed  in  the  Pottery  Gazette  (marked  inclosure  No. 
6),  which  gives  the  opinion  of  the  higher  courts  in  a  very  clear  and 
concise  manner,  and  1  cannot  doubt  that  all  friends  of  a])prentices  and 
other  young  people  struggling  for  a  start  in  the  world  will  heartily  in- 
dorse the  opinion  of  the  lord  chief  justice  and  his  associates  with 
thanks  for  so  strongly  condemning  the  want  of  mutuality  which  pre- 
viously ])ervaded  these  in<lentures. 

The  foregoing  tabulated  statements,  with  this  fuller  one  concerning 
Daintresses  and  their  emi)loyment,  show  the  kinds  of  pottery  work  done 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  853 

mostly  by  women  and  girls  and  the  approximate  wages.  I  find  upon 
carefnl  inquiry  that  the  females  employed  outnumber  the  males,  while 
the  amount  of  their  earnings  seems  entirely  disproportionate,  that  is, 
more  disproportionate  than  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  work  done  by 
each  woukl  seem  to  justify. 

BRITISH  BARMAIDS. 

As  to  the  "commercial"  female  employes,  I  can  think  of  no  special 
feature  to  refer  to,  unless  it  is  the  barmaid  industry,  if  1  may  so  call  it. 
Refreshments,  such  as  plain  lunches,  beer,  wine,  and  spirits,  are  usually 
dealt  ovef  the  counter  or  served  at  the  tables  here  by  yoniig  women, 
who  mostly  wear  with  graceful  deportment  the  appellation  of  barmaid. 
They  are  universally  found  at  refreshment  rooms  at  railway  stations, 
which,  at  important  places,  aflbrd  some  of  the  best  of  their  positions, 
and  they  are  always  found  as  we  go  downward,  step  by  step,  to  the 
common  little  beer  houses.  Those  in  the  best  places  are  generally  pos- 
sessed of  more  than  average  favors  of  figure  and  feature  and  pleasantry 
of  address.  Indeed,  I  must  give  my  opinion,  that  upon  those  qualities 
largely  depend  the  tenure  of  their  office  and  the  amount  of  salary  they 
can  command;  while  I  must  also  say  that  any  immodesty  of  deportment 
would  be  swiftly  fatal  to  their  positions.  Indeed,  cause  of  complaint 
on  that  ground  is  very  seldom  heard.  Those  in  what  mny  be  called 
first  and  second  class  situations  are  almost  always  refined  in  manner 
ai  d  are  respected  quite  as  much  as  young  women  in  any  other  employ- 
ment. Such  situations  are  largely  sought,  and  it  is  not  the  least  note- 
worthy of  the  barmaid's  position  that  she  not  uufrequently  is  transferred 
from  the  bar  to  the  villa  residence  of  some  well-to  do  tradesman  or 
manufacturer,  over  which  she  presides  as  wife,  with  the  same  easy  and 
genial  refinement  which  has  previously  attended  her  more  discordant 
surroundings.  She  often,  through  the  potent  agency  of  matrimony, 
reaches  a  high  estate  in  the  middle-class  social  world,  and  one  could 
not  tell  her,  with  her  elegant  landau  and  lackeys,  in  the  rotund  ripeness 
of  departing  middle  age,  from  a  veritable  duchess  (after  du  Mawrier) 
herself,  and  so  in  this  country,  as  well  as  ours,  you  must  not  talk  too 
much  about  ancestral  qualities  without  knowing  your  audience. 

I  suppose  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  kind  of  attendance  draws  cus- 
tom to  the  house,  but  perhaps  it  is  not  discreditable  to  either  jiarty 
that  the  employer  seems  to  know  how  far  he  can  go  in  making  beauty 
profitable  without  soiling  it.  The  barmaids  get  about  £10  per  annum 
and  found  when  they  first  enter  the  service  and  increase  gradually  in 
their  receipt  of  wages  till  sometimes  they  get  as  much  as  £50  per  an- 
num. In  the  latter  case  she  must  be  a  good  one,  attractive  and  intelli- 
gent, able  to  keep  books,  make  out  accounts  with  neatness  and  facility, 
&c.  In  many  hotels  the  barmaid  would  be  the  clerk,  if  you  were  to 
Americanize  the  hostelry  without  changing  the  staff.  She  will  cease 
momentarily  from  makiug  out,  in  a  neat  hand,  the  bill  of  the  gentleman 
in  No.  17  to  mix,  with  a  dextrous  hand,  a  glass  of  gin  and  wormwood  for 
a  casual  and  perhaps  an  admiring  caller,  and  all  without  the  lightest 
disturbance  of  temper  or  chatty  and  serene  equanimity  of  manner.  They 
form  a  class  which,  you  might  say,  are  unknown  in  the  United  States, 
.and  yet  it  is  a  wonder  to  me  that  they  have  thus  far  escaped  the  rav- 
ages of  the  anglomania  which  seems  to  have  taken  such  a  tierce  hold  of 
many  of  our  people.  If  they  are  not  soon  introduced,  and  as  success- 
fully at  least  as  the  hansom  cab,  I  shall  think  there  is  something 
strange  about  it. 


854  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

FEMALE   SCHOOL   TEACHERS. 

In  classification  C  the  teachers  comprise  the  only  class  of  females 
which  affonl  me  any  occasion  for  particular  mention.  There  are  in  the 
district  about  three  hundred  female  teachers, which  is  about  double  the 
number  of  males  in  the  same  profession.  The  system  of  educating 
teachers  for  their  calliii<>-  is  long  and  tedious,  and,  I  thiuk,  to  some  ex- 
teDt,  unprofitably  so.  The  person  who  is  to  become  a  thoroughly  qual- 
ified (or  authorized)  teacher  begins  as  a  pupil  teacher,  so  called.  She 
commences  teaching  while  she  is  yet  a  pupil.  For  the  first  year  she 
gets  $48,65,  and  her  salary  rises  about  $12.15  per  year.  What  would 
be  considered  in  the  United  States  "old-fashioned"  or  antiquated  meth- 
ods prevail  in  the  "  board  schools,"  which  are  the  "  public  schools,"  or 
the  nearest  approach  there  is  here  to  what  is  thus  designated  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  more  exclusive  institutions. 
There  is  always  a  thoroughness  about  their  work,  but  the  methods  in 
some  instances,  I  think,  are  obsolete  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The 
terms  by  which  those  engaged  in  this  profession  are  designated  are  in- 
dicative of  this.  We  never  hear  of  a  school-teacher  here,  but  only  a 
"school  master  or  mistress."  He  is  the  "head  master"  or  "assistant 
master,"  &g.  They  do  not  have,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  the  illustrative  ap- 
paratus in  use  in  the  United  States.  After  a  careful  search  I  could  not 
find  in  Manchester  any  school  apparatus  for  teaching  the  rudiments  of 
astronomy  beyond  a  simple  globe.  There  are,  however,  some  kinder- 
garten in  some  of  the  large  towns  which,!  am  told,  are  becoming  quite 
popular  and  successful.  And  it  must  be  said  there  are  some  methods 
in  the  regular  English  system  on  which  some  of  our  teachers  at  least 
have  not  improved.  1  give  one  example.  Children  are  taught  writing 
as  one  of  the  very  elemeutary  branches.  The  pencil  and  pen  are  put 
into  their  hands  as  soon  as  they  have  learned  the  alphabet.  The  writ- 
ten characters  are  learned,  and  they  are  taught  how  to  make  them  as 
soon  as  they  know  the  Koman,  aud  writiug  runs  with  their  progress  in 
every  branch  from  that  time  forward.  The  result  is  that  everybody 
who  has  even  a  limited  general  education  is  ready  with  the  pen,  and 
there  is  no  more  useful  and  satisfactory  attainment  for  everyday  use 
than  this.  All  the  female  employes  I  have  mentioned,  and  very  many 
domestic  servants,  are  sure  to  be  able  to  write  rapidly,  neatly,  and  well. 

A  pupil  teacher  after  having  spent  five  years  in  training,  and  reached, 
say,  a  salary  of  $100  xier  year,  commences  her  two  years'  training  for  col- 
lege examination.  To  enter  college  she  is  charged  a  fee  of  $50  to  $75. 
After  then  spending  two  years  more  in  the  trainiug  college  she  is  enti- 
tled to  a  certificate,  if  upon  examination  she  can  acquit  herself  satis- 
factorily. So  that,  generally  s])eaking,  it  takes  ten  years  to  become  a 
full  certificated  teacher;  and  if  she  successfully  passes  all  these  ordeals 
she  has  certainly  sufficient  attainments  to  enter  with  confidence  upon 
the  work  of  her  profession. 

FEMALE  LABOR  ABOUT   THE   MINES   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN. 

In  the  matter  of  female  labor  in  mines  I  have  selected  the  following 
inibrmation  from  the  summaries  of  the  statistical  portions  of  the  reports 
of  Her  Majesty's  inspectors  of  mines  for  1882,  the  latest  summary  is- 
sued. 

There  are  no  females  employed  under  ground  in  the  mines  of  the 
United  Kingdom. 

During  the  year  1882  there  were  employed  about  the  mines  of  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


855 


United  Kingdom,  classed  under  the  coal-mines  regulation  act,  above 
ground,  4,052  females. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  females  employed  about  the 
mines  of  Great  Britain,  classed  as  above,  their  ages,  by  a  scale  of  limi- 
tation, and  the  mining  district  in  which  they  were  employed.  But  be- 
fore beginning  the  tabulation,  I  may  reduce  the  form  of  the  table  slightly 
by  pointing  out  that  according  to  the  statistics  before  me,  Mr.  Ralph 
Moore,  of  East  Scotland,  was  then  the  only  person  in  the  United  King- 
dom who  employed  in  the  coal-mine  industry  a  female  under  thirteen 
years  of  age,  and  it  appears  that  he  employed  but  one. 


District. 

Ages. 

13  to  16. 

Above  16. 

Total. 

7 
1 
119 
45 
12 
17 
11 
68 
27 

376 

248 

1,261 

457 

417 

465 

495 

542 

72 

3 

4 

383 

249 

Livei'pool 

1  380 

North  Stafforrlsbire                           

502 

429 

482 

South  Wales 

510 

East  Scotland .          

610 

"West  Scotland 

99 

3 

4 

Totals  Great  Britain « 

307 

4,344 

4,651 

During  the  same  year,  1882,  there  were  employed  above  ground  a  )Out 
mines,  classed  under  the  metalliferous  mines  regulation  act,  2,402  females, 
distributed  and  classified  by  age  as  follows: 


District. 

Ages. 

10  to  13. 

13  to  18. 

Above  18. 

TotaL 

10 

573 

1 

106 

5 

9 

1,291 

2 

357 

18 

17 

6 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1,874 
3 

Dnriiam,  Westmoreland,  &c 

463 

23 

Ireland 

26 

Cheshire,  Sussex,  &c 

6 

Derbyshire  and  Nottino-hamshire  

2 

Goucestershire,  Herefordshire,  &c     

3 

East  Scotland 

1 

West  Scotland 



1 

1 

Total 

10 

694 

1,698 

2,402 

The  total  number  of  females  then  employed  in  1882  above  ground  at 
the  mines  of  the  United  Kingdom,  including  the  one  in  East  Scotland 
under  thirteen  years  of  age,  and  not  tabulated,  was  7,054.  It  will  be 
seen  that  a  very  small  percentage  of  these  females  are  under  sixteen 
years  of  age,  and  nearly  all  of  those  are  employed  in  West  Lancashire. 
Those  above  that  age  are  adult  women  physically,  and  do  comparatively 
heavy  work  about  the  pit's  mouth,  such  as  wheeling  trucks  or  wagons, 
&c.,  and  clearing  coal,  which  means  separating  with  a  large  hammer 
pieces  of  stone,  shale,  &c.,  from  the  coal.  The  work  done  by  the  girls, 
from  thirteen  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age,  is  of  the  same  rough 
character,  but  of  a  lighter  sort.  It  will  be  seen  also  that  this  district 
is  credited  with  502  female  miners,  but  in  reality  only  five  of  this  num- 


856 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


ber  belong  to  North  Staffordshire,  the  reniaiuiug-  497  living  and  work- 
ing in  Sbrojjshire.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  practice  of  employ- 
ing female  labor  in  this  industry  is  steadily  dying  out,  and  doubtless 
before  long  will  cease  altogether,  as  it  ought. 


FEMALE   CALLINGS   IN   THE   UNITED    KINGDOM. 

According  to  the  census  of  1881,  the  callings  in  which  we  find  most 
females  employed  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  as  follows: 


Occupations. 


Teaching 

Nursino:  and  similar  offices 
Lodging-house  keepers  .... 

Domestic  service 

Laundry  and  other  services 


Number. 


123,  995 

37,  821 

32,  890 

1,  258,  285 

287,  017 


Occupations. 


!   Number. 


Agricultural  labor 
Textile  industries 

Dressmaking 

All  other  pursuits 


64, 171 
590,  624 
616,  452 
392,  690 


women's  wages. 

(2)  Q.  What  are  the  minimum  and  maximum  and  average  wages 
paid  to  female  adults  ? — A.  It  is  next  to  au  impossibility  to  get  the  nec- 
essary statistical  information  from  which  to  make  a  correct  average  of 
the  wages  covered  by  this  swee])ing  interrogatory.  I  understand  do- 
mestic servants  to  be  included  in  it.  In  any  event  such  an  average 
should  be  made  upon  an  approximately  accurate  statement  of  the  ratio 
of  numbers  in  the  various  employments  as  suggested  in  the  Department 
circular.  Approximating  to  this  rule  by  the  best  estimate  I  can  make 
for  this  district,  I  should  say  that  the  lowest  wages  earned  by  any 
female  adult  on  full  time  and  outside  the  apprentice  system  would  be 
75  cents  i)er  week,  and  the  highest,  taking  care  to  stop  short  of  really 
artistic  or  professional  work,  1  should  say  would  be  about  $5  per  week, 
and  from  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  district,  its  people  and  their  business 
circumstances,  1  should  think  that  the  average  full  time  wages  of  the 
adult  women  engaged  in  service  of  all  kinds  would  be  about  -$1.60  per 
week. 

HOURS   OF   LABOR. 

(3)  Q.  Their  hours  of  labor? — A.  The  hours  of  labor  per  week  of 
those  who  work  in  the  potteries,  as  already  designated  in  answer  to  in- 
terrogatory 1  (Part  II),  and  the  hours  i)er  day,  are  shown  on  inclosure 
No.  2,  Form  No.  2.  Other  female  employes  work  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  hours,  except  domestic  servants,  whose  hours,  of  course,  are 
longer,  and  teachers,  whose  hours  are  shorter.  Barmaids  also  and 
female  attendants  at  ])ublic  houses  and  hotels  and  similar  places  work 
longer  than  shop  assistants  or  factory  operatives. 


MORAL   AND   PHYSICAL   CONDITION. 

(4)  Q.  What  is  the  moral  and  i)h3'sical  condition  <tf  such  employes? — 
A.  I  should  say  from  what  I  have  been  able  to  observe  that  the  moral 
and  i)liysical  condition  of  the  better  class  of  female  employes  in  this  dis- 
trict will  compare  favorably  with  the  corresponding  (^lasses  in  any  coun- 
try. As  to  the  lower  order  of  female  work-people  one  is  sonietiuies  led 
to  suspect  a  laxity  of  high  moral  princii)le,  but  probably  a  careful  in- 
vestigation would  iind  them  very  much  like  their  sisters  in  the  same 
grade  of  intelligence  and  social  standing  the  world  over.     Their  phys- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  857 

ical  condition  is  apparently  equal  to  any  reasonable  demands  upon  it. 
They  are  usually  of  robust  physique,  as  before  incidentallj^  stated. 

MEANS  FOR   IMPROVEMENT. 

(5)  Q.  What  are  the  means  provided,  and  by  whom,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  these  employes "? — A.  There  are  certain  charitable  associations, 
some  under  church  or  chapel  auspices,  called  "friendly  societies"  and 
similar  philanthropic  names  which,  to  a  considerable  extent,  look  after 
the  working  people,  especially  the  single  females,  and  the  married  ones 
are  protected  against  want  to  some  extent  by  the  husband's  member- 
ship in  the  club.  The  public  schools  are  open  to  them,  or  rather  they 
are  compelled  to  send  their  children  to  them  ;  so  in  summiug  up  I  must 
say  that,  while  I  consider  the  means  provided  for  these  people  insufii- 
cient  for  the  purposes  of  their  great  improvement,  their  children  are 
very  well  looked  after,  and  the  parents  receive  material  aid  from  be- 
nevolent hands  when  a  favorable  opportunity  for  its  bestowal  oilers 
itself.     There  must  he  large  charity  or  large  suffering  in  this  country. 

SAFETY   OF   FEMALE  EMPLOYES. 

(C)  Q.  What  are  the  means  provided  in  case  of  fire  or  other  dangers 
for  their  safety  1 — A.  The  fire  departments  of  the  local  governing  bodies 
of  this  country  are  far  inferior  to  ours,  partly  because  there  is  here  a 
larger  proportion  of  buildings  comparatively  tire-proof,  tile  roof,  &c., 
and  hence  less  danger  and  more  apathy  ;  and  partly  because  this  coun- 
try does  uothiug  hastily,  and  hence  contains  the  old  police  arrange- 
ments for  extinguishing  fires  which  the  United  States  has  forgotten. 
But  arrangements  in  the  way  of  tire-escapes,  &c.,  are  in  many  cases  pro- 
vided, and  1  cousider  that  therein  a  minimum  of  danger  in  such  a  brick, 
clay,  and  tile  district  as  this;  insurance  against  tire  here  is  remarkably 
cheap. 

SANITARY   AND   SICK   RULES   AND   PROVISIONS. 

(7)  Q.  What  are  the  provisions  made  by  the  employers  in  regard  to 
sanitary  measures  and  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  disabled  ? — A.  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  especial  sanitary  ])recautious  are  taken  by  the  employers, 
nor  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  disabled.  I  do  not  think  that  employ- 
ers assume  or  accept  anj^  responsibility  on  these  contingencies,  except 
as  they  are  compelled  to  do  by  legislation. 

But  as  a  rule  the  manufacturers  are  thorough  in  the  discipline  of  clean- 
liness and  enforce  it  without  reserve.  Their  discipline  in  this  respect 
is  a  constant  protest  to  the  outside  world  that  the  potteries  are  not  as 
dirty  as  they  look,  which  is  really  the  truth.  While  they  do  not  assume 
respousibility  for  iujury  by  accidents,  the  "employers  liability  act" — an 
epitome  of  which  is  inclosed — atibrds  the  work-people  relief  in  many  cases 
where  they  would  not  otherwise  have  it,  and  in  case  of  sickness  or  other 
misfortune  I  think  employers  generally  are  kind  to  their  work-people  of 
both  sexes  and  afford  them  relief  when  really  deserving. 

women's  "^aoes  past  and  present, 

(8)  Q.  Has  there  been  any  increase  during  the  past  five  years  in  the 
wages  paid  women,  and  in  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  or  other- 
wise ?  W^hat  are  the  effects  of  the  employment  of  women  on  the  wages 
of  men,  and  on  general,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  "i? — A.  There  may 


858  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

have  been  a  slight  increase  in  the  past  five  years  in  the  wages  paid 
women,  but  it  is  very  small,  if  anything",  and  there  has  been  no  material 
change  in  the  same  period  in  the  cost  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  They 
may  be  said  to  be  cheaper,  if  anything.  The  effects  of  the  employment 
of  women  on  the  wages  of  men,  though  I  consider  it  not  very  great  gen- 
erally, yet  their  employment  in  some  of  the  branches  of  the  potting  in- 
dustry is  in  such  direct  competition  with  the  men  that  it  cannot  fail  to 
reduce  the  wages  of  the  latter  in  some  measure.  In  such  work  as  that 
performed  by  handlers,  work  in  the  warehouse,  transferers  in  the  paint- 
ing department,  and  much  of  the  work  in  the  decorative  branches,  they 
can  do  the  work  as  well  and  as  fast  as  men,  and  their  employment  must 
necessarily  reduce  the  wages  which  the  men  could  otherwise  command 
in  those  branches.  Wherever  the  women  can  compete  successfully  in 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  work  done,  the  effect  is  lower  wages  for 
the  men. 

EFFECTS   OF  FEMALE   EMPLOYMENT. 

As  to  the  effect  on  general,  social,  and  industrial  conditions,  I  see 
no  reason  for  believing  that  the  employment  of  women  has  been  in  any 
degree  injurious,  and  I  think  that  where  the  nature  of  the  work  is  well 
suited  to  the  feminine  temperament  and  character,  so  that  it  does  not 
tend  in  itself  or  by  associations  in  any  way  to  roughen  or  debase  them, 
it  is  a  source  of  improvement  than  otlierwise,  to  themselves,  and  bene- 
ficial to  the  general,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  by  which  they  are 
surrounded.  Most  of  the  work  done  by  females  in  the  potteries  I  con- 
aider  to  be  of  this  unobjectionable  character.  There  is,  perhaps,  a  small 
portion  of  the  work,  such  as  performed  by  some  of  the  attendants,  that 
does  not  tend  to  the  physical  or  mental  improvement  of  the  young 
women  who  follow  itj  but,  with  few  exce])tions,  I  think  the  work  al- 
lotted to  women  and  girls  in  the  potteries  is  suited  to  them,  and  much 
better  for  their  health  and  morals  than  idleness  in  an  unattractive  home, 
and  generally  conducive  to  the  well-being  of  their  social  conditions. 

EDUCATION   AMONG  FEMALE  EMPLOYli:S. 

(9)  Q.  What  is  the  state  of  education  among  the  women  employed  and 
their  children,  and  what  are  the  general  effects  of  emidoyment  (in  fac- 
tories, mills,  stores,  &c.)  on  the  fiimily  circles,  especially  as  concerns  the 
children  of  such  employes,  and  on  their  moral  and  physical  conditions 
and  on  their  children  ? — A.  Nearly  all  the  women  employed  in  the  pot- 
teries have  what  we  should  call  in  the  United  States  the  rudiments  of 
a  common-school  education,  their  children  are  compelled  to  attend  school 
when  they  are  five  years  old,  and  they  are  not  permitted  to  enter  em- 
ployment of  any  kind  before  they  are  eight,  nor  until  they  have  passed 
a  certain  standard  of  education,  when  they  may  be  em])loyed  half  time 
only  and  the  other  half  must  still  be  given  to  education  until  the  age 
of  thirteen,  unless  the  fifth  standard  is  before  reached,  when  school  at- 
tendance may  cease  but  work  cannot  commence.  (The  "  fifth  standard  " 
embraces  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  or  the  rudiments  of  a  com- 
mon-school education  as  understood  in  the  United  States.)  They  may 
then  abandon  education  it  the  parent  or  guardian  wishes  and  take  em- 
ployment for  full  time.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  education 
of  the  children  is  a  matter  of  legal  compulsion  until  the  child  is  thirteen 
years  old  or  has  previously  reached  the  desired  standard,  and  the 
employment  in  factories  of  mother  or  child  is  not  allowed  to  interfere 
with  it. 

The  effect  of  the  employment  of  the  mothers  unless  the  children  are 
also  employed  or  at  school,  I  consider  to  be  pernicious,  as  it  leaves  the 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  859 

children  to  fall  into  all  the  vicious  and  indolent  habits  that  parental 
absence  and  negligence  always  induce,  but  this  is  just  what  the  English 
law  undertakes  to  prevent,  and  does,  to  a  great  extent.  But  1  tliiuk  it 
is  incomplete  in  this  regard  and  that  there  ought  to  be  a  restriction  upon 
the  mother's  employment  as  well  as  upon  the  child's  and  running  nearly 
parallel  with  it.  The  evils  of  any  system  which  allows  the  mother  to 
be  away  from  her  child  from  day  to  day  beginning  with  its  early  in- 
fancy cannot  be  fairly  balanced  by  any  system  of  compulsory  education 
or  restraint  from  manual  labor  in  later  childhood.  And  then  the  three 
years,  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eight — while  the  child  is  nominally 
at  school  but  in  reality  at  home  a  good  part  of  the  day — is  just  the  time 
when  the  careful  training  of  the  mother  (for  which  there  can  be  no  sub- 
stitute) is  most  requisite  in  counteracting  the  moral  malaria  in  the  new 
atmosphere  and  in  shaping  the  little  one's  thoughts  and  aspirations  as 
much  as  possible  in  the  right  way.  I  think  the  mother  should  not  be 
allowed  to  abandon  the  daily  care  of  her  female  child  before  the  latter 
is  eight  years  old.  Even  that  is  too  soon,  but  with  fairly  good  habits 
formed  as  they  ought  to  be  and  the  mother  being  considerably  with  the 
child  at  home,  the  line  may  be  drawn  at  that  age.  Before  then,  I  think 
presence  of  the  mother  at  home  is  as  important  as  the  later  presence  of 
the  child  at  school.  If  it  be  said  that  this  is  impossible  because  the 
earnings  of  the  mother  are  required  for  the  subsistence  of  the  family, 
I  can  only  say  that  there  is  a  fault  or  misfortune  somewhere,  and  whether 
it  lies  in  some  social  fracture  not  yet  located  or  some  economic  error  still 
too  long  defended,  is  a  question  outside  the  range  of  discussion,  but  re- 
garding which  I  have  here  stated  the  true  alternative. 

With  the  exception  or  the  fault — if  it  is  one — I  have  above  pointed 
out,  I  consider  the  effect  of  the  employment  of  women  and  girls  in  mills, 
factories,  &c.,  in  this  district  to  be  a  source  of  healthy  pleasure,  com- 
fort, and  contentment  to  the  family  circle.  In  short,  that  the  influences 
growing  directly  out  of  this  employment  are  healthful  to  the  social  con- 
ditions of  the  family.  So  far  as  concerns  the  relations  of  the  children 
alone  to  the  system  of  employment  of  females,  the  laws  of  the  country, 
as  I  have  given  them  epitomized  in  the  inclosures,  which  are  well  en- 
forced, supersede  the  necessity  of  any  further  comments.  The  educa- 
tional part  of  the  subject,  as  I  have  given  it,  is  the  best  guide  to  the 
moral  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  children  of  the  working  people. 
As  to  the  effect  of  the  employment  of  women  on  the  physical  condition 
of  their  children,  it  is  quite  likely  that  a  scientific  person  or  a  student, 
or  statistician  of  such  subjects  woukl  find  therein  material  for  tables 
and  talk;  but  the  physical  condition  of  the  working  people  of  this  dis- 
trict, when  they  do  not  look  ragged  nor  hungry  appears  to  me  to  be 
fairly  rigorous  and  j^romising.  I  see  no  evidence  of  degeneracy  in  this 
regard,  save  such  as  sometimes  comes  from  the  maternal  neglect  before 
mentioned. 

CLOSING  REMARKS. 

In  closing  this  report  I  must  express  my  regrets  to  the  Department 
that  it  is  not  a  better  one.  I  have  prosecuted  the  work  under  the  un- 
favorable conditions  of  ill  health,  a  "  scattered  constituency,"  so  to 
speak,  and  a  too  limited  clerical  force.  I  have  employed  outside  assist- 
ance in  getting  some  information  for  which  1  have  had  to  pay,  but  which 
is  reliable.  I  am  very  sorry  1  have  not  been  able  to  complete  the  work 
as  soon  as  it  was  desired.  I  believe  that  its  figures  and  facts  are  re- 
liable. 

In  some  of  the  comparative  statements  referring  to  the  conditions  and 
expenses  of  the  working  people  in  this  country  and  in  the  United  States, 


860 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


I  have  been  under  the  disadvantage  of  a  five  years'  absence  from  my 
own  country,  and  if  I  have  made  any  mistakes  in  this  branch  of  the  re- 
port, they  have  been  on  the  side  of  Englaud.  I  invite  careful  attention 
to  the  papers  inclosed  and  referred  to  in  the  text  of  the  report,  es- 
pecially the  several  epitomes  of  the  factories  act,  the  mines  regulation 
act,  and  the  employers'  liability  act.  A  good  sumaiary  of  either  could 
not  well  be  made  with  greater  brevity;  and  I  think  the  separate  publi- 
cation of  these  summaries  would  be  useful,  as  it  is  important  that  they 
should  be  understood  in  making  comparisons  on  the  labor  questions  be- 
tween England  and  the  United  States.  In  the  comparative  statements 
of  the  cost  of  living  in  England  and  the  United  States,  1  have  been 
careful  to  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of  this  country,  and  am  quite  sure  that 
I  have  done  so.  I  hope,  however,  at  an  early  day  to  avail  myself  of 
the  opportunity  which  the  State  Department  has  kindly  granted  me  of 
testing  my  comparisons  by  a  personal  inquiry  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  a  grateful  privilege,  the  enjoyment  of  which  the  preparation 
of  this  report  has  delaj'ed,  but  which  enforced  delay  I  shall  consider 
compensated  if  1  have  furnished  matter  of  any  v^alue  in  the  report,  and 
the  Department  can  see  its  way  to  the  condonation  of  the  delay  which 
has  attended  its  preparation. 

EDWA.ED  E.  LANE, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Tuns  tall,  June  21,  1884. 


Note  I. — I  have  not  allowed  myself  to  vary  at  all  from  the  American  prices  quoted 
by  the  newspaper  from  whicli  the  statement  on  page  8?>2  was  partially  prepared.  I 
ought,  however,  to  point  out  that  the  American  prices  therein  given  are  unduly 
favorable  in  the  com[)anson  to  the  side  of  Englaud.  In  the  matter  of  sugar,  for  ex- 
ample, of  which  tlie  American  price  is  put  down  at  10  cents  per  pound,  that  article 
ought  to  1)6  considerably  cheaper  than  that  generally  throughout  the  United  States, 
inasmuch  as  T)ure  caue  granulated  white  American  sugar  refined  iu  the  United  States, 
is  now  selling  at  retail  here  for  5  cents  per  pound,  and  it  certaiuly  can  be  sold  as 
cheaply  in  the  country  of  its  production.  And  the  same  remarks  ajiply  iu  a  great 
measure  to  the  comparative  prices  of  bacon  and  cheese,  which,  of  American  produc- 
tion, sell  regularly  here  for  considerably  less  than  the  prices  I  have  quoted  from  the 
paper. — E.  E.  L. 


general  trades. 

Wages  paid  in  the  general  trades  per  iveek. 


Occapations. 


liUILDING  TRADES. 

Brick-layers 

Hod-carriers  

MaKOus 

Teiider.s , 

PlastereT's 

Tenders 

Slaters 

Eoofors 

Tenders 

Plumbers , 

Assistants 

Carpenters 

Gas-fitters 

OTHEK  TRADES. 

Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Strikers 


Average. 

$7  65 

4  38  1 

7  65  {i 

4  38  1 

8  20  I, 

4  93 

7  65 

7  65 

4  38 

7  65  i 

2  19 

Occapations. 


7  65 
7  65  ; 

4  86 
6  81 
4  86 

Other  trades — Continued. 


Brick-makers 

Butchers 

Brass-founders 

Cabiubt-makers  

Cooper.s 

Drivors : 

Draymen  .and  teamsters 

Cab  and  carriage 

Street  railway 

i  Cardenors 

Horseshoers 

.Jewelers 

Laborers,  porters,  &i; 

Lifliographers 

Millwriffhts 

Nail-makers  (hand) 

Printers 

Teaclicrs,  public  schools 

Saddle  and  harness  makers . . 


Average. 


$8  51 
4  86 
7  29 
7  29 
7  29 

4  38 
4  38 
4  38 
4  86 
4  86 
7  29 
4  38 

7  29 
6  81 
3  89 
6  81 

8  50 
6  07 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


861 


FOUNDRIES  AND  MACHINE-SHOPS. 

Wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  in  foundries,  machine-shops,  and  iron  ivorks  in 
England  as  reported  from  the  Tunstall  consulate. 


Occupations. 

Lowest. 

Highest. 

Average. 

$8  27 

68  76 

$8  52 
8  16 

Fitters 

8  52 

8  52 

Screw-cutters 

8  52 

Smiths    

8  52 

Laborers : 

Skilled 

5  35 

4  86 

97 

3  89 

6  20 

9  48 

Shinglers 

13  50 

Head  rollers 

23  34 

Assistant  rollers 

10  20 

Do 

8  04 

8  04 

8  04 

Assistant  carpenters 

5  82 

Forge  laborers 

4  38 

TUNSTALL  POTTERS'   "WAGES. 

Fotters'  average  weekly  wages,  accordinq  to  statement  of  secretary  of  Potters^  Manufacturers^ 
Association,  statements  made  iy  workmen,  and  statements  furnished  by  sixteen  manufaet- 
vrers,  with  the  general  average  of  the  three  statements  thus  obtained. 


Occnpations. 


Flat-pressers 

Dish-makers 

Cup-makers 

Saucer-makers 

Hand-basin  makers 

Hollow-ware  pressors 

Hollow-ware  presser  jiggerers 

Printers 

Ovenmen 

Saggar-makers 

Mold-makers 

Turners 

Handlers    

Firemen 

Throwers 

"Warehousemen 


Average 

j 

wages  ac- 
cording 

Average 

Average  1 
wages  ac- 

to secre- 
tary of 

as   fur- 
nished 
by  work- 

cording 
to  state- 

Potters 
Manu- 

ment by 
sixteen 

facturers' 

ing 

manu- 

Asso- 

facturers. 

ciation. 

$6  57 

$7  32 

$7  67 

9  48 

8  04 

8  78 

8  40 

7  32 

9  48 

7  48 

7  32 

7  64 

9  12 

8  76 

9  49 

7  32 

7  32 

7  57 

10  20 

9  49 

9  90  i 

6  57 

6  66 

7  39 

6  66 

6  66 

6  64 

8  04 

6  06 

7  43 

9  48 

8  04 

10  20 

8  04 

7  32 

7  38 

7  32 

8  40 

8  05 

10  20 

11  55 

11  81 

10  20 

9  72 

11  31 

6  57 

6  28 

6  43 

General 
average 
adopted 

as  the 
nearest 
approach 

to  ac- 
curacy. 


$7  19 
8  77 

8  40 
7  48 

9  12 
7  40 
9  53 
6  84 

6  65 

7  38 
9  24 
7  58 
7  93 

11  19 

10  41 

6  43 


General  average  of  earnings  per  man  per  week,  $7.40. 


862 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND 


MINES   AND   MINERS. 

Wages  paid  per  dajj  of  eight  hours  in  and  in  connection  with  coal  and  ironstone  mines,  as  re- 
ported fi'oni  Tunstall  consulate. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Colliers 

Loaders 

Banksmen 

Engino  winders. 

Carpenters    

Blacksmiths  . . . . 
Laborers 


$1  09 


Carters 

Water  engineers 

Foremen  (underground) . 
Roadmen 


73 
1  22 
1  22 


Highest.   Average. 


$1  26 


85 
1  09 


73 

81 

1  42 

1  46 


$1  15 

97 

83 

97 

1  00 

97 

67 

77 

1  32 

1  34 

1  09 


RAILWAY  employ:6s. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  railway  employes  {those  engaged  about  stations,  as  well  as  those  en- 
gaged on  the  engines  and  cars,  Uneinen,  railroad  laborers,  t^'c)  in  England,  as  reported 
from  Tunstall  consulate. 


Occupations. 


STATION  DEPABTMKNT. 


Superintendents. . 
Station  masters... 

In-spectors 

Booking  clerks 

Parcel  clerks 

Telegraph  clerks  . 

Foremen 

Collectors 

Passenger  guards. 

Porters 

Signalmen 

Shunters 

Horse  drivers 

Parcel  porters 


KN(iINK   DEPARTMENT. 


Foiemen 

TJnder-lbremeD 
Engine-drivers. 
Cleaners,  &c... 
Firemeu 


$25  73 
14  59 
9  73 
8  42 
8  42 
7  48 
7  29 
6  OS 
6  81 
4  26 
6  68 
6  81 
4  86 
4  86 


14  59 
9  73 
9  73 
3  05 
5  59 


Foremen 

Fitters 

Inspectors 

Clerkss , 

Examiners 

ROAD  DEPARTMENT. 

Inspectors 

Clerks 

Foremen , 

Plate-layers 

GOODS  DEPAKTMENT 

Inspectors 

Clerks 

Porters 

Clerks 

Laborers 

Brakesmen 


9  73 
7  48 
7  29 
4  86 


15  56 
5  65 
4  OT 
9  73 
4  86 
7  29 


STORE   AND   SHOP   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  year  {week  of  sixty-four  hours)  in  grocery  and  drapery  stores,  wholesale  or 
retail,  to  males  and  females,  in  England,  as  reported  from  the  Tunstall  consulate. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


General  assistants. 
Barmaids 


$72  99 
48  66 


Highest. 


$243  32 
243  32 


•With  board. 


Average. 


*$121  66 
*97  33 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


863 


HOUSEHOLD. 

Wtiges  paid  [itr  year  to  household  servants  {towns  and  cities),  as  reported  from  the  Tunstall 

consulate. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Coot  (female) $68  13 

Kitchen  raaid i  48  66 

House  inaid 1  43  79 

General  servant 48  66 

Manservant 253  05 


Highest. 

$121  66 

68  13 

87  59 

77  86 

379  58 

Average. 


$87  59 
58  39 
68  13 
63  26 

291  99 


AGRICULTURAL   WAGES. 

Wages  paid  per  tceek  to  agricultural  laborers  and  household  (country)  servants,  as  reported 
from  Tunstall  consulate,  tvithand  icithout  board  and  lodging. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


Plowmen  " 

"Wagoners  * 

Cowmen  or  shepherds  * 

Same  employmentst per  year. .  ]      $97  33 


Highest. '  Average. 


38 


$126  52 


$4 

4  38 

4  38 

111  93 


'  Not  living  in  house  ;  breakfast  and  supper  on  Sundays.  t  Living  in  house. 

CORPORATION  EMPLOYll&S. 

Wages  paid  per  week  to  the  corporation  employ^  in  the  toivn  of  Burslem. 

[Population  30,000.] 


Occupations. 


Average. 


Town  clerk j  $18  73 

Accountant |  15  59 

Surveyor I  24  33 

Gas  manager i  34  06 

Kate  collector '  12  16 

Treasurer '  3  73 

Clerk  to  burial  board 97 

Gas  collector 12  65 

Kegistrar  of  cemetery 11  19 

Farm  bailifl' 14  59 

Tolls  collector |  9  00 

Librarian 6  32 


Occupations. 


Town -hall  keeper 

Wedgwood  institute  keeper 

High  way  foreman 

Gas  fitters   

Grave  diggers 

Paviers 

Scavengers,  &c , 

Engineman 

Drainers 

Carters 

Laborers 


Average. 


$8  14 
7  66 

5  51 

6  68 
5  13 

7  29 

4  38 

8  51 

5  10 
5  00 
4  80 


Statement  showing  the  wages  paid  per  week  of  fifty-four  hours  to  printers   {compositors, 
pressmen,  proof-readers  cfc. ),  in  Burslem,  Staffordshire. 


Occupations. 


Compositors 
Pressmen . . . 


864 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


[Form  No.  1.— Inclosure  No.  2.] 
Wages  paid  per  week  in  the  potteries  in  Tunsiall  consular  district. 


Occupations. 


Lowest. 


nat-i)iesser.s 

Dish-makers 

Cup-makers    

Sauci'i-niakers 

Hand-basin  makers  

Hollow-ware  pressors 

Hollow-ware  pressers  jiggerers 

Printers 

Ovenmen 

Sag jiar  makers 

Mold-makers 

Turners 

Handlers 

riiemen 

Throwers 

•  Warebousemen 


6  56 

7  29 

5  83 
7  29 

6  08 

7  78 
5  30 

5  47 

6  32 

7  78 

4  33 
3  62 
9  73 

8  .51 

5  83 


Hiffbest. 


$13  62 

12  16 

14  59 
9  24 

15  81 

8  99 
14  11 

9  73 

8  27 

9  12 
14  59 

9  73 

13  38 

14  59 

16  29 
7  29 


ATerage. 


$7  19 
8  77 

8  40 
7  48 

9  12 
7  40 
9  53 
6  84 

6  65 

7  38 

10  20 

7  38 

8  05 

11  81 
10  41 

6  43 


[Form  No.  2.] 

Average  rates  of  wages  paid  during  the  year  1883,  and  hours  of  labor  of  persons  employed 

in  the  earthenware  trade. 


Males. 

Females. 

Occupations. 

Men. 

Lads  and  boys. 

Women. 

Girls. 

Wages. 

Hours 

of 
labor. 

Wageg. 

Hours 

of 
labor. 

Wages. 

Hours 

of 
labor. 

Wages. 

Hours 

of 
labor. 

Per  day. 

$1  09 

1  70 

99 

1  34 

9 

8 
8 
8i 

Perday. 

Perday. 

Perday. 

$0  49 

8 

44 
73 

8i 
8J 

1  22 

84 

$0  24 

9 

1  70 
1  58 
1  22 
1  70 

8 
8 
8 



. 

8 

24 

8 

32 

8 

1  09 

9 

24 

9 

32 

9 

1  58 

8 

28 

8 

1  70 
1  11 
1  09 

10 
9 
8i 



81 

9 

49 

84 

($0  16) 
\    0*°3oS 

8^ 

1  46 
1  70 
1  62 
1  11 

8 

10 

7 

9 

Geost  placers 

49 
32 

8 

7 

1  34 
1  22 
1  46 
1  09 
1  22 

9 

10 

Enamel  fi  rcnien 

94 
9 

28 

9 

73 

9 

LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 


865 


[Form  No.  3.] 

Staicment  showing  the  average  wecMij  wages  paid  at  sixteen  manajactories  as  fnrmshcd  by 
proprietors  and  managers,  with  the  total  wecldg  earnings  ;  aim  showing  the  average  earn- 
ings per  man  per  week  at  each  factory,  the  labor  divided  according  to  the  ratio  before 
stated. 


Occupations. 


Flat-prossera 

Disb-inakcis 

Ciip-niakcrs 

Srtucei-inakers 

Hand-basin  makers 

Hollow- ware  pressors 

Printers    

Ovenmen 

Saggar-makers 

Mold-makers 

Turners 

Handlers  

Hollow-ware  presser  jigger- 

ers 

Firemen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


Eatio; 

of    1. 
men. 


$7  29 
8  51 
8  51 

7  29' 

8  51| 
7  29| 
7  29I 

5  83 
7  78. 

9  73 

6  68 

7  29 


I 
$6  32 

6  56 
8  63 

7  411 

7  78l 

8  14! 

5  so; . 

5  83 

7  27! 

8  63 
4  33,. 
3  62  . 


$6  32 

7  78 

7  29 
6  80 

8  27 
6  08 


6  56 

6  56 

7  78 


Total  weekly  earnings . 

Average  earnings  per  man 
per  week 


2  1 10  46|   7  78 

1  !   9  73  10  34j.... 

1  I   8  5l|  14  60|.... 

2  ! I  6  26  ... . 


688  85  678  83 


I 
7  171   6  78 


462  31 


60 


32 


7  29 
6  68 
5  83 


$7  29 

8  51 

9  73 
6  56 
8  51 
8  03 


8  27 


8  51 
8  03 


9  73  12  16 
8  5ll  12  16 
6  08   6  81 


579  23  568  16 


6  731   7  47 


$8  39 
9  36 


8  57 
7  41 
6  92 


8  63 

7  84 


8  75 
6  32 


687  93 


$6  08  $7  29  $7  74 

8  51   9  24  9  67 

7  29I 9  97 

7  29}   5  8:;  7  9ij 

8  51 1  10  95  9  71 
6  56   6  56  H  15 

[ 6  58 

6  68j   7  29  6  88 

6  68   7  29  8  49 
12  16  10  22:  10  28 

I 8  05 

7  29   5  83  8  43 

10  95   8  5li  11  68 
12  16  10  9.5' 

"7'29|"-"!'''..l. ...'.. 

58«  93j  510  25J  751  87 


7  74       7  291      7  8„ 


Occupations. 


Ratio 

of 
men. 


*10. 


11. 


15. 


16. 


Total. 


Aver- 


$7  67 

8  78 

9  48 
7  64 
9  49 
7  57 
7  39 

6  64 

7  43 

10  20 

7  38 

8  05 

9  90 

11  81 
11  34 

6  43 


Flat-pressers 

Dish-makers 

Cup-makers  

SauciT-raakers 

Hand-basin  makers 

Hollo w- ware  pressers 

Printers 

Ovt'umen     

Sagaar-makers 

Mold-makers 

Turners 

Handlers 

Hollow-ware  preaser  jigger- 

eis 

Fiiemen 

Throwers 

Warehousemen 


$13  62 
11  68! 


$7  29     $8  51 


15  81 

8  99 

9  73 


6  32 
13  38 


6  29 


29' 
8  51] 
8  51j 
8  51 
8  51 
7  29 

7  29 

8  51! 

9  73: 

7  29' 
7  29 


7  90 
9  73 

8  5ll 
7  90| 
7  29 

7  41! 
6  68 

9  12 
9  73; 
9  73 

8  5ll 


$7  29;     $7  90| 


8  51 

8  51: 

8  5lj 

'7  29 

8  63 

6  56i 

6  32; 

9  73 

7  29 
7  29 


7  29 
14  59 

8  51 
7  29 
7  29 
6  56 
6  68 
6  98 

10  34 


7  78 


8  51! 1  9  24i      7  90 

12  16     12  16,  10  95;     12  16 

9  73 9  73 

6  32; 6  08       6  68 


Total  weekly  earnings. 

Average  earnings  per  man 
per  week 


618  77,  788  86   732  40    755  27|  708  13 


7  71       9  631      7  45       8  671      7  50 


$8  97     $6  16 
12  16  .... 

11  56  .... 
9  24       6  16 

12  16 

7  64'       7  54 

....-!       8  43 

6  80       5  4 

7  78;      7  78 

13  38,     14  59 
7  46 


13  62 


14  11  .... 
14  59     14  59 
13  78 

6  68       5  83 


650  52,  659  32 


$122  78 

122  9 

104  32 

114  68 

113  91 

121  22 

81  31 

99  57 

104  04 

142  84 

73  81 

104  73 

89  14 
141  68 
102  05 

64  3 


*  See  reference  to  this  columa  on  page  — . 
92  A— LAB 55 


866  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 


TEE  FACTORY  ACTS  AS  APPLIED  TO  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  EARTH- 
ENWARE {EXCEPT  BRICKS  AND  TILES  NOT  BEING  ORNAMENTAL 
TILES). 

[Including  the  act  of  27  and  28  Victoria,  chapter  48,  which  was  passed  on  the  25th  day  of  July,  1864/ 
INTERPRETATION   OF   TERMS. 

"Factory"  is  any  place  in  which  persons  work  for  hire,  in  making  or  assisting  in 
making,  finishing,  or  assisting  in  finishing,  earthenware  of  any  descriptioo,  except 
bricks  and  tiles  not  being  ornamental  tiles  ;  but  no  building  or  premises  used  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  a  dwelling-house  shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  factory,  or  part  of  a  fac- 
tory, within  the  meaning  of  this  act. 

An  "  apprentice  "  shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  person  working  for  hire. 

"  Child  "  :  A  child  under  the  age  of  13  years. 

"  Young  person  "  :  A  person  of  the  age  of  13  years  and  und<ir  the  age  of  18  years. 

"Parent":  A  parent,  guardian,  or  person  having  the  legal  custody  of  any  such 
child  or  young  person." 

"  Inspector"  and  "subinspector,"  respectively:  An  inspector  and  subinspector  of 
factories. 

"Agent":  Any  person  having  on  behalf  of  the  occupier  of  any  factory  the  career 
direction  thereof,  or  any  part  thereof,  or  of  any  person  employed  therein. 

"  Month  "  :  A  calendar  month. 

"Mill-gearing":  Every  shaft,  whether  upright,  oblique,  or  horizontal,  and  every 
wheel,  drum  or  pulley,  by  which  tlie  motion  of  the  first  moving  power  is  communica- 
ted to  any  machine  appertaining  to  the  manufacturing  processes.  Any  person  who 
shall  work  in  any  factory  (whether  for  wages  or  not,  or  as  a  learner  or  otherwise), 
either  in  any  manufacturing  process  or  in  any  labor  incident  to  any  manufacturing 
process,  or  in  cleaning  any  part  of  the  factory,  or  in  cleaning  or  oiling  any  part  of  the 
machinery,  or  in  any  other  kind  of  work  whatsoever,  save  in  the  cases  hereinafter 
excepted,  shall  be  deemed  (notwithstanding  any  other  description,  limitation,  or  ex- 
ception of  employment  in  the  factory  act)  to  beemployed  therein  within  the  meaning 
of  this  act. 

Any  words  denoting  the  masculine  gender  shall  be  construed  to  extend  to  persons 
of  either  sex  ;  aud  any  words  denoting  the  singular  number  shall  be  construed  to  ex- 
tend to  any  number  of  persons  or  things,  if  the  subject-matter  or  context  shall  admit 
of  such  an  interpretation,  unless  such  construction  shall  be  in  express  opposition  to 
any  other  enactment. 

APPLICATION   OF   ACT. 

1.  This  act  shall  apply  to  the  manufacture  of  earthenware,  except  bricks  and  tiles 
not  being  ornamental  tiles. 

2.  The  enactment  of  this  act  respecting  the  hours  of  labor  shall  not  apply  to  ftny 
young  person  when  employed  solely  in  packing  goods  in  any  warehouse  or  part  of  a 
factory  not  used  for  any  manufacturing  x^rocess,  or  for  any  labor  incident  to  such  man- 
ufacturing process. 

3.  Nothing  in  this  act  shall  extend  to  any  young  person,  being  a  mechanic, artisan^ 
or  laborer,  working  only  in  making  or  repairing  any  machinery  on  the  factory. 

WHO   MAY   BE  EMPLOYED. 

1.  No  person  is  to  employ  in  any  factory  any  child  who  shall  not  linve  completed 
his  eighth  year  of  age. 

2.  No  child  shall  be  employed  who  shall  not  liave  completed  his  or  her  thirteenth 
year  of  age,  without  certificate  as  is  hereinafter  mentioned  that  the  child  is  of  the 
ordinary  strength  and  appearance  of  a  cliiid  of  tlie  age  of  eight  years. 

3.  No  ])erson  sliall  beemployed  betvveeu  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  eighteen  for  more 
than  nine  hours  in  any  day,  nor  between  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening  and  five  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  without  first  requiring  and  receiving  from  such  person  a  certificate  in 
proof  that  such  person  is  above  the  age  of  thirteen. 

4.  The  ccrtiticntes  of  :ige,  herein  called  surgical  certificates,  shall  be  given  in  the 
form  contained  in  tln^  sch('<lule  to  the  act,  and  the  name  of  tin;  person  for  wliom  a  cer- 
tificate of  age  is  r»!quirc(i,  and  the  date  of  the  first  day  of  employiiH-nt  or  re-employ- 
ment shall  be  registered  in  the  Ibrm  given  in  tlie  act,  before  emi)loying  such  person 
in  a  factory.  But  no  certificate  is  required  for  any  young  person  above  sixteen  yeara 
of  age. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  867 

5.  Before  employing  any  person  requiring  a  certificate,  the  occupier  of  the  factory 
must  obtain  such  certificate  save  as  hereinafter  excepted  (see  next  paragraph),  and 
shall  keep  and  bfe  bound  to  produce  such  ceriificate  when  required  by  the  inspector  or 
or  subinspector ;  no  certificate  is  valid  except  for  the  manufactory  for  which  it  was 
originally  granted.  The  certifying  surgeon  shall  enter  his  name  in  register  of  work- 
ers the  date  of  his  visit. 

6.  Provided  that  no  occupier  shall  be  liable  for  any  penalty  for  employing  any  per- 
son in  any  manner  not  contrary  to  the  other  provisions  of  this  act,  without  a  certifi- 
cate for  any  time  not  exceeding  seven  working  days,  or  when  the  certifying  surgeon 
resides  3  miles  from  the  factory,  for  any  time  not  exceeding  thirteen  working  days  ; 
this  is  not  to  dispense  with  the  certificate  of  school  attendance. 

H.  No  female  above  the  age  of  18  years  shall  be  employed  save  for  the  same  time  as 
young  persons.  Nothing  in  this  section  shall  apply  to  certificates  of  age  of  females 
above  the  age  of  18  years. 

Chaptek  III. 

HOURS   OF   LABOR. 

1.  No  young  person,  and  no  female  above  18  years,  shall  be  employed  in  any  factory 
before  G  o'clock  in  the  morning  or  after  6  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

2.  No  young  person,  and  no  female  above  18  years,  shall  be  employed  on  any  Satur- 
day after  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

:l.  During  all  or  any  part  of  the  period  between  the  30th  September  in  any  year  and 
the  1st  April  of  the  following  year,  young  persons  and  females  above  the  age  of  18 
years  may  be  employed,  except  on  Saturday,  between  the  hours  of  7  o'clock  in  the 
morning  and  7  in  the  evening,  instead  of  the  hours  hereinbefore  limited,  under  the 
following  rules  and  conditions  {i.  e.),  notice  signed  by  tlie  occupier  of  any  factory,  or 
his  agent,  of  the  intention  to  employ  young  persons  and  females  under  this  provision 
specifying  the  period  not  less  than  one  month,  during  which  they  are  to  be  employed 
in  such  factory,  shall  be  given  to  one  of  the  inspectors  of  factories,  and  such  notice 
shall  be  such  a  form  as  shall  be  approved  of  by  the  inspector,  and  signed  by  such  oc- 
cupier or  his  agent  and  such  inspector,  and  shall  be  hung  up,  and  during  the  period 
shall  be  kept  hung  up,  in  such  factory ;  and  during  the  period  young  persons  and 
females  above  the  age  of  18  years  may  be  eniployed  in  such  factory  alter  6  o'clock 
and  not  later  than  7  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  day,  except  Saturday,  and  the  pro- 
visions herein  contained  shall,  as  to  every  day  except  Saturday,  duiMng  such  period, 
take  effect  as  if  7  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  7  o'clock  in  the  evening  were  substi- 
tuted for  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  (i  o'clock  in  the  evening,  respectively. 

Section  2.— Children. 

4.  No  child  shall  he  employed  in  any  factory  before  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  or 
after  6  in  the  evening. 

5.  Nor  after  2  o'clock  on  Saturday. 

6.  Between  the  30th  September  and  the  1st  April  of  the  following  year,  children 
may  be  employed  between  7  a.  m.  and  7  p.m.,  in  the  same  way  as  yonng  personsand 
females,  with  the  like  exception  as  to  Saturday. 

7.  No  child  shall  be  employed  more  than  6  hours  and  30  minutes  in  any  one  day 
(save  as  herein  after  expressed)  unless  the  dinner-time  of  the  young  persons  in  such  fac- 
tory shall  begin  at  1  o'clock,  in  which  case  children  beginning  to  work  in  the  morn- 
ing may  work  for  7  hours  in  one  day.  No  children  shall  be  employed  in  the  same  or 
any  other  factory  after  one  o'clock  in  tlie  afternoon  on  the  same  day,  save  when 
children  may  work  on  alternate  days,  as  hereinafter  provided. 

8.  In  any  factory  where  the  labor  of  young  persons  is  restricted  to  10  hours  a  day, 
it  shall  be  lawful  to  employ  any  child  ten  hours  in  any  one  day  on  three  alternate 
days  iu  one  week,  but  not  for  two  successive  days,  nor  after  two  o'clock  on  any  Sat- 
urday, provided  always  that  the  parent  or  person  having  direct  benefit  from  the 
wages  of  such  child  shall  cause  the  child  to  attend  school  for  at  least  five  hours  be- 
tween the  hours  of  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  six  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same 
day  on  each  week-day  preceding  each  day  of  employment  in  the  factory,  unless  such 
preceding  day  shall  be  a  Saturday,  when  no  school  attendance  shall  be  required; 
provided  also,  that  once  in  every  week  after  such  child  began  to  work  in  the  factory, 
the  occupier  shall  obtain  a  certificate  from  the  schoolmaster  that  the  child  has  at- 
tended school  as  required  by  this  act;  but  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  employ  any  child 
in  a  factory  more  than  7  hours  a  day  until  the  owner  of  the  factory  shall  liave  sent  a 
notice  in  writing  to  the  inspector  of  his  intention  to  restrict  the  hours  of  labor  of 
young  persons  in  the  factory  to  10  hours  a  day,  and  to  employ  children  ten  hours  a 
day ;  and  if  such  occupier  cease  to  eo  employ  children  10  hours  a  day,  be  shall  not 


868  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

again  oni])loy  any  child  in  his  factor}'  more  than  7  hours  a  day,  until  he  shall  have 
>seut  a  iiirtlu'r  notice  to  the  inspector  as  before  ]irovided. 

9.  If  any  child  shall  have  lieen  employed  in  any  one  day  for  less  than  six  hours  and 
thirty  uiiniites  or  10  hours,  resi)ectively,  in  one  factory,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any 
jierson  to  employ  such  cliild  in  any  other  factory  on  the  same  day  for  the  residue  of 
such  six  hours  and  thirty  minutes  or  ten  hours,  respectively,  provided  that^such  eni- 
ploynu'nt  in  such  other  factory  shall  not  increase  the  labor  of  such  chil.'  to  more  than 
feix'hours  and  thirty  minutes  or  ten  hours,  respectively,  in  any  one  day. 

The  hours  of  work  of  children,  younjjj  persons,  and  females  above  the  age  of  18  in 
every  factory  shall  be  regulated  by  a  public  clock  or  some  other  clock  open  to  public 
view. 

Chapter  V. 

time  for  meals. 

1.  Every  day  not  less  than  oue  and  a  half  hours  for  meals  to  every  child,  young  per- 
son, or  female  above  the  age  of  18  shall  be  allowed. 

2.  And  shall  be  taken  between  half  past  7  in  the  morning  and  G  in  the  evening  of 
every  day,  and  one  hour  thereof  at  least  shall  be  given  at  one  time  or  at  dift'erent  times 
before  three  in  the  afternoon,  and  no  child,  young  person,  or  female  above  18  years  of 
age  shall  be  employed  more  than  5  hours  before  one  o'clock  iu  the  afternoon  without 
an  interval  of  at  lea^t  thirty  minutes,  and  all  the  young  persons  employed  shall  have 
the  time  for  meals  at  the  same  period  of  the  day,  unless  some  special  cause  shall  be 
allowed  in  writing  by  the  inspector. 

3.  During  any  meal  time  which  shall  form  part  of  the  hour  and  a  half  allowed  for 
meals  no  child,  young  person,  or  female  above  the  age  of  18  shall  be  employed  or 
allowed  to  remain  in  any  room  in  which  manufacturing  process  is  then  carried  on. 

4.  No  child,  young  person,  or  woman  shall  be  allowed  to  take  his  or  her  meals  or 
remain  during  meal  times  iu  the  dipping  houses,  dippers'  drying  rooms,  or  chiua 
scouring  rooms. 

Chapter  VI. 

HOLIDAYS. 

1.  All  children,  young  persons,  and  females  above  18  whose  hours  of  work  are  lim- 
ited by  this  act  shall  be  entitled  to  the  following  holidays :  Christmas  day.  Good  Fri- 
day, the  entire  day,  and  not  fewer  than  eight  half  days  besides  in  every  year,  such 
half  days  to  be  taken  at  such  times  as  are  most  desirable  and  convenient,  and  shall  be 
determined  on  by  the  employer. 

2.  Each  of  the  half  holidays  shall  comprise  not  less  than  half  of  the  day,  and  during 
the  period  no  young  i»ersou  shall  be  employed;  and  four  of  such  half  holidays  shall 
be  given  betweeji  15th  March  and  1st  October  in  eacb  year ;  no  cessation  of  work  shall 
be  deemed  a  half  holiday  unless  notice  of  such  half  holiday  and  the  time  of  such  ces- 
sation of  work  has  been  fixed  up  on  the  ])recediug  day  in  the  entrance  to  the  factory 
or  wliere  the  subiuspector  may  direct,  and  in  addition  to  such  8  half  days  no  child  or 
young  person  shall  work  on  Christmas  day  or  Good  Friday. 

Chapter  VII. 
sanitary  condition. 

1.  Every  factory  shall  be  kept  in  a  cleanly  state,  and  be  ventilated  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  lender  harmless  as  far  as  possible  any  gases,  dust,  or  other  impurities  iu  the 
process  of  manufacture. 

All  inside  walls,  ceilings  or  tops  of  rooms,  and  all  the  passages  and  staircases  of 
every  factory  which  have  not  been  painted  with  oil  once  at  least  within  7  years  shall 
be  lime-washed  once  within  every  successive  ])eriod  of  14  months,  and  all  the  walls, 
ceilings  or  tops  of  rooms  wh<'re  children  or  young  ))ersons  are  employed  and  whicliare 
painted  with  oil,  shall  be  washed  with  hot  water  and  soap  once  at  least  iu  every  period 
of  14  months. 

But  the  last  paragra])!!  shall  not  extend  to  rooms,  &.C.,  which  are  used  solely  for  the 
storage  of  earthenware  and  in  which  no  work  is  carried  on  except  what  is  necessary 
for  keeping  the  earthenware  in  a  fit  state  for  sale. 

Chapter  VIII. 

EDUCATION. 

1.  Parents  or  persons  having  direct  benefit  from  the  wages  of  any  child  shall  cause 
such  child  to  attend  some  school  on  the  day  after  the  first  employmont  of  such  child 
and  on  each  working  day  of  every  week  during  any  part  which  such  child  shall  cou- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  8fi9 

tinne  to  work,  and  such  child  shall  attend  school  three  hours  after  eij^ht  of  clock  iu 
the  inoruliig-  and  before  six  in  the  evening;  provided  that  any  child  attending  school 
after  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  shall  not  be  required  to  remain  in  school  more  than 
two  and  a  half  hours  on  any  one  day  between  Ist  November  and  the  last  <lay  of  Feb- 
ruary and  not  attend  school  on  Saturday.  Any  child  shall  be  excused  for  non-attend- 
ance by  the  certificate  of  the  schoolmaster  in  case  of  sickness,  &c. 

2.  Where  tlie  lal>or  of  young  persons  is  restricted  to  ten  hours  a  day  any  child  may 
be  em)>loyed  ten  hours  a  day  on  three  alternate  days  of  evei-y  week,  provided  that 
such  children  shall  not  be  employed  in  the  same  or  in  any  other  factory  on  two  succes- 
sive days,  noraftertwo  on  Saturday  afternoon.  Butthe  parent  or  person  having  direct 
beueht  from  the  child's  Avages  shall  cause  the  child  to  attend  school  at  least  five  hours 
between  8  in  the  morning  and  6  in  the  evening  of  the  same  day,  on  each  preceding 
day  of  employment,  unless  the  preceding  day  is  Saturday,  when  no  school  attendance  is 
required. 

The  occupier  of  every  factory  in  wliich  a  child  is  employed  shall,  on  Monday  in  every 
week  after  the  first  week  in  which  such  child  l)egius  to  work,  obtain  a  certificate 
froru  a  schooluiaster  that  such  child  has  attended  school  as  required.  The  occupier 
must  keep  the  certificate  six  months  and  i)roduce  to  the  inspector  when  required,  and 
shall,  when  required  by  the  inspector,  pay  to  the  schoolmaster  such  stun  as  the  in- 
spector may  direct,  but  not  more  than  two  ])ence  per  week  towards  the  education  of 
such  child.  The  occupier  shall  be  entitled  to  deduct  from  the  wages  of  such  child 
the  auiouut  he  has  actually  paid  not  exceediug  one-twelfth  of  the  weekly  wages  of 
such  child. 

Chapter  IX. 

MACHINERY   AND   ACCIDENTS. 

1.  No  child,  young  person,  or  woman  shall  be  allowed  to  clean  any  part  of  mill 
gearing  while  in  motion,  nor  work  between  the  fixed  and  traversing  part  of  any  self- 
acting  machine  while  in  motion  by  the  action  of  steam,  waterwlieel,  or  other  me- 
chanical power. 

2.  Every  fly-wheel  directly  connected  with  the  steam-engine  or  water-wheel,  or 
other  mechanical  power,  and  every  part  of  machinery  in  motif)n  lu^ar  which  children, 
young  persons,  or  women  are  liable  to  come  in  contact  with,  either  in  passing  or  in 
their  occupation,  shall  be  securely  fenced,  and  every  wheel-race  must  be  so  fenced 
while  in  motion. 

If  any  person  shall  sutler  bodily  injury  through  neglect  to  fence  any  i)art  of  the 
machinery  the  occupier  is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  £10  nor  more  than  £100, 
and  the  penalty  is  to  be  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  injured  persou,  or  otherwise,  as 
the  secretary  of  state  shall  determine. 

Chapter  X. 

MEDICAL   ATTENDANCE. 

1.  Any  inspector  shall  have  power  to  appoint  a  sufficient  number  of  surgeons  for 
the  purpose  of  examining  persons  brought  before  them  to  obtain  certificates  of  age, 
and  shall  specify  the  district  for  which  such  surgeon  is  appointed. 

The  secretary  of  state  may  annul  any  appointment  if  he  thinks  fit. 
No  surgeon  being  the  occupier  or  having  any  interest  in  a  factory  shall  be  a  certi- 
fying surgeon. 

2.  The  surgical  certificates  of  age  shall  be  in  the  form  prescribed  by  the  act.  The 
name  of  the  person  for  whom  a  certificate  is  required,  and  the  date  of  the  first  day  of 
employment,  must  be  registered  in  the  form  and  according  to  the  directions  in  the 
S'-hedule  (B)  before  it  shall  be  lawful  to  employ  any  person  in  a  factory.  No  surgical 
certificate  is  required  for  any  young  person  above  the  age  of  sixteen  years. 

5.  Personal  application  is  necessary  before  a  certificate  of  age  can  be  given,  and 
such  application  and  grant  of  certificate  must  be  made  at  the  factory  where  the  child 
is  to  be  employed. 

fi.  The  occupier  of  a  factory  may  agree  with  the  surgeon  for  the  payment  to  be 
made  to  such  surgeon  for  the  examination  of  persons  for  whom  surgical  certificates 
are  required.     No  stamp  is  required  for  such  agreement. 

7.  The  inspector,  if  so  required,  is  to  fix  the  amount  of  fees  to  bo  paid  by  the  occu- 
pier of  a  factory  to  the  surgeon,  and  the  time  for  the  payment  of  such  fees  and  the 
time  when  the  surgeon  shall  visit  the  factory.  The  fees  are  one  shilling  each  persou, 
with  six  pence  for  each  half  mile  that  the  distance  of  the  factory  from  the  residence 
of  the  surgeon  shall  exceed  one  mile. 


870  LABOR    IN    EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

Chaptek  XI. 

INSPECTORS. 

I.  Four  inspectors  are  appointed  by  Her  Majesty. 

2  Upon  the  application  of  any  inspector  the  chief  secretary  may  appoint  subin- 
spectors. 

7.  The  inspectors  and  subinspectors  are  empowered  to  enter  any  manufactory  by 
day  or  night,  and  to  enter  any  school  in  which  children  employed  at  factories  are 
educated,  and  to  take  with  him  the  certifying  surgeon  or  any  constable  of  the  peace, 
and  have  the  right  to  examine  everj'  person  whom  he  shall  find  in  the  factory  or 
school. 

Chapter  XII. 

PENALTIES   AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


Chapter  XIII 

MISCELLANEOUS   PROVISIONS. 

1.  Every  person  on  beginning  to  occupy  a  factory  shall  within  one  month  send,  ad- 
dressed "To  the  office  of  Factory  Inspectors,  Loudon,"  a  written  notice  containing 
the  name  of  the  factory,  with  the  place,  township,  parish,  and  county,  and  the  post- 
office  to  which  letters  are  to  be  addressed,  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  amount  of 
moving  power,  and  tJie  name  of  the  firm. 

2.  An  abstract  of  this  act  is  to  be  hung  up  at  the  entrance  of  every  factory,  and 
notices  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  the  inspector  and  subinspector  and  surgeon 
appointed  for  the  district,  and  of  the  clock  by  which  the  hours  of  work  in  the  factory 
are  regulated,  the  times  and  the  amount  of  time  allowed  for  meals. 

:3.  Registers  as  to  the  children,  young  persons,  and  females  employed  shall  be  kept 
in  the  factory  to  which  they  relate. 


[35  and  36  Victoria,  chapter  76.     Royal  assent,  August  10,  1872.] 

AN  ACT   TO    CONSOLIDATE  AND  AMEND    THE  ACT  RELATING  TO  THE 
REGULATION  OE  COAL   MINES  AND    CERTAIN  OTHER    MINES. 

(Supplement  to  Consul  Lane's  report.) 

[The  act  appliea  to  mines  of  coal,  mines  of  stratified  ironstone,  mines  of  shales,  and  mines  of  flre-clay.] 

Part  I. 

Section  4.  No  boy  under  10,  and  no  woman  or  girl  of  any  age,  shall  be  employed 
in  any  mine  below  the  ground. 

5.  No  boy  of  10  or  under  12  shall  be  employed  in  any  mine  below  ground  except 
where  on  account  of  the  thinness  of  the  seams  the  secretary  of  state  thinks  such  em- 
ployment necessary,  nor  in  such  case :  (a)  for  more  than  six  days  in  one  week ;  or  (b) 
if  for  more  than  three  days  in  one  week  for  more  than  six  hours  in  one  day;  or  (o) 
in  any  other  case  for  more  than  ten  hours  in  one  day  ;  or  (d)  otherwise  than  is  here- 
inafter contained. 

6.  A  boy  of  12  and  under  13  and  a  male  person  under  16  shall  not  be  employed 
underground  for  more  than  ^A  hours  in  one  week  or  more  than  10  hours  in  one  day. 

7.  \Vith  resp(H;t  to  employment  of  boys  and  male  young  persons,  the  following  reg- 
ulations shall  have  effect: 

(1)  There  shall  be  an  interval  of  8  hours  between  the  time  of  leaving  oft"  work  on 
Friday  and  the  coniuieucemcnt  on  Saturday,  and  in  other  cases  12  hours. 

(2)  The  ]ieri()(l  of  such  eni])]oyment  shall  begin  when  they  leave  the  surface  and 
end  when  they  return  to  the  surface. 

(3)  A  week  begins  at  midnight  on  Saturday  and  ends  at  midnight  the  following 
Saturday. 

H.  With  respect  to  boys  of  10  and  under  12  employed  below  ground,  the  following 
ap])ly  : 

(1)  Every  boy  shall  attend  school  20  hours  in  every  two  weeks  during  employment 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  871 

(2)  lu  computing  the  time  during  which  a  boy  has  attended  school  there  shall  not 
be  included  any  time  during  which  such  boy  has  attended  either  (a)  in  excess  of  3 
hours  at  any  one  time,  or  in  excess  of  5  hours  in  one  day,  or  in  excess  of  12  hours  in 
one  week,  or  (b;  on  Sundays;  or  (c)  before  8  in  the  morning  or  after  6  in  the  evening; 
provided  that  the  non-attendance  of  any  boy  at  school  shall  be  excused: 

(1)  For  any  time  during  sickness  or  other  unavoidable  cause  when  certified; 

(2)  During  the  time  when  school  is  closed  for  holidays  or  some  other  temporary 
cause ; 

(3)  Or,  when  there  is  no  school  within  two  miles  from  his  home,  or  where  he  works, 
mensnred  the  nearest  road. 

The  immediate  employer  of  a  boy,  if  he  has  employed  the  boy  14  days,  shall,  on 
Monday  in  every  week,  obtain  a  certificate  from  his  teacher  -that  he  has  attended 
school  during  the  preceding  week. 

The  immediate  employer,  if  he  is  not  owner,  agent,  or  manager  of  the  owner,  shall 
hand  the  certificate  to  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  of  the  mine,  who  shall  keep  the 
certificate  for  (5  months  in  the  olfice  at  the  mine,  and  shall  ])roduce  the  certificate  to 
the  appointed  inspector  at  all  reasonable  times,  and  allow  him  to  copy  the  same. 

9.  The  principal  teacher  of  a  school  attemled  by  any  boy  may  apply  to  the  person 
who  pays  the  wages  of  such  boy  to  pay  to  the  teacher  such  sum  as  is  hereinafter  men- 
tioned for  the  boy's  education,  such  sum  to  be  deducted  out  of  his  wages. 

The  school  pence  is  not  to  exceed  two  pence  per  week,  nor  more  than  -^^th  of  the 
boy's  weekly  earnings. 

il.  The  parent  or  guardian  of  every  boy  of  10  and  under  12  years  of  age  shall  cause 
him  to  attend  school  in  accordance  with  the  act. 

12.  With  respect  to  women,  young  persons,  and  children  employed  above  ground 
in  connection  with  any  mine  the  following  provisions  shall  have  efi'ect : 

(1)  No  child  under  10  shall  be  employed. 

(2)  The  regulations  of  the  act,  with  respect  to  boys  of  10  and  under  12,  shall  apply 
to  every  child  so  employed. 

{'^)  The  regulations  of  the  act,  with  respect  to  male  young  persons  under  16,  shall 
apply  ti>  every  woman  and  young  ])er8on  so  employed. 

(4)'  No  woman,  young  person,  or  child  is  to  be  employed  between  9  o'clock  at  night 
and  .5  in  the  morning,  or  on  Sunday,  or  after  2  on  Saturday  afternoon. 

(5)  Intervals  for  meals  shall  be  allowed  to  the  last-mentioned  persons  half  an  hour 
during  each  period  of  employment  which  exceeds  5  hours,  and  1  hour  and  a  half 
wlien  the  period  of  work  exceeds  8  hours. 

1:5.  The  owner  or  agent  of  every  mine  shall  keep  in  the  office  a  register,  and  therein 
shall  be  entered  the  name,  age,  and  residence  of.  and  date  of  first  employment  of  all 
boys  under  12,  and  of  the  age  of  12  and  under  13,  and  of  all  male  young  persons  un- 
der the  age  of  16,  employed  in  the  mine  below  ground,  and  of  all  women,  young  per- 
sons, and  children  employed  above  ground,  and  a  memorandum  of  certificates  of  the 
school  attendance,  and  produce  such  register,  when  required,  to  the  inspector. 

The  immediate  employer  of  every  boy  or  male  young  person  of  the  ages  aforesaid, 
other  than  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager,  before  he  causes  such  boy,  &c.,  to  work  be- 
low shall  report  to  the  manager  that  he  is  about  to  employ  him. 

14.  Where  there  is  a  shaft  or  an  inclined  plane  or  level  in  any  mine  for  the  purpose 
of  entrance  to  such  mine,  or  of  comnninication  from  one  part  to  another,  and  persons 
are  taken  up  or  down  or  along  by  means  of  any  engine,  &c.,  or  by  an  animal  or 
manual  labor,  no  person  shall  be  allowed  to  have  chai-ge  of  such  engine,  &c.,  unless 
he  is  a  male,  and  at  least  18  years  of  age. 

Where  the  engine,  windlass,  or  gin  is  worked  by  an  animal,  the  driver  shall  not  be 
under  12  years  of  age. 

10.  No  wages  are  to  be  paid  in  any  public  house,  beer  shop,  or  in  any  office,  garden, 
or  place  belonging  thereto. 

17.  Where  wages  are  paid  according  to  the  amount  of  mineral  gotten  by  each  per- 
son he  shall  be  paid  according  to  the  amount  of  mineral  gotten,  and  such  mineral 
shall  l.)e  truly  weighed. 

Provided  that  nothing  herein  shall  prevent  the  owner  or  agent  or  manager  agreeing 
Avith  the  persons  emidoyed  that  deductions  shall  be  made  in  respect  of  any  stones  or 
materials  which  shall  be  sent  out  of  the  mine  with  the  mineral  contracted  to  be 
gotten,  such  deductions  being  determined  by  the  banksman,  or  weigher  and  check- 
weigher. 

Where  it  is  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Secretary  of  State  that  by  reason  of 
any  exigencies  existing  in  the  case  of  any  mine,  it  is  expedient  that  the  person  em- 
ployed in  such  nnne  should  not  be  paid  by  weight,  the  Secretary  of  State  may,  by 
order,  exempt  such  mine  from  the  provisions  of  this  section  or  postpone  the  payment 
by  weight  fur  a  time  and  niMy  revoke  such  order. 

18.  Persons  employed  where  they  are  paid  according  to  weight  may  appoint  at  their 
own  cost  "a  check-weigher,"  at  the   place  appointed  for  weighing,  to  check  the 


872  LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

weights,  .and  ho  shall  have  every  facility  aflForded  liim  to  take  a  correct  account  o 
the  wi'iohiiig. 

The  check-weigher  is  uot  to  impede  the  workings  or  interfere  in  the  weighing,  but 
only  to  check  the  weiglits. 

Under  the  weights  and  measures  act  of  187H,  there  is  to  be  an  nniformity  of  weights 
and  measures  thr()iiglif)ut  tlie  United  Kingdom.  There  are  provisions  as  to  the  im- 
perial standard  pound,  and  is  the  only  unit  or  standard  measure  of  weight  from  which 
all  other  weights  an<l  all  measures  having  refei'ence  to  weight  shall  be  ascertained. 

A  stone  shall  consist  of  14  pounds,  and  a  hundred-weight  sliali  consist  of  8  such 
stones — that  is,  112  pounds — and  a  ton  shall  consist  of  20  such  huudred-weiglits — 
that  is,  2,240  pounds.  . 

SINGLE   SHAFTS. 

20.  The  owner,  agent,  or  manager  of  a  mine  shall  not  employ  any  person  in  such 
mine,  unless  there  are  in  comuiuuication  with  every  seam  of  such  mine  for  the  time 
being  at  work,  at  least  two  shafts  or  outlets  separated  by  natural  strata  of  not  less 
than  10  feet  in  breadtli,  and  distinct  means  of  ingress  and  egiess,  nor  unless  thei"e  is  a 
conununication  4  feet  liigli  and  '.i  feet  wide  between  such  two  shafts  or  outlets,  nor 
nnless  there  is  at  each  of  such  two  shafts  or  outlets  for  use  within  a  reasonable  time, 
proper  apparatus  for  raising  jjcrsons  at  each  such  shaft  or  outlet. 

21.  No  i)erson  shall  be  precluded  by  any  agreement  fr(mi  ])roviding  a  second  shaft 
or  outlet,  or  be  liable  to  any  penalty  or  forfeiture  for  doing  such  acts  as  may  be  nec- 
essary in  order  to  comply  with  this  act  with  respect  to  shafts  or  ouflets. 

22.  The  provisious  of  this  act  with  respect  to  shafts  and  outlets  shall  not  apply  in 
the  following  cases: 

(1)  In  case  of  opening  a  new  mine  or  for  making  a  communication  betweeir  two  or 
more  shafts  so  long  as  not  more  than  20  persons  are  employed  below  ground  at  any 
one  time  in  the  whole  of  the  different  seams. 

(2)  In  case  of  any  proved  mine  so  long  as  it  is  exempted  in  writing  by  a  secretary 
of  state  on  the  ground  either — 

(a)  That  the  quantity  of  mineral  proved  is  not  sufficient  to  repay  the  outlay  which 

would  be  occasioned  by  making  a  second  outlet. 
(&)  If  the  mine  is  not  a  coal  mine  or  a  mine  wilhintiammable  gas  that  provisious 

have  been  made  to  guard  against  danger; 
(c)  That  the  woriviugs  in  any  seam  have  reached  the  boundary  of  the  property, 

and  it  is  expedient  to  work  away  the  pillars  already  formed  in  the  course 

of  working,  and  so  long  as  there  are  not  employed  more  than  20  persons  in 

the  mine. 

(3)  In  case  one  of  the  shafts  lias  become,  by  reason  of  accident,  unavailable  for  the 
use  of  persons  employed  in  the  mine,  and  exempted  in  writing  by  the  secretary  of 
8  ate. 

DIVISION   OF   MINES   INTO   PARTS. 

25.  Where  two  or  luore  parts  of  a  mine  are  worked  separately,  the  owner  or  agent 
may  give  notice  in  writing  to  that  eti'ect  to  the  inspector  and  thereupon  each  part 
shall  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  be  a  separate  mine. 

The  secretary  of  state  may  object  to  such  division  if  he  considers  it  tends  to  lead  to 
the  evasion  of  the  act. 

CERTIFICATED   MANAGERS. 

20.  Every  mine  shall  be  under  the  control  and  daily  supervision  of  a  manager. 

Such  numager  must  be  registered  as  tlie  Iioldcsr  of  a  certificate  under  tiiis  act. 

But  a  mine  in  whidi  less  than  W  persons  are  emj)loyed  below  ground  or  of  which 
the  average  daily  out])ut  does  not  exceed  25  tons  shall  be  exempt  from  this  section 
unh  ss  the  inspector  tor  the  district  re(iuires  the  same  to  be  under  the  control  of  a 
manager. 

27.  For  the  purjjose  of  granting  to  managers  certificates  of  compclency,  examiners 
are  to  be  a])i)ointed  by  a  board,  constituted  as  hereinafler  mentioned. 

The  secretary  of  state  is  to  api)oint  fit  jiersous  to  form  sucji  board,  as  follows:  Tliree 
persons  on  the  board  shall  bo  owners  of  mines,  and  three  persons  em))loyed  in  or  about 
a  mine  not  being  owners,  agents,  or  managers,  and  three  persons  practicing  as  mining 
engineers,  agents,  or  mamigers  of  mines  or  coal  viewers,  and  one  inspector  under  this 
act. 

28.  The  proceedings  of  the  board  shall  be  Iti  accordance  with  the  rules  contained, 
in  the  Scliednle  2  to  this  act.     The  board  sluiU  ai)point  examiners  not  being  members 
of  the  l)oard,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  secretary  of  state,  to  conduct  the  exam- 
nations. 

2D.  Such  secretary  may  alter,  revoke,  and  makb  ruhss  !is  to  the  times  and  ])laces  of 
the  examinations,  the  number  and  renumeratiou  of  the  examiners,  and  the  foes  to  be 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  ^I'd 

paid  by  the  applicants,  but  the  fees  are  not  to  exceed  those  specified  in  Schedule  1 
of  the  net. 

30.  The  secretary  of  state  is  to  deliver  to  every  applicant  who  is  duly  reported  to 
have  passed  tlie  examination  and  given  evidence  of  his  sobriety,  ability,  experience, 
and  general  good  conduct  a  certiticate  of  competency. 

31.  Ct^rtificates  of  service  are  to  be  granted  by  the  secretary  of  state  to  every  per- 
son who  held  the  position  of  manager  of  a  mine  for  a  period  of  twelve  months  at  any- 
time within  five  years  hrfore  the  jiassing  of  this  act. 

A  certilicate  of  service  shall  have  the  same  effir-ct  as  a  certificate  of  competency. 

82.  If  any  inspector  is  of  oj'inion  that  any  manager  holding  a  certificate  is,  by  in- 
competency or  gross  negligence,  unfit-  to  discharge  his  duties,  he  may  give  notice  to 
the  secretary  of  state,  wiio,  if  he  thinks  fit,  may  cause  an  iminiry  to  be  made,  and 
with  respect  to  such  inquii'y,  the  f<)lh)wing  provisions  shall  have  etfect : 

(1)  The  inqttiry  shall  be  public,  and  made  by  such  county  court  judge,  stipendiary 
magistrate,  or  other  person  or  persons,  either  alone  or  with  the  assistance  of  assessors, 
as  tlie  secretary  of  state  shall  direct. 

(2)  The  secretary  of  state  shall,  before  the  commencement  of  the  inquiry,  furnish  to 
the  manager  a  statement  of  the  case  upon  which  tlie  inquiry  is  instituted'. 

(8)  Some  person  appointed  by  the  secretary  of  state  sliall  undertake  the  manage- 
ment of  the  case. 

(4)  The  manager  may  attend  the  iminiry  by  himself  or  with  his  counsel,  attorney, 
or  agent,  and  may,  if  he  think  fit,  be  sworn  and  examined  as  an  ordinary  witness. 

(.5)  The  person  appointed  to  hear  the  case  (called  the  court)  shall,  at  the  conclusion, 
send  to  the  secretary  of  state  a  report  containing  a  full  statement  of  the  incjniry. 

(6)  The  court  shall  have  pouer  to  suspend  or  cancel  the  certificate  if  they  think 
that  he  is  unfit  to  discharge  his  duty,  through  incompetency  or  gross  negligence. 

(7)  The  court  may  require  a  manager  to  deliver  up  his  certificate,  and  shall  hold 
such  certificate  until  the  conclusion  of  the  case,  and  shall  then  either  cancel,  suspend, 
or  restore  according  to  tht- judgment. 

(8)  The  court  shall  have  all  the  powers  of  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction,  and  ali 
the  powers  of  the  inspector  under  this  act. 

(9)  The  court  may  also  require  the  attendance  of  all  such  persons  as  they  think  fit 
and  allow  their  expenses. 

88.  'i'lie  court  may  make  such  order  as  they  think  fit  respecting  the  costs  and  ex- 
penses of  the  inquiry. 

8.5.  Where  any  certificate  has  been  lost,  on  proof  of  such  loss,  to  the  secretary  of 
state,  anew  one  maybe  granted  upon  payment  of  the  fee  specified  in  Schedule  1  to 
the  act. 

RETURNS,    NOTICKS,    AND    ABANDONMENT. 

88.  On  or  before  1st  February  in  every  year  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  of  every 
mine  shall  send  to  the  inspector  of  the  district  a  correct  return  of  the  quantity  of 
coal  or  other  mineral  wrought  in  such  mine,  and  the  number  of  persons  employed  be- 
low and  above  ground,  and  the  ages,  sex,  &c.,  of  persons  so  employed  whose  hours  of 
labor  are  regulated,  such  return  to  be  made  up  to  the  preceding  31st  December. 

The  secretary  of  state  may  publish  the  tu/{p-e<)nte  results  of  such  returns  with  respect 
to  any  particular  county,  &c.,  but  the  individual  return  shall  not  be  published  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  owner  of  the  mine. 

89.  Where  in  oi-  about  a  mine,  whether  above  or  below  the  ground,  loss  of  li^!  or 
other  personal  injury  to  any  person  emjiloyed  occurs  by  reason  of  any  explosion  of  gas, 
powder,  or  of  any  steam-boiler,  or  of  any  accident  whatever,  tlie  owner,  agent,  or  man- 
ager shall  within  24  hours  next  after  the  explosion  or  accident  send  notice  in  writ- 
ing to  the  inspector,  of  such  explosion  or  accident,  and  the  loss  of  life  or  yiersonal 
Injury  occasioned,  and  specify  the  character  of  the  exjilosion  or  accident  and  the  num- 
ber of  jiersons  killed  or  injured. 

Where  any  personal  injui-y  of  which  notice  is  required  to  be  so  sent  results  in  the 
death  of  the  injured  person,  notice  in  writing  shall  be  sent  to  the  inspector  within  24 
hours  iifter  <leath. 

40.  When  any  working  is  commenced  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  new  shaft  or 
where  a  shaft  is  abandoned  or  where  a  shaft  is  reconimenced  after  any  abandonment 
or  discontinuance  for  a  period  of  2  months,  or  where  any  change  in  the  name  of  the 
owner,  agent,  or  manager  occurs,  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  shall,  within  two 
months,  give  notice  thereof  to  the  inspector. 

41.  If  a  mine  is  abandoned,  or  the  working  discontinued,  the  owner  shall  cause  the 
top  of  the  shaft  and  any  side  entrance  from  the  surface  to  be  securely  fenced  for  the 
prevention  of  accidents. 

42.  Where  any  mine  is  abandoned,  the  owner  shall,  within  3  months,  send  to  the 
eecrefary  of  state  an  accurate  plan  on  a  scale  of  2  chains  to  an  inch,  showing  the 
boundaries  of  the  workings  up  to  the  time  of  abandonment. 


874  LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND. 

INSPECTIOX. 

4S.  The  secretary  of  state  is  to  appoint  the  inspectors,  assign  their  duties,  and 
award  their  sahiries,  and  may  remove  such  inspectors. 

Notice  of  the  appointment  of  every  such  inspector  shall  be  published  in  the  London 
Gazette. 

44.  Any  person  who  is  in  any  way  interested  in  any  mine  shall  not  be  appointed 
insi>ector. 

45.  An  inspector  shall  have  power  to  make  such  examination  and  inquiry  as  he 
thinks  necessary,  to  see  if  the  provisions  relating  to  matters  above  and  below  ground 
are  complied  with,  also  to  enter,  inspect,  and  examine  any  nnue  at  all  reasonable  times 
by  day  or  night,  and  also  to  examine  the  condition  of  any  mine  and  the  ventilators 
thereof  and  all  matters  relating  to  the  safety  of  the  persons  employed,  and  to  exercise 
such  other  powers  as  may  be  necessary  for  carrying  this  act  into  effect. 

4().  If  an  inspector  shall  find  anything  dangerous  or  defective  which  shall  tend  to 
the  bodily  injury  of  any  person,  he  may  give  notice  thereof  to  the  owner,  agent,  or 
manager,  and  recjuire  the  same  to  be  remedied.  If  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  ob- 
jects to  rempdy  the  matters,  he  may  give  20  days'  notice  of  his  objection  to  the  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  then  the  matter  complained  of  is  to  be  referred  to  arbitration  as 
provided  by  the  act. 

47.  Tlie  owner,  agent,  or  manager  shall  keep  in  the  ofi&ce  at  the  mine  a  plan  of  the 
workings  of  such  mine  and  showing  the  workings  up  to  at  least  six  months  previously, 
and  shall  produce  such  plan  when  required  by  an  inspector  for  inspection,  but  the  in- 
spc'ctor  sball  not  be  authorized  to  make  a  copy. 

4y.  The  inspector  is  to  make  an  annual  report  of  his  jn'oceedings  during  the  pre- 
ceding year  and  forward  it  to  the  secretary  of  state,  who  is  to  present  it  to  both 
houses  of  parliament.  The  said  inspector  may  be  required  by  the  seci'etary  of  state 
to  make  a  special  report  of  any  accident  where  loss  of  life  or  injury  to  persons  has 
occurred. 

ARBITRATION. 

49.  With  respect  to  arbitrations  under  the  act,  the  parties  are  to  be  the  owner, 
agent,  or  manager  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  inspector  of  mines  (on  behalf  of  the  sec- 
retary of  state)  on  the  other;  and  various  sectinusare  enacted  as  to  the  time  within 
which  any  award  is  to  be  made. 

CORONERS. 

50.  With  I'espect  to  coroners'  inquests  on  the  bodies  of  persons  whose  death  may 
have  been  caused  by  explosions  or  accidents  in  mines,  the  following  i>rovisions  have 
effect : 

(1)  Wliere  a  coroner  holds  an  inquest  upon  the  body  of  any  person  killed  by  ex- 
plosion or  accident,  the  inquest  must  be  adjourned  unless  the  inspector  or  some  per- 
son on  behalf  of  the  secretary  of  state  is  present. 

(2)  The  coroner  4  days  before  the  adjourned  inquest  shall  send  to  the  inspector  no- 
tice in  writing  of  the  time  and  place  of  holding  the  adjourned  inquest. 

(;5)  The  coroner  before  adjournment  may  take  evidence  to  identify  the  body  and 
inay  order  interment  thereof. 

(4)  If  any  explosion  or  accident  has  not  occasioned  the  death  of  more  than  one  per- 
son and  the  coroner  has  sent  notice  to  the  inspector  of  the  time  and  place  of  holding 
the  inquest  not  less  than  48  hours  before  holding  the  inquest,  it  sball  not  be  impera- 
tive to  adjourn  on  aticount  of  non-attendance  of  the  inspector  if  the  jury  think  it  un- 
necessary so  to  adjourn. 

(5)  An  inspector  shall,  subject  to  tire  order  of  the  coroner,  be  at  liberty  to  examine 
any  witness. 

((>)  Wliere  evidence  is  given — at  an  uif(U(!st  and  the  inspector  is  not  present — of 
any  <lefcct  in  or  about  tlio  mine  wliicli  has  caused  tlie  explosion  or  accident,  the  coro- 
ner shall  seiul  th<i  inspector  notice  in  writing  of  such  defect. 

(7)  Any  person  interested  in  any  mine  wliere  anaccidentor  explosion  has  occurred 
siiall  be  (pialilied  to  serve  on  a  jury  on  the  imjuest. 

Part  II. 

UULKS. 

General  rules. 

51.  The  following  rules  shall  be  observed  so  far  as  is  reasonably  practicable: 

(1)  An  ade,qu;it<!  amount  of  ventilation  shall  be  constantly  produced  in  every  mine 
in  tlie  shal'ts,  workings,  levels,  and  stables. 

(2)  Where  inllammable  gas  has  been  found  within  the  precpdiug  12  mouths,  once  in 
«very  24  hours  if  one  shift  of  workmen  is  employed,  and  once  in  every  12  hours  if  two 


LABOR    IN    EUROPE ENGLAND.  875 

shifts  are  employed  during  any  24  hours  a  competeut  person  who  shall  be  appointed 
for  the  purpose  shall  before  time  for  commeuciug  work,  in  auy  part  of  the  miue,  in- 
spect with  a  safety  lamp  that  part  of  the  mine  and  the  roadways  leading  thereto  and 
shall  make  a  true  report  of  the  condition  thereof  so  far  as  ventilation  is  concernid, 
and  no  workman  shall  be  allowed  to  go  in  such  part  until  it  is  stated  to  be  safe. 

{'A)  Where  no  gas  has  been  found  within  the  preceding  12  months,  then  once  in  every 
24  hours  a  competent  person  shall,  before  time  for  commencing  work,  inspect  with  a 
safety-lamp  that  part  of  the  miue  and  roadway  leading  thereto,  and  make  a  true  re- 
port so  far  as  ventilation  is  concerned,  and  no  workman  shall  be  allowed  to  go  in 
such  part  until  it  is  stated  to  be  safe.  Every  such  report  is  to  be  recorded  without 
delay  in  a  book  to  be  kei)t  at  the  mine  for  the  purpose,  and  must  be  signed  by  the 
person  making  the  same. 

(4)  All  entrances  to  any  place  not  in  actual  working  are  to  be  fenced  across  the 
■whole  width  of  such  entrance,  so  as  to  prevent  persons  inadvertently  entering  the 
same. 

(.'">)  A  station  or  stations  shall  be  appointed  at  the  entrance  to  the  mine,  and  a  work- 
man shall  not  pass  beyond  such  entrance  until  the  mine  or  part  of  the  mine  beyond 
the  same  has  been  inspected  and  stated  to  be  safe. 

(6)  If  at  any  time  the  i)erson  in  charge  for  the  time  being  shall  find  any  noxious  gas 
in  the  mine  or  any  part  thereof,  the  workmen  shall  be  innnediately  witlidrawn,  and 
such  person  with  a  locked  safety-lamp  shall  examine  the  miue  and  make  a  true  report 
to  be  entered  in  a  book  kept  for  t'le  purpose,  and  no  workman  shall  be  permitted  to 
work  in  the  mine  again  until  it  has  been  pronounced  safe. 

(7)  No  light  or  lamp  other  than  a  locked  safety-lamp  shall  be  allowed  in  any  working 
where  there  is  likely  to  l>e  an  accumulation  of  gas,  and  every  safety-lamp  shall  be  exam- 
ined by  a  competent  pei'son,  to  be  appointed  for  the  purpose,  before  it  is  used  in  the 
mine,  so  as  to  ascertain  if  it  be  secure  and  safely  locked,  and  no  person  unless  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose  shall  be  allowed  to  have;}  key  or  contrivance  for  opening  the 
lock  of  any  safety  lamp,  or  any  lucifer  match  or  apparatus  of  any  kind  for  striking  a 
light. 

(8)  Gunpowder  or  other  explosive  shall  only  be  used  in  the  mine  underground  as 
follows  : 

(a)  It  shall  not  be  stored  in  the  miue. 

(b)  It  shall  not  be  taken  into  the  mine,  except  in  a  case  or  canister  containing  not 

more  than  four  pounds. 

(c)  A  workman  shall  not  have  in  use  at  one  time,  in  any  one  place,  more  than  one  of 

such  cases  or  canisters. 

(d)  In  charging  holes  for  blasting,  an  iron  or  steel  pricker  shall  not  be  used, 

and  a  person  shall  not  have  in  his  possession  underground  any  iron  or  steel 
pricker,  and  an  iron  or  steel  tamping  rod  or  stemmer  shall  not  be  used  for 
ramming  either  the  wadding  or  the  first  part  of  the  tamping  or  stemming 
on  the  powder. 

(e)  A  charge  of  powder  which  has  missed  fire  shall  not  be  unrammed. 

(/)  It  shall  not  be  taken  into,  or  be  in  the  possession  of,  any  person  in  any  mine 
except  in  cartridges,  and  shall  not  be  used  except  in  accordance  with  fol- 
lowing regulations  during  three  months  after  any  inflammable  gas  has  been 
found  in  any  mine,  namely :  (1)  A  competent  person,  who  shall  be  appointed 
for  the  pur|)0se,  shall,  before  firing  the  shot,  examine  the  place  where  it  is 
to  be  used  and  the  places  contiguous  thereto,  and  shall  not  allow  the  shot 
to  be  fired  unless  he  finds  it  safe  to  do  so,  and  a  shot  shall  not  be  tired  ex- 
cept under  the  control  of  a  competent  jjcrson,  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
(2)  If  the  said  inflammable  gas  issued  so  freely  that  it  caused  a  blue  cap  on 
the  flame  of  the  safety  lamp  it  shall  only  be  used:  (a)  either  in  those  cases 
of  stone  drifts,  stone-work,  and  sinking  of  shafts  in  which  the  ventilation 
is  so  managed  that  the  return  air  from  the  place  where  the  powder  is  used 
passes  into  the  main  return  air  course  without  passing  any  place  in  actual 
course  of  working,  or  (&)  when  the  persons  ordinarily  employed  in  the  mine 
are  out  of  the  mine. 

(g)  Where  a  mine  is  divided  into  several  panels,  so  that  each  panel  has  an  inde- 
pendent return  air-way  from  the  main  air-course,  the  provisions  of  this  act 
relating  to  gunpowder  or  other  explosives  shall  apply  to  each  such  panel 
as  if  it  weie  a  separate  miue. 

(9)  Where  a  place  is  likely  to  contain  a  dangerous  amount  of  water,  the  working 
approaching  such  place  shall  not  exceed  8  feet  in  width,  and  then  shall  constantly  be 
kept  not  less  than  5  yards  in  advance  one  bore-hole  near  the  center  of  the  working 
and  sufficient  fiank  bore-holes  on  each  side. 

(10)  Every  underground  plane  on  which  persons  travel  which  is  self-acting  or 
worked  by  an  engine  windlass  or  gin  shall  be  provided  (if  exceeding  'AO  yards  in 
length)  with  some  proper  means  of  signalling  between  the  stopping  places  and  the 


876  L\r,OR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND. 

end  of  the  phiiie,  and  sliall  he  provided  in  every  case,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  20 
yards  with  suflieient  nian-lioles  for  places  of  refnge. 

(11)  Every  road  on  whieh  persons  travel  nndergronnd  where  the  load  is  drawn  Ijy 
a  liorse  or  otliei- animal  shall  be  piovided  at  intervals  of  every  50  yards  with  man- 
holes or  ])laces  of  refnge,  and  at  least  '.i  feet  in  width  between  the  wagons  running  on 
the  tramroad  and  th<^  side  of  snch  road. 

(12)  Every  njan-hole  and  spaee  for  a  place  of  refnge  shall  be  kept  clear,  and  noth- 
ing shall  be  jdaced  therein  so  as  to  prevent  access  thereto. 

(V.i)  The  top  of  every  shaft  which  is  not  in  nse  or  used  only  as  an  air-shaft  shall  be 
securely  fenced. 

(14)  The  top,  and  all  entrances  between  the  top  and  bottom  of  every  working  or 
pnmping  shaft,  shall  be  properly  fenced. 

(15)  When  the  natural  strata  are  not  safe  every  working  or  pnmping-ehaft  shall  be 
securely  cased  or  lined. 

(16)  The  roof  and  sides  of  every  traveling  road  and  working  place  shall  be  made 
secure,  and  no  person  shall  pass  or  repass  except  for  exploring^  &c.,  if  the  roofs  and 
sifles  are  not  made  secure. 

(17)  Where  there  is  a  downcast  and  furnace  shaft,  and  both  such  shafts  are  pro- 
vided with  apjiaratus  for  raising  and  lowering  persons,  every  person  employed  in  the 
mine  shall  have  the  option  of  using  the  downcast  shaft  on  giving  reasonable  notice. 

(18)  In  any  mine  which  is  usually  entered  by  means  of  machinery,  a  competent  per- 
son of  such  age  as  prescribed  by  this  act  shall  be  ai)pointed  for  the  working  of  tht^ 
machinery. 

(19)  Every  working  shaft  used  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  minerals,  or  for  the  low- 
ering and  raising  of  persons,  shall,  if  more  than  .^.0  yards  in  de)»th,  be  provided  with 
guides  and  some  proper  means  of  signalling  from  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  to  the  sur- 
face, and  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom. 

(2U)  A  sufticient  cover  overhead  shall  be  used  when  lowering  or  raising  persons  in 
every  working  shaft,  except  where  it  is  worked  by  a  windlass  or  where  the  person 
employed  is  repairing  the  shaft. 

(21)  A  single-linked  chain  shall  not  be  used  for  lowering  or  raising  persons  except 
for  the  short  coupling  chain  attached  to  the  cage. 

(22)  There  shall  be  on  the  drum  of  every  machine  used  for  lowering  or  raising  per- 
sons snch  flanges  or  horns  as  may  be  suilicient  to  prevent  the  rope  from  slipping. 

(23)  There  shall  be  attached  to  every  machine  worked  by  steati,  water,  or  mechan- 
ical power,  and  used  for  lowering  or  raising  persons,  an  adequate  brake,  and  also 
a  proper  indicator  (in  addition  to  any  mark  on  the  rope)  which  shows  to  the  person 
who  woiks  tli(i  machine  the  position  of  the  cage  in  the  shaft. 

(24)  Every  fly-wheel  and  all  exposed  machinery  in  and  about  the  mine  must  be  se- 
curely fenced. 

(25)  Every  steam  boiler  shall  be  provided  with  a  steam-gauge  and  water-gauge, 
and  with  a  proper  safety-valve. 

(26)  Alter  daugerons  gas  has  been  found  in  any  mine,  a  barometer  and  thermometer 
shall  be  placed  above  ground  in  a  conspicuous  ])lace  near  the  entrance. 

(27)  No  person  shall  wilfully  move  or  damage,  without  pro[)er  authority,  any  fenc- 
ing, casing,  lining,  gni<le,  or  other  appliance  used  in  or  about  a  mine. 

(28)  Every  ])ersi)n  shall  observe  such  directions  as  may  bo  given  him  with  a  view 
to  comply  with  this  act  or  the  special  rules. 

(29)  A  competent  i)erson  or  persons  shall,  once  in  every  24  hours,  examine  the  state  of 
the  external  parts  of  the  machinery  and  the  state  of  the  head  gear,  working  places, 
levels,  ])lanes,  ro])es,  chains,  and  otlnsr  works  whicti  are  in  actual  use,  and  once  in  every 
week  the  state  of  tht;  shafts  and  the  guides  or  conductors  therein,  and  shall  uuike  a  true 
report  of  each  examination,  which  report  shall  be;  recorded  in  a  book  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose and  signed  by  the  jxuson  nuikingthe  examination. 

(30)  The  ]>ersons  employed  in  a  mine  may  at  their  own  cf^sts  appoint  two  of  their 
number,  fiom  time  to  time,  to  inspi^ct  the  mine,  and  th(\v  shall  bo  allowed  once  at 
least  in  every  nnnith,  accompanie(i,  iftheowniu-  thinks  tit,  by  tin;  nianag<n",  or  agent, 
or  himself,  to  go  to  every  i)art  of  the  mine,  and  every  facility  shall  be  afforded  for  such 
insjx'ction,  an<l  th(^y  shall  make  a  true  report  of  the  result  of  snch  insi)eotion,  such 
repoit  to  be  enteicd  in  a  l)ook  kept  at  the  mine  for  the  purpose,  and  shall  be  signed 
by  th(!  persons  who  made  the  same. 

(31)  The  books  m(tntioned  in  this  section,  or  a  copy  theieof,  shall  be  ke])t- at  tht^ 
olilice  of  the  mine,  and  any  inspector,  and  any  ])erson  employed  in  the  mine  may,  at 
all  reasonable  times,  insi)ect  and  take  copies  of  and  extracts  from  any  such  books. 

Special  rules. 

52.  There  shall  bo  established  in  every  mine  such  rules  (referred  to  in  this  act  as 
special  rules)  lor  the  conduct  and  guidance  of  the  ]iersons  acting  in  the  management 
of  the  mine  or  employed  in  or  about  the  same  as  may  appear  best  calculated  to  pre- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  877 

veut  dangerous  accidents  and  to  ])rovide  for  the  safety  and  proper  discipline  of  the 
persons  employed;  such  special  rules  shall  he  signed  hy  the  inspector  fif  the  district. 

53.  The  owner,  agent,  or  juanager  shall  frame  and  transmit  for  api)ioval  by  the  sec- 
retary of  state  the  special  rules  within  3  mouths  after  the  commencement  of  the  act  or 
within  3  months  after  the  counnencejiient  of  any  working  for  the  jjurpose  of  opening 
a  new  mine  or  of  renewing  an  working  of  an  old  mine. 

Any  of  the  persons  employed  may,  by  notice  in  writing  to  the  inspector,  object  to 
all  or  any  of  the  special  rules. 

If  the  rules  are  not  objected  to  by  the  secretary  of  state  within  40  days  after  their 
receipt  by  the  inspector  they  shall  be  established. 

54.  If  the  secretary  of  stare  is  of  opinion  that  such  special  rules,  or  any  of  thein, 
do  not  suflBciently  provide  for  the  ])revention  of  accidents  or  for  the  safety  of  the  per- 
sons employed,  or  are  unreasonable,  he  may  within  40  days  object  to  such  rules,  and 
]»ropose  to  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  in  writing  any  modifications  in  the  rules,  by 
way  either  of  omission,  alteration,  substitution,  or  addition. 

If  the  owner,  &c.,  does  not  within  'id  days  after  the  modifications  proposed  by  the 
secretary  of  state  are  received  by  him  object  in  writing  to  them  the  special  rules  as 
altered  shall  be  established. 

If  the  owner,  &c.,  object  to  the  alterations  they  may  be  referred  to  arbitration,  and 
shall  then  be  settled  by  the  award  of  the  arbitrators. 

.^)5.  After  the  establishment  of  such  rales  the  owner,  &c.,  or  the  secretary  of  state, 
may  from  time  to  time  propose  in  writing  any  amendment  of  such  rules  or  any  new 
special  rnles,  and  the  ])rovisions  of  the  act  as  to  the  original  special  rules  shall  apply 
to  all  such  autendments  and  new  rules. 

57.  For  the  purjiose  of  making  known  the  special  rules  and  the  provisions  of  this 
act  to  all  employed,  an  abstract  to  be  8U]>plied  by  the  inspector,  and  an  entire  copy 
of  the  special  rules,  shall  be  published  as  follows : 

(1)  The  owner,  &c.,  shall  cause  such  abstract  and  rules,  with  the  name  and  address 
of  the  inspector  and  the  name  of  the  owner,  &c.,  appended  th«M-eto,  to  be  posted  up 
in  legible  characters  in  some  consi)icuous  place  at  or  near  the  mine. 

(2)  The  owner,  agent,  &c.,  shall  suj)ply  a  printed  copy  of  the  abstract  and  special 
rules  gratis  to  each  person  employed  in  the  mine  who  applies  for  the  same. 

(3)  Every  copy  of  the  special  rnles  shall  he  kept  distinct  from  any  rules  which  de-- 
pend  only  on  the  contract  between  the  employer  and  employed. 

Part  III. 

SUPPLEMENTAL. 

Penalties. 

There  are  many  clauses  imposing  penalties,  and  in  gome  cases  imprisonment,  for  non- 
compliance with  the  act,  general  rnles,  or  special  rnles,  with  power  in  certain  cases 
to  appeal  to  the  quarter  sessions,  but  these  are  mere  matters  of  local  procedure. 

63.  (1)  All  proceedings  must  be  taken  within  3  months  from  the  time  when  the  mat- 
ter of  complaint  arose. 

(4)  The  owner,  agent,  or  manager  may  be  examined  as  a  witness  where  he  is  charged 
in  respect  of  any  contravention  or  non-compliance  by  another  person. 

64.  No  prosecution  shall  be  instituted  against  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  except 
by  an  inspector  or  with  the  consent,  in  writing,  of  the  secretary  of  state. 

67.  A  person  who  is  the  owner,  agent,  or  manager  of  a  mine  to  which  this  act  ap- 
plies, or  the  father,  son,  or  brother  of  such  owner,  agent,  or  manager,  is  disqualified 
from  acting  as  a  magistrate  in  respect  of  any  olfeuse  under  this  act. 

Mi8eella7ieou8. 

72.  In  this  act,  unless  the  context  otherwise  requires — 

The  term  "  mine"  includes  every  shaft  in  the  course  of  being  sunk,  every  level  and 
inclined  plane  in  the  course  of  being  driven  for  commencing  or  opening  ariy  mine,  or 
for  searching  for  or  proving  minerals,  and  all  shafts,  levels,  planes,  works,  machinery, 
tramways,  and  sidings,  both  above  and  below  ground,  and  belonging  to  the  mine. 

The  term  "  shaft  "  includes  pit. 

Ihe  term  "  plan"  includes  a  map  and  section,  or  a  correct  copy  or  tracing  of  any 
original  plan  as  so  defined. 

The  term  "owner,"  when  used  in  relation  to  any  mine,  means  any  person  or  body 
corporate  who  is  the  immediate  proprietor,  or  lessee,  or  occupier,  but  does  not  include 
a  person  or  body  corporate  who  merely  receives  royalry,  rent,  or  fine  from  a  mine,  or 
is  merely  the  proprietor  subject  to  any  lease,  grant,  or  license  for  the  working  thereof, 
or  is  merely  the  owner  of  the  soil,  and  not  interested  in  the  minerals;  but  any  con- 


878  LABOR    IN    EUKOPE  — ENGI.AND. 

tractor  for  the  working  of  any  miiu'  shall  be  subject  to  this  act.  but  so  as  not  to 
exempt  the  owner  from  liability. 

The  term  "agent,"  when  used  in  relation  to  any  mine,  means  any  person  having 
the  care  or  direction  of  sncli  mine,  or  aTiy  i)art  thereof. 

The  term  '*  sei^retary  of  state"  means  one  of  Her  Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of 
state.  ' 

The  term  "  child  "  means  a  child  under  the  age  of  13  years. 

The  term  "  young  person"  means  a  person  of  the  age  of  13  years  and  under  the  ago 
cf  16  years. 

The  term  '•  woman  "  means  a  female  of  the  age  of  16  years  and  upwards. 

SCHEDULES. 

Schedule  1. 

Table  of  maximum  fees  to  be  paid  in  respect  of  certificates  of  managers  of  mines  : 
By  an  applicant  for  examination,  £2 ;  by  applicant  for  certificate  of  service  for  regis- 
tration, 58. ;  for  copy  of  certificate,  5s. 

Sc^iedule  2. 

Proceedings  of  board  for  examination  : 

1.  The  board  shall  meet  tor  the  dispatch  of  business  and  shall  make  such  regula- 
tions with  respect  to  summoning,  notice,  place,  management,  and  adjournment  of 
such  meetings,  and  generally  with  respect  to  the  transaction  and  management  of 
business,  including  the  quorum  at  meetings  of  the  board,  as  they  think  fit,  subject  to 
the  following  conditions : 

(a)  The  first  meeting  shall  be  summoned  by  the  inspector,  and  held  on  such  day 

as  may  be  fixed  by  the  secretary  of  state. 
(6)  An  extraordinary  meeting  maybe  held  at  anytime  on  the  written  requisition 

of  3  members. 

(c)  The  quorum  shall  not  be  less  than  3  members. 

(d)  Every  questiofi   shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes  of  the  members 

present. 

(e)  The  names  of  members  present,  also  of  those  voting,  shall  be  recorded. 

(/)  No  business  shall  be  transacted  unless  notice  in  writing  of  such  business  haa 
been  sent  to  every  member  of  the  board  seven  days,  at  least,  before  the 
meeting. 

2.  A  chairman  and  vice-chairman  shall  be  appointed. 

3.  If  the  chairman  is  not  present,  the  vice-chairman  shall  be  chairman;  if  neither 
are  present,  then  the  members  present  shall  cljoose  a  chairman. 

4.  In  case  of  an  equality  of  votes  the  chairman  for  the  time  being  shall  have  a  second 
or  casting  vote. 

5.  The  appointment  of  an  examiner  may  be  made  by  a  minute  of  the  board  signed 
by  the  chairman. 

6.  The  board  shall  keep  minutes  of  their  proceedings,  which  may  be  inspected  or 
copied  by  a  secretary  of  state  or  any  person  authorized  by  him  to  inspect  or  copy  the- 
same. 


[43  and  44  Victoria,  chapter  42.     Royal  assent  given  September  7,  1880.] 

AN  ACT  TO  EXTEND  AND  REGULATE  THE  LIABILITY  OF  EMPLOYERS 
TO  MAKE  COMPENSATION  FOR  PERSONAL  INJURIES  SUFFERED  BY 
WORKMEN  IN  THEIR  SERF-ICE.'' 

{Supplement  fo  Connul  Lane^s  report.) 

EPITOME   OF   ACT. 

Section  1.  Where  personal  injury  is  caused  to  a  workman — 

(1)  By  reason  of  any  defects  in  machinery  works,  ways,  or  plant ;  or, 

(2)  Negligence  of  any  persons  in  service  of  tlie  emi)loyer  who  has  any  superin- 
tendence entrusted  to  him  whilst  in  exercise  of  such  superintendence;  or, 

(3)  By  reason  of  negligence  of  any  person  in  the  service  of  the  employer  and  whose 

*  Before  this  act  a  workman  was  not  entitled  to  any  compensation  for  injury  sus- 
tained through  the  negligence  of  any  fellow-workman  in  the  same  employ. 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  8 7 J) 

orders  and  comniauds  the  workmen  are  bound  to  obey,  wliere  the  injury  was  caused 
whilst  performing  sucli  ordcr.s;  or, 

(4)  By  reason  of  the  act  or  omission  of  any  person  in  service  of  the  employer  made 
in  ol)edience  to  rules  or  instructions  of  the  employer  ;  or, 

(5)  Through  the  negligence  of  any  person  in  the  service  of  the  employer,  who  ha& 
the  control  of  any  signal,  points,  engine  or  train  upon  a  railway — 

the  workman,  or  his  representatives  if  death  occurs,  and  any  persons  entitled  in  case 
of  death,  shall  have  the  same  right  of  compensation  and  remedies  against  the  employer 
as  if  the  workman  bad  not  been  a  workuian  of,  nor  in  the  service  of  the  employer  nor 
engaged  in  his  work. 

2.  A  workman  has  no  remedy  or  compensation  in  the  following  cases : 

(1)  Under  subsection  1  of  section  1  unless  the  defect  therein  mentioned  arose  from 
or  had  not  been  discovered  or  remedied  owing  to  the  employer's  negligence,  or  of 
some  person  in  his  service  and  employ  intrusted  with  duty  of  seeing  that  all  the  ma- 
chinery &c.,  was  in  a  proper  condition. 

(2)  Under  subsection  4  of  section  1,  ui;less  the  injury  arose  from  some  defect  in 
the  rules,  by-haws,  &c. 

(3)  Where  a  workman  knew  of  the  defect  or  negligence  which  caused  his  injury, 
and  did  not  give  notice  of  it  to  the  employer  or  some  person  in  charge,  unless  he  was- 
aware  that  the  employer  or  the  person  in  charge  knew  of  the  defect. 

3.  No  compensation  shall  exceed  such  sum  as  may  be  found  equivalent  to  the  esti- 
mated earnings  of  a  workman  in  the  same  grade  during  three  years  preceding  the 
injury. 

4.  No  action  shall  be  maintained  for  an  injury  without  notice  has  been  given  within 
six  weeks,  and  the  action  commenced  within  six  months,  or,  in  case  of  death,  within 
twelve  months  from  time  of  death. 

5.  If  any  penalty  under  any  other  act  of  Parliament  has  been  obtained  it  shall  be 
deducted  from  the  damages  (if  any)  awarded  under  this  act. 

Where  damages  have  been  obtained  and  paid  under  this  act  no  penalty  under  any 
other  act  shall  he  paid. 

6.  (1)  All  actions  must  be  brought  in  the  county  court,  but  may,  upon  application 

by  either  party,  bo  taken  to  a  superior  court. 

(2)  Upon  trial  in  county  court,  without  jury,  one  or  two  assessors  may  be  ap- 
pointed to  ascertain  the  amount  of  compensation. 

(?.)  Rules  and  regulations  can  be  made  and  repealed  from  time  to  time  for  consol- 
idating and  preventing  multiplicity  of  actions. 

7.  Notice  of  an  injury  shall  give  the  name  and  address  of  the  person  injured,  the 
cause  of  injury,  and  date,  and  shall  be  served  upon  the  employer,  either  by  being  de- 
livered at  his  residence  or  place  of  business,  or  sent  by  post  by  a  registered  letter. 

8.  The  word  "workman"  does  not  include  a  domestic  or  menial  servant,  but  means 
any  person  who  being  a  laborer,  servant  in  husbandry,  journeyman,  artificer,  handi- 
craftsman, miner,  railway  servant,  or  otherwise  engaged  in  manual  labor,  whether 
under  or  over  21  years  of  age,  and  has  entered  into  a  works  under  a  contract  with  an 
employer,  whether  the  contract  be  express  or  implied,  oral  or  in  writing. 


OFFENSES  AGAINST  THE  FACTORY  ACT. 

Mr.  Thomas  Gibson,  owner  of  a  fustian-cutting  manufactory  at  Talke,  was  sum- 
moned by  Mr.  Cramp,  Government  inspector,  for  three  offenses  against  the  factory 
act.  First,  for  allowing  a  girl  to  work  during  the  hours  set  apart  for  meals  ;  second, 
for  employing  the  same  girl  without  obtaining  the  i-equisite  certificate  of  fitness  from 
a  surgeon  ;  and  third,  for  working  a  girl  of  only  thirteen  years  of  age  without  a  cer- 
tificate of  school  attendance.  Defendant  admitted  the  offenses  and  pleaded  that  he 
had  been  away  from  home,  and  the  irregularities  had  occurred  during  his  absence. 
It  appeared,  however,  that  he  had  been  i)reviously  convicted  of  similar  offenses,  and 
the  stipendiary  imposed  lines  and  costs,  amounting  in  all  to  £7  ]9». 


LEGAL  AND  MAGISTERIAL— IMPORTANT  CASE  TO  TOTTERS. 

[Inclosure  in  Consul  Lane's  report.] 

Meakin  v.  Moitis. — In  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  be- 
fore the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England  and  Mr.  Justice  Watkin  Williams,  on  March 
19,  the  case  of  Meakin  v.  Morris  came  on  for  hearing.  We  are  indebted  to  the  Staf- 
fordshire Sentinel  for  the  following  report  of  the  case.  Mr.  Rose  appeared  for  the 
appellant,  and  Mr,  Nash  for  the  respondent. 


880  LABOR  IN  EUROPE  — ENGLAND, 

Mr.  R<jSK,  ill  opening  the  case,  s;iid  that  it  was  a  case  stated  by  the  stipendiary  mag- 
istrate from  the  district  of  the  Staffordshire  potteries,  and  it  raised  a  qnestion  of  some 
considerable  importance  in  that  district,  wliicli  was  whetiier  the  apprenticeship  of  an 
infant  potter  was  void  by  reason  of  there  being  certain  clauses  in  it  as  to  a  tnrn-oiit. 
The  appellant  was  a  manufacturer  of  earthenware,  carrying  on  business  at  'I'nnstall. 
The  respondent  was  an  ai»prentico  to  the  appellant  to  learn  the  art  of  a  hoUowware 
presser,  and  continued  to  work  for  the  ai>pellant  as  such  apprentice  until  December 
'A  last,  on  wliich  day  he  absented  himself  from  the  niaunfactory.  Tlie  api)ellant  sum- 
moued  the  res])oi)(U?nt  before  the,  stipendiary  magistrate  tor  the  district,  iindijr  38 
and  3i)  Vic,  chaj).  UO.  'I'lie  ]):tr!iculars  of  the  case  were  that  the  appellant  claimed 
ail  order  directing  th<^  (h.'fehdant  to  perform  his  duties  under  a  certain  indenture  of 
apprenticeship,  (hited  il.iy  10,  1882,  made  between  the  defendant,  Lewis  Morris,  and 
the  complainant,  the  defendant  having  neglected  his  work  on  Decembers  and  4. 
Counsel  then  re;id  the  iiKhmture,  which  was  put  in  evidence  at  the  police  court,  and 
then  proceeded  to  read  the  case  submitted  to  the  court  by  the  stipendiary.  It  stated 
that  it  was  proved  that  the  respondent  worked  as  an  apprentice  under  the  indenture 
from  the  date  it  was  made  to  Decern l)er  3,  1883,  on  which  day  and  on  the  following 
day  he  absented  himself.  Owing  to  the  journeymen  employed  by  the  compla^iiiant 
not  lieing  able  to  agree  as  to  wages,  there  was  a  turn-out  on  strike  on  November  24, 
1883,  but  it  was  stated  on  the  part  of  the  api»ellant  that  there  was  during  that  turn- 
out plenty  of  work  for. the  respondent  and  the  other  apprentices  to  do,  and  that  there 
was  nothing  to  prevent  the  respondent  earning  the  same  wages  that  he  had  done  u]» 
to  the  time  of  his  absenting  himself  from  the  ma'iufactory,  and  that  the  apprentice 
would  have  no  difficulty,  except  in  the  case  of  a  general  turn-out,  in  getting  temporary 
emi)loynient  with  any  other  mannlacturer.  An  objection  was  taken  for  the  respondent 
that  tile  indenture  was  invalid  on  the  ground  that  he  being  an  infant,  certain  clauses 
therein  contained  wereunfair  or  inequitable,  these  clauses  being  as  folio  vvs  :  "That  the 
said  master  shall  not  be  liable  or  called  upon  to  pay  any  wages  to  the  said  apprentice  so 
long  as  his  business  shall  or  may  be  interrupted  or  impeded  by  or  in  consequence  of  any 
turn-out,  and  the  said  apprentice  is  hereby  expressly  .authorized  and  allowed,  during 
any  such  turn-out,  to  employ  himself  in  any  other  manner,  or  witli  any  other  person, 
for  his  own  benefit."  It  was  contended,  on  the  respondent's  behalf,  that  any  turn-out 
must  necessarily  be  of  uncertain  duration,  and  might  extend  over  a  lengthened  period  ; 
for  the  resi)oudent  would  be  precluded  during  any  turn-out  in  which  the  master's 
business  might  be  interrupted  or  impeded  from  undertaking  any  but  precarious  and 
temporary  employment,  and  be  prevented  from  continuing  to  learn  his  own  or  learn- 
ing any  other  trade.  It  was  contended,  on  behalf  of  the  appellant,  that  the  indent- 
ure was  not  invalid,  and  that  the  stipulations  therein  were  fair  and  reasonable,  and 
were  just  to  both  parties,  especially  in  the  condition  of  trade,  and  that  the  provis- 
ions for  the  stoppage  of  wages  to  the  apprentice  so  long  as  the  master's  business  should 
or  might  be  interrupted  or  impeded  by  or  in  consequence  of  any  turn-out,  were  ren- 
dered fair  and  just  by  the  subsequent  clause  expressly  authorizing  and  allowing  the  ■ 
apprentice  during  any  such  turn-out  to  employ  himself  iu  any  other  manner  and  with 
auy  other  person  for  his  own  benefit.  The  magistrate  was  of  opinion  that  if  the  in- 
denture were  valid  there  was  sufficient  evidence  to  authorize  him  to  order  the  respond- 
ent to  return  and  fnllill  his  contract,  as  he  was  not  satisfied  that  there  was  any  inter- 
ru[ttiou  or  impediment  in  the  appellant's  business,  and  that  there  was  nothing  to  pre- 
vent the  respondent  being  taught  his  trade  and  earning  the  same  wages  as  he  had 
done  up  to  the  time  of  his  absenting  himself  from  the  manufactory.  But  after  con- 
sidering the  clause  above  referred  to,  which,  in  his  opinion,  would  throw  a  doubt 
ujx)!!  the  validity  of  the  indenture,  he  came  with  hesitation  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
was  invalid  for  the  want  of  mutuality,  and  for  this  reason, 'that  there  was  nothing  in 
the  clause  to  prevent  the  master,  when  a  turn-out  took  place,  closing  the  works.  If 
the  works  at  any  time  were  closed,  the  apprentice,  if  the  indenture  were  valid,  would 
be  debarred  from  leaving  his  trade  and  eartdng  wages  for  such  time  (no  matter  how 
long)  that  his  master  might  feel  disposed  to  keep  his  works  closed,  and  yet  would 
liimsclf  not  be  able  to  accept  an  otter  to  work  at  that  or  any  other  trade  or  business 
of  a  itermanent  nature,  or  indeed  of  any  not  of  the  nK)st  temporary  and  precarious 
characttu',  even  if  he  could  get  that,  because  he  would  be  bound  to  return  to  fulfill 
his  contract  under  the  deed  of  apprenticeship  at  auy  moment  his  master  might  call 
upon  him  to  do  so.  The  magistrate  therefore  held  that  the  deed  was  void  for  want  of 
mutuality.  If  this  decision  was  right  the  summons  was  to  stand  dismissed;  but  if 
the  ciuirt  was  of  oi>iuion  that  the  indenture  was  valid,  and  that  the  magistrate  ought 
to  have  so  lu-lil,  then  the  case  was  to  be  remitted  to  the  magistrate  with  such  opinion, 
in  order  that  he  might  mM,ke  the  order  askcMl  for  l)y  the  appellant  that  the  r(\si)ondent 
should  return  to  his  work.  Mr.  Rose  then  procc^edtMl  to  <iuote  cases  in  support  of  his 
coutcutiou  that  the  indenture  was  valid,  and  that  the  respondent  should  be  ordered 
to  reliirn  to  his  work.  IIi5  (|uoted  the  cases  of  the  Queen  r.  Lord,  12  Q  B.  Reports, 
p.  T.'j?;  and  Leslie  v.  Fitzpatrick,  3  Q.  B,  D,,  p,  329.    The  whole  point,  he  said,  as  in- 


LABOR  IN  EUROPE ENGLAND.  881 

tended  to  be  raised,  was  whether  the  provision  to  let  the  apprentice  go  elsewhere  was 
eqnitiil»h\ 

The  Lord  Chief  Justice  said  that  an  infant  should  not  be  bound  by  a  contract 
that,  wjis  prejudicial  to  him,  and  that  had  been  held  to  be  the  law. 

Mr.  Rose  said  it  was  an  advantaj^e  to  the  youths  of  the  district  to  have  an  indent- 
ure of  that  sort.     The  masters  of  the  district  were  willing  to  take  youths  on  certain 
terms. 
The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  What  right  have  the  masters  to  alter  the  law  ? 
Mr.  Rose  said  whether  they  altered  the  law  depended  upon  the  terms  they  offered. 
Thoy  would  not  take  these  infants  if  they  had  to   pay  them  their  wages  diiriug  the 
strike. 
The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  Then  they  would  not  obey  the  law. 
Mr.  Rose.    They  are  not  bouud  by  law  to  take  apprentices. 

The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  No;  but  if  they  take  them  they  are  bound  by  the  law. 
There  is  n<>t  one  law  for  tiie  master  and  another  for  apprentices. 

Mr.  Rose.  Is  it  not  fair  for  a  master  to  say,  "  If  you  want  me  to  take  you  as  an  ap- 
prenti(;eyou  must  come  on  my  terms?" 

The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  At  a  disadvantage  to  himself  f  Certainly  not.  He  is 
dealing  with  an  infant  as  with  an  adult.  An  adult  has  the  right  to  make  what  ar- 
rangement he  thinks  fit ;  but  not  so  an  infant. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams  said  that  it  might  be  beneficial  to  the  whole  of  the  country 
as  a  body,  although  in  an  individual  case  it  was  not  beneficial. 

Mr.  Nash  thought  that  Mr.  Rose  was  wrong  in  saying  that  this  was  the  general  in- 
denture of  the  district. 

Mr.  Rose  said  that  that  was  his  instruction.  Looking  at  the  matter  from  a  business 
point  of  view,  the  master  would  be  very  unlikely  to  ciiuse  a  strike  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  rid  of  his  apprentices.  He  had  nothing  further  to  say  on  face  of  the  indent- 
ure, if  the  court  thought  it  was  within  the  case  of  the  Queen  d.  Lord,  and  that  the 
contract  was  not  to  be  upheld.     They  must  look  at  the  indenture  as  a  whole. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams  said  that  if  it  was  treated  as  a  whole  it  ujight  be  of  advan- 
tage to  the  apprentices  that  they  should  be  subject  to  a  little  discipline. 

The  Lord  Chief  Justice  said  they  must  take  it  in  a  very  general  sense,  because  it 
was  plain  that  certain  stipulations  were  fatal  to  a  contract,  although  a  contract  as  a 
whole,  looked  at  reasonat)ly,  and  acted  upon  reasonably,  might  be  greatly  to  the  bene- 
fit of  the  apprentice.  There  might  be  a  contract  greatly  to  an  infant's  interest  and  a 
penalty  might  make  it  void. 

Mr.  RosK  said  that  upon  the  present  deed  there  was  an  absence  of  penalty,  and  he 
was  engaged  to  support  that  deed. 

Mr.  Justicre  Williams.    But  you  endeavor  to  support  it  upon  a  very  wide  basis. 
Mr.  Rose  sai<l  thiis  was  a  small  contract  to  serve  for  three  years  at  very  good  wages — 
two-thii'ds  of  a  journeyman's  wages. 

The  Lord  Chief  .Fustice  said  the  question  was  whether  they  could  put  into  a  con- 
ratct  with  an  infant  something  which  must  needs  be  to  his  disadvantage. 

Mr.  Rose  said  that  in  this  case  the  work  of  the  infaut  was  piecework.  A  turn-out 
happened.  He  was  to  be  paid  piecework  according  to  a  certain  scale.  Through  the 
turn-out,  he  could  earn  no  wages  at  piecework,  and  yet  it  was  to  be  said  that  the  stipu- 
lation which  induced  the  master  to  let  him  go  elsewhere  to  earn  wages  was  manifestly 
to  hisi)r('judiee.  The  indentureof  apprentice.>*hip  was  running  on  during  the  turnout. 
The  L<^)RD  Chief  Justice.  Yes;  his  time  is  going  on,  but  he  islearningnothing,  and 
receiving  nothing.  The  only  thing  put  against  him  is  that  he  may,  if  he  can,  get  em- 
ployment some  other  way  in  some  other  trade,  sul>ject  to  being  drawn  back  at  once 
to  his  master  under  the  penalty  of  the  Apprenticeship  Act,  the  moment  the  master  ter- 
minated the  tuin  out. 

Mr.  Rose.    It  does  not  follow  that  he  would  be  obliged  to  go  to  some  other  trade. 
The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  I  did  not  say  so.     I  say  it  is  certain  his  employment  is 
stopped,  and  his  wages  are  stopped. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams  asked  what  would  be  the  position  of  the  apprentice  if  that 
clause  were  omitted  from  the  apprenticeship  deed  altogether  ? 

Mr.  Rose  supposed  that  the  position  would  be  that  the  apprentice  would  go  to  work, 
and  the  master  would  have  to  pay  him  his  wages. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams.    If  there  was  a  turn-out,  and  the  work  was  all  suspended, 
would  he  receive  any  wages  at  the  end  of  the  week? 
Mr.  Rose.    N<>,  my  lord. 
The  Lord  Cheif  Justice.    W^hy  not  ? 

Mr.  Rose.  Bi  cause  the  provision  is  that  the  master  shall  pay  him  "during  such  term 
snch  wages  as  are  hereinafter  mentioned." 

The  Lord  Chief  Justice.  The  master  binds  himself  to  find  him  work  the  whole  time. 

The  master  covenants  that  he  shall  teach  and  instinct  him,  and  cause  him  to  be  taught 

and  instructed,  and  so  on,  and  will  find  the  apprentice  fair  and  reasonable  work,  and 

will  pay  him  for  his  work  two-thiids  of  a  jourueyman's  pay. 

Mr.  Rose  said  if  they  struck  out  that  clause,  they  to  a  certain  extent  destroyed  th© 

92  A— LAB 56 


882  LABOR  IN  EUROPE — ENGLAND. 

indenture,  because  there  was  a  provision  for  not  paying  wages.  If  there  were  no 
journeymen  at  work,  liow  much  would  he  ])ay  liim  ?  How  could  they  estimate  what 
two- thirds  of  the  men's  wages  would  be  when  there  were  none  at  work  ? 

The  Loi5D  Chief  Justice.  He  will  have  two-thirds  of  what  a  journeyman  would 
have  if  he  were  at  work. 

Mr.  Rose  said  he  did  not  know  that  he  could  say  anything  else;  but  it  was  a  ques- 
tion of  some  considerable  importauce,  because  their  lordships'  decision  would  invali- 
da  +  p  the  indentures  which  bound  most  of  the  apprentices  there. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams.    It  is  not  good  for  the  appreutices. 

The  Lord  Chikf  Justice.  It  cannot  be. 

Wiihout  calling  upon  Mr.  Nash  for  the  respondent, 

The  Loud  Chief  Justice  said  that  he  was  of  opinion  that  in  this  case  the  mag- 
istrate was  correct.  The  ))riuciple8,  as  he  uiulerstood  it  to  be,  applied  to  these 
contracts  were  simple  enough.  In  a  sense,  the  whole  contract  was  true.  That 
was  to  say,  the  effect  of  a  particular  stipulation — the  true  eff"ect  of  the  particular 
stipulation,  as  in  the  case  of  Leslie  ik  Fitzpatrick,  was  to  be  gathered  from  the 
whole  contract.  But  if,  uotwithstanding,  looking  at  the  whole  contract,  the  effect 
of  any  particular  stipulation  must  needs  be,  if  enforced,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
infant,  and  it  could  not  be  if  enfoi'ced  to  his  advantage,  the  presence  of  that  stipu- 
lation would  invalidate  the  contract.  That  was  the  fact  about  the  rule  as  to  the 
penalty.  If  the  contract  had  been  looked  at  in  the  sense  in  which  Mr.  Rose  con- 
tended for  it,  the  existence  of  the  penalty  would  not  invalidate  the  contract,  be- 
cau.se  there  might  be  a  contract  on  the  whole  so  advantageous  to  the  infant  as 
that  a  small  penalty  would  be  by  no  means  enough  to  prevent  the  contract  taking 
effect.  But  for  the  protection  of  infants  it  had  been  from  early  times,  and  it  was  still 
the  law,  that  they  might  contract  with  infants;  but  a  man  must  contract  with  in- 
fants so  that  the  stipulations  he  made  with  tliem  were  for  their  benefit;  and  if  they 
put  anything  into  the  contract  which  was  for  the  disadvantage  of  the  infaut  and 
could  not  be  to  his  advantage,  that  invalidated  the  contract.  There  was  the  stipula- 
tion in  the  contract  that  in  case  of  a  turn-out  the  master  might  refuse  to  find  any 
work  or  pay  for  the  infant,  giving  him  merely  as  a  collateral  benefit  or  compensa- 
tion the  power,  if  he  could,  of  getting  elsewhere  some  other  work  during  the  period 
of  the  turn-out — a  period,  as  the  magistrate  had  pointed  out,  wholly  uncertain; 
and  therefore  it  was  impossible  for  the  infant  to  euter  into  anything  like  a  satis- 
factory or  solid  contract  while  the  turn-out  was  going  on,  because  the  indenture 
stipulated  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the  turn-out  the  apprentice  was  to  be  recalled 
to  his  master's  service  on  the  old  terms.  The  master  by  the  indenture  stipulated 
affirmatively  to  find  him  work,  teach  him  his  trade,  and  find  him  i"easouable  work 
during  the  whole  time,  and  pay  him  for  that  reasonable  work  two-thirds  of  the  sum 
paid  to  journeymen.  That  was  an  absolute  stii)ula:ion.  The  true  etfect  of  this  was 
that  the  master  bound  himself,  whether  turn-out  or  no  turn-out,  to  find  work  for  ap- 
prentices, and  to  pay  them  for  that  work  two-thirds  of  the  ordinary  journeyman's 
wages.  Then  he  stipulated  again,  for  his  own  protection,  that  in  case  of  a  turn-out 
he  need  not  do  that,  that  he  need  not  find  him  work,  and  need  not  pay  him  wages. 
It  si-ems  to  him  impossible  to  say  that  that  could  in  any  circumstance  be  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  infant.  It  seemed  to  him,  therefcn-e,  that  in  princifde  this  case  was 
rightly  decided  by  the  magistrate.  It  seemed  to  him  to  be  clearly  within  the  case  of 
the  Queen  r.  Lord.  The  right  of  the  master  to  stop  the  work  and  the  wages  was 
nuiking  it  fatal  to  the  contract.  Now,  here  the  master  had  done  that  very  thing 
which,  in  the  case  of  Leslie?'.  Fitzgerald,  and  especially  in  the  Queen  v.  Lord,  would 
be  fatal  to  the  contract,  because  he  took  the  right  which  was  in  his  own  power  to 
take  off'  the  wages  and  stop  the  work  during  the  whole  period  of  the  turn-out  of  the 
peo]ile  he  employed.  It  would  be  enough  to  say  that  it  remained  to  be  considered 
whether  the  tests  which  his  brother  Lush  laid  down  as  general  tests,  that  the  master 
had  a  right  to  projxise  for  his  own  benefit  a  hostile  clause  for  the  disadvantage  of  the 
infant  working  with  him  —  if  they  were  eommon  in  the  contracts,  or  the  state  of  trade 
justified  him  to  do  it  in  self-defense — it  remained  to  lie  considered  by  some  court  or 
another,  whether  these  could  be  considered  the  true  ])riucii)le,  when  the  case  of  an 
infant  was  c(mcerned.  They  were  true  and  right  principles  between  men  of  a  proper 
age;  but  that  was  not  the  question.  He  only  ventured  to  say  that  he  was  not  satis- 
tied  they  were  tru(^  principles  in  infants'  contracts.  It  was  not  necessary  to  discuss 
or  decide  that  in  this  cast-,  becansi^  on  the  ground  he  was  going  to  steer  entirely  clear 
from  the  case  of  Leslie  i'.  Fitzpatrick,  which  made  it  very  clear  to  him  that  the  mas- 
ter had  not  the  right  in  (]uestiou. 

Mr.  Justice  Williams  said  he  was  of  the  same  opinion.  As  the  law  stood  at  present 
an  infant  had  no  i>owfr  to  l)iud  himself  by  a  covenant  which  was  not  for  his  benefit. 
Therefore,  he  thought  the  magisirate  was  light. 

Mr.  liosK.  Will  you  giv(!  me  leave  to  ajtjx'al '!  They  are  very  anxious  to  settle  the 
form  of  indenture  which  will  nu  et  the  point  of  law. 

The  Loi'.i)  Chief  Justice.  The  law  is  perfectly  plain. 

Mr   Nash.  Will  it  be  dismissed  with  cost? 
The'  LoKt)  Chief  Justice.  Yes. 


jDS 


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3  1158  00544  0473 


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